III.

LİKYA SEMPOZYUMU THE IIIrd SYMPOSIUM ON LYCIA

07-10 KASIM 2005 07-10 NOVEMBER 2005
ANTALYA ANTALYA

SEMPOZYUM SYMPOSIUM
BİLDİRİLERİ PROCEEDINGS

I. Cilt / Volume I
(Offprint)

Editörler / Editors
Kayhan DÖRTLÜK
Burhan VARKIVANÇ
Tarkan KAHYA
Jacques des COURTILS
Meltem DOĞAN ALPARSLAN
Remziye BOYRAZ

Suna – İnan Kıraç Akdeniz Medeniyetleri Araştırma Enstitüsü

Suna & İnan Kıraç Research Institute on Mediterranean Civilizations
 SUNA – İNAN KIRAÇ AKDENİZ MEDENİYETLERİ ARAŞTIRMA ENSTİTÜSÜ
SUNA & İNAN KIRAÇ RESEARCH INSTITUTE ON MEDITERRANEAN CIVILIZATIONS

III. Uluslararası Likya Sempozyumu

Sempozyum Bildirileri

The IIIrd International Symposium on Lycia

Symposium Proceedings

Editörler / Editors
Kayhan DÖRTLÜK
Burhan VARKIVANÇ
Tarkan KAHYA
Jacques des COURTILS
Meltem DOĞAN ALPARSLAN
Remziye BOYRAZ

Çeviri / Translation
T. M. P. DUGGAN
İnci TÜRKOĞLU

ISBN 975-9123-23-1
ISBN 975-9123-24-X (Vol. 1)

© Suna – ‹nan K›raç Akdeniz Medeniyetleri Araşt›rma Enstitüsü, 2006

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 İçindekiler / Contents

I. Cilt / Volume I

X Sunuş / Preface
XIII Sempozyum Programı / Symposium Program

Bildiriler (Alfabetik isim sırasına göre) / Proceedings (Names in alphabetical order)

AKYÜREK Engin 1 The Bey Dağları in the Byzantine Period: Trebenna,

Neapolis and Their Territories

ARMSTRONG Pamela 19 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century:

new evidence

AYDIN Ayşe 31 Die Trikonchosbauten in Lykien: Ihre Entwicklung

und Funktion

BAKER Patrick 49 Les Telemachi de Xanthos Réflexions préliminaires

à partir de nouveaux documents

BAYBURTLUOĞLU Cevdet 61 Arykanda Tanrıları ve Kültleri

BENDA-WEBER Isabella 69 Epichorische Elemente in Bekleidungssitten

und Haartrachten in Lykien im 5. und 4. Jh. v. Chr.

BORCHHARDT Jürgen 87 Genealogische Diagramme und ihre Bedeutung für die

relative Datierung von lykischen Grabmälern

BUCHET Luc
MANIÈRE-LÉVÊQUE Anne-Marie
107 Le peuplement de Xanthos à l’époque proto-byzantine
Apports de l’anthropologie et de la paléodémographie

BULGURLU Vera 121 Myra-Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Kazısında Bulunan

Sikkeler Hakkında Notlar

CAVALIER Laurence 129 L’agora supérieure de Xanthos : fouilles 2000-2005

CORSTEN Thomas 139 City and Country in the Kibyratis A Case Study in Rural
Acculturation

COURTILS Jacques des 145 Nouvelles découvertes à Xanthos

ÇAYLAK TÜRKER Ayşe 153 Bizans Dönemi Demre-Myra Sırsız Seramik Buluntuları

ÇEVİK Nevzat 175 The social structure as reflected through the necropolii
of Trebenna

DOĞAN Sema 209 Likya’da Bizans Taş Yapıtları

IV III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

DURU Refik 225 Batı Akdeniz Bölgesi’nde Neolitik’e Geçiş

EICHNER Heiner 231 Neues zum lykischen Text der Stele von Xanthos (TL 44)

ELTON Hugh 239 Church Decoration in Late Roman Lycia

ERDEM İlhan 243 Ortaçağ Sonlarında Likya Levant Ticareti ve Türkmenler

(12.-15. yy.)

FREYER-SCHAUENBURG Brigitte 253 Zur Polychromie der lykischen Zwölfgötter-Reliefs

HÜLDEN Oliver 263 Chamber Tombs, Podium or Terrace Tombs, Tumuli

Recently Discovered Grave Types Expand the Spectrum
of Lycian Graves

IRKLI ERYILDIZ Demet 281 The Acoustic Properties of Ancient Theatres: Computer
Simulation and Measurements

ISLER Hans Peter 301 Antike Theaterbauten in Lykien

IŞIK Cengiz 317 Komşu İki Başkentin Ortaklığı: Doğal Bırakılan Kutsal Kaya
Yükseltileri

İPLİKÇİOĞLU Bülent 325 Doğu Likya’da Epigrafik Araştırmalar

KARAKAYA Nilay 331 Restorasyon Sonrası Demre-Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Duvar

Resimleri
KIZGUT İsa
KUNZE Max
345 Bemerkungen zu İn Önü - eine unbekannte Stadt im
lykisch-pamphylischen und pisidischen Grenzgebiet

KOKKINIA Christina 355 Grain for Cibyra. Veranius Philagros and the “Great
Conspiracy”

KUBAN Zeynep 365 Likya Mimarisi: Mimesis ve Yorum

KÜÇÜKAŞCI Mustafa S. 375 VII-XII. Yüzyıllarda Likya’ya Arap İlgisi

LEMAÎTRE Séverine 385 La Lycie et les échanges commerciaux dans l’Antiquité :

les données du mobilier amphorique. Etude préliminaire

LE ROY Christian 401 Statue de culte, rituel et sacrifices au Létoon de Xanthos

LOCKWOOD Sean 409 Reading a Fourth-Century B.C. Sepulchral Relief in

Northern Lycia: Iconography, Influence and Identity

MANIÈRE-LÉVÊQUE Anne-Marie 425 Habitat proto-byzantin à Xanthos : les espaces de réception

de la grande résidence nord-est de l’acropole lycienne

MARKSTEINER Thomas 441 Wehrdörfer im Bonda-Gebiet

 II. Cilt / Volume II

MEADOWS Andrew 459 The Ptolemaic Annexation of Lycia: SEG 27.929

MITCHELL Stephen 471 İ.Ö. I. Yüzyılda Likya’nın Kuzey Sınırı: İ.Ö. 46’da
Roma – Likya Anlaşması

MÜHLBAUER Lore 489 “Ein lykisches Fußmaß?”

NOLLÉ Johannes 515 Königliches Gefolge beim Fischorakel von Sura

ÖTÜKEN S. Yıldız 523 Myra-Demre Aziz Nikolaos Kilisesi Mimari

Değerlendirmeler

ÖZGEN İlknur 537 Elmalı Ovası ve Hacımusalar

ÖZGENEL Lale 557 Late antique domestic architecture in Lycia: an outline of

the archaeological and architectural evidence

PALAZ ERDEMİR Hatice

ERDEMİR Halil
573 Akdeniz Çevresinde Gelişen Siyasi Olaylarda Likya’nın Yeri
(İ.Ö. 5. yy. ile İ.S. 1. yy. arası)

PARMAN Ebru
UÇKAN OLCAY Yelda
587 Olympos’un Orta Çağ Dokusu

PESCHLOW Urs 601 Befestigungen lykischer Städte in spätantiker und

frühbyzantinischer Zeit

PIMOUGUET-PÉDARROS Isabella 625 Kelbessos sur le territoire de Termessos de Pisidie: Défense

et Protection de la Frontière avec la Lycie

PIRSON Felix 639 Das vielfältige Bild des Krieges: Kampf und Gewalt in der
lykischen Reliefkunst des späten 5. und des 4. Jhs. v. Chr.

RAIMOND Eric 647 La continuité de la tradition religieuse louvite dans la Lycie

de l’Âge du Bronze à l’époque gréco-romaine

RUGGIERI Vincenzo 657 Nicholas of Sion and the Meeting of Cultures: the Literary
Models

SAKEL Dean 665 A Daniel Apocalypse Attributed to Methodius of Patara

SAVAŞ Savaş Özkan 679 Anadolu (Hitit-Luvi) Hiyeroglifli Belgeler Işığında:

Ḫattuša’dan Lukka’ya

SCHULZ Klaus 711 Architekturtheorie: Der Lykische Knoten. Versuch einer

Deutung der steinernen Grabarchitektur

SEYER Martin 719 Überlegungen zur Chronologie lykischer Felsgräber

aus klassischer Zeit

STANZL Günther 735 Neue Forschungen zum Ptolemaion von Limyra

VI III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

TALLOEN Peter 747 Pious neighbours. Pisidian religious ties with Lycia.
The case of the rider deities

TAŞKIRAN Harun 761 Likya Bölgesi’nin Paleolitik Dönemi

TEK Ahmet Tolga 769 Hellenistik ve Erken Roma İmparatorluk Dönemlerinde

Likya’da Basılan Otonom Şehir Sikkeleri

TEKİNALP Vahit Macit 789 Arykanda Kenti Bizans Dönemi Mimari Plastik ve Liturjik
Taş Eserleri

TEKOĞLU Ş. Recai 801 On the use of Word Separation Marks in the Lycian
Inscriptions

THÉRIAULT Gaétan 811 Le statut des femmes lyciennes à l’époque romaine :

Quelques remarques sur les grandes-prêtresses et femmes
lyciarques

TIETZ Werner 821 Kyaneai und die urbanistische Situation Lykiens

zwischen Antike und Mittelalter

TOFI Maria Gaia 829 The Banquet Iconography in the Funerary Reliefs
of Archaic and Classical Lycia

VANN Robert L.
LEADBETTER Bill
847 The Fortifications of Aperlae in Lycia

VARKIVANÇ Burhan 861 The Monumental Tomb Typology of Trebenna

VISMARA Novella 869 Imagerie des monnaies et imagerie des arts plastiques en
Lycie : premiers éléments pour une comparaison entre la
fin du VIe siècle et le début du IVe siècle a.J.C.

YAĞCI Remzi 883 The Kizzuwatna-Lukka Route in the Eastern Mediterranean

Trade of the 2nd Millenium B.C.

YİĞİT Turgut 897 Hitit Kralının Arinna’da (Arñna=Ksanthos) Bir Muhalifi

ZIMMERMANN Martin 907 Phellos in Zentrallykien und die Grundmuster lykischer

Siedlungsgeschichte

ZOROĞLU Levent 917 Dağlık Kilikya ve Likya’da Ölü Gömme Gelenekleri ve

Mezar Mimarisi İlişkileri Üzerinde Bir Deneme
 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century:
new evidence

Pamela ARMSTRONG*

Although the purpose of this paper is the presentation of new archaeological evidence from Ly-
cia, it begins with an re-examination of some evidence from Cyprus that has been in the public
domaine for some decades already. The paper is especially concerned with the final phases of
the production of Cypriot red slip ware, and the identification of that pottery in Lycia.

Introduction
Cypriot red slip ware, the name given by Hayes in his Late Roman Pottery, formerly known as Late
Roman D or Cypriot Late Roman ware, is the most common fine ware type of pottery found on
Cyprus in the late Roman and early Byzantine periods1. It has been found in many excavations
there, too numerous to list, though a few which are relevant for dating the ware will be discussed
shortly. Significantly it was found all over the island during the archaeological survey of Cyprus
that took place in the 1950s. It was thought then that it was manufactured in Cyprus, but even
now, fifty years and many excavations and surveys later, no production site or sites for Cypriot
red slip ware have been located2.
While there is general agreement about the early phases of Cypriot red slip ware, unfortu-
nately the time when its production ceased is not immediately clear. The generally accepted
chronology, from mid fourth century to ca. AD 700, was proposed by Hayes in Late Roman Pottery,
and has remained unquestioned since its publication. Hayes himself has said that he is surprised
the foundations he established in Late Roman Pottery have not been significantly added to over
the last thirty or so years3. This paper hopes to initiate development in our understanding of one
group of ceramics from his monumental work. Late Roman Pottery was published in 1971, so there
was not an opportunity for assimilation of the new results coming out of Cyprus at that time.

* Pamela Armstrong, Medieval Latin Dictionary, University of Oxford, Birds Hay, Station Road, South Leigh Witney OX29 6XJ –
GREAT BRITAIN.
E-mail: Pamela.Armstrong@classics.ox.ac.uk
1 Hayes 1971, 371-86; Catling - Dikigoropoulos 1970, 46.
2 M. Daszkiewicz - G. Schneider - J. Raabe, “Cypriot sigillata and Cypriot red slip wares. A comparison of technological and
chemical analysis and of thin section studies”, in: B. Fabbri (ed.), Fourth Euro Ceramics Vol. 14. The Cultural Ceramic
Heritage (1995) 151-171; M. Rautmann, “Neutron Activation Analysis of Cypriot and Related Ceramics at the University of
Missouri”, in: Hellenistic and Roman Pottery in the Eastern Mediterranean – Advances in Scientific Studies. Acts of the II
Nieborów Pottery Workshop (1995) 331-49.
3 J. W. Hayes, “The study of Roman pottery in the Mediterranean: 23 years after Late Roman Pottery”, in: L. Saguì (ed.), Ce-
ramica in Italia: VI-VII secolo. Atti del Convegno in onore di John W. Hayes Roma 1995 (1998) 9.
20 III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

Cypriot Red Slip Ware

Cypriot red slip ware vessels were made from a fine clay whose occasional large lime inclusions
suggests that it was not much levigated, and used in its natural state. The colour of the fired clay
ranges from red to reddish buff. The most distinctive feature of the ware is the careless applica-
tion of rouletting on the exterior walls: most vessels, but not all, exhibit this simple decoration4.
Surfaces were covered with a red or orange-red wash, which can sometimes be glossy but is more
often matt, and very often streaky. Bowls, or dishes, are the most common shape, though there
are jugs and lekanes. Hayes classified the ware into 12 forms; it is his form 9, shown on fig. 1,
which is the subject of discussion here. The bowls of this form are distinguished by short, wavy,
incised lines around the rim. Hayes has divided the form into three types: A, B, and C. Type A
was thought to be ‘not standard’, and connected with the earlier forms of the ware. His types B
and C are regularly found in early to mid seventh century groups, though noticably absent from
deposits of that period at Antioch, where it is otherwise plentiful5.
The early chronology of Cypriot red slip ware is straightforward: of securely dated finds, the
earliest known examples are from Kourion in Cyprus, from deposits of AD 340-50, that is, mid-
fourth century6. Two dishes of the ware were in use at table on board the ship now known as Yassı
Ada wreck, which sank c. AD 3757. There is some disagreement however about when Cypriot red
slip ware ceases to be produced. The latest example from an archaeological context is from the
site of Panayia, near modern Kormakiti in north west Cyprus, where it was found in a closed de-
posit dated to the mid eighth century8. The anomaly is that Hayes considered that form 9 ceased
to circulate at c. AD 700. While the typology for the early stages is reasonably well established, the
final phases of the production are still open to question and study. This paper concentrates on
the final phase, and considers in detail what is known about Cypriot red slip ware of Hayes’ form
9 found in archaeological contexts on Cyprus.

The Old Evidence

The Cypriot evidence was amassed in the late 1950s during the Archaeological Survey of Cyprus
and related activities of the Cypriot Archaeological Service, often rescue excavations. There were
no publications of comparable early Byzantine material that the archaeologists could turn to
for help with provenence and chronology of their finds but continual hands-on experience led
to the acquisition of a detailed knowledge of the material culture of the period. It was also pos-
sible, following correct archaeological procedures, to assign some fixed dates to the otherwise
unknown artefacts that were being found. A summary of four of these projects, three excavations
and a surface collection, is given here with the aim of bringing to notice evidence which has an
important contribution to make to the wider debate of the Mediterranean world in the seventh
and eighth centuries. It is also possible to bring some more recently acquired knowledge to the
interpretation of the finds. Three of the sites are in the northwest region of Cyprus (see map on
fig. 2), a location significant for being within sight of the area of Asia Minor for which the Cypriot
evidence has particular relevance, and which forms the second part of this paper. The first site is

4 Hayes 1971, 371.

5 F. O. Waagé, Antioch-on-the-Orontes vol. 4.1, Ceramics and Islamic Coins (1948) 52, where there is reference to similar ves-
sels, unpublished, at Tarsus, and fig. 35.
6 J. W. Hayes, “Ceramics of the Byzantine Period”, in: Archaeology in the Near East vol. 1 (1977) 473.
7 G. F. Bass - F. H. van Doorninck, “A Fourth-Century Shipwreck at Yassi Ada”, AJA 75, 1971, 34 pl. 2 figs. 13a-b, 15.
8 Archaeological Reports 1958, 34 ff.
 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century: new evidence 21

the Kornos cave, located in the region of Lapethos9. The mouth of the cave looking north to, and
within sight of, the Tauros mountains, is situated on steep and difficult of access slopes. Here, in
1955, a small opening was discovered which, when examined in 1956, was found to lead to a se-
ries of underground chambers thought not to have been entered since their abandonment in the
early Byzantine period. Pottery and other artefacts were collected from the floor and niches of
the cave. The second site is actually a single sealed deposit within the former Roman gymnasium
at Salamis (Constantia)10. The deposit consisted of the contents of a ‘bench’ constructed across
the west wall of the portico, and finished across the top with a layer of plaster, thus preserving its
contents uncontaminated by later material. The third site is at Panayia, near Kormakiti, where a
rescue excavation was carried out in 1958 to reveal some early Byzantine buildings11. The fourth
site which is important when considering a possible end date for Cypriot red slip ware is Dhiorios,
near Mersineri12. At this location there was a three week excavation, the time allocated before the
entire site was stripped out by a rock ripper for building development. What was revealed was an
early Byzantine cooking pot factory that had operated on an huge scale. The pottery from these
four different projects is related, as the excavators continually point out in their publications, and
each has some contribution to make to an overall understanding of the ceramics of not just Cyprus,
but also the Levantine corridor where these wares circulated in considerable quantities.
The Kornos cave, a series of interconnecting chambers with only one entrance from outside,
was thought to have been a hermitage associated with the nearby monastery of Siria. Whatever its
function was, a number of intact vessels were found in the cave, including two complete Cypriot
red slip ware bowls and a Cypriot red slip ware jug13. The vessels in the cave had been carefully
selected by whoever utilized them (one large cooking pot had been set to collect water dripping
through the roof of the cave), and they continued in use over a period of time, measured in
years. Amongst the finds are four groups of pottery of particular interest in the present context.
The first is the Cypriot red slip wares: two dishes (nos. 2-3) of Hayes’ type 9 with the characteristic
short wavy line incised on the rim, and a rare closed shape (no. 1) in the ware. In connection
with its dating, it is said: ‘The chronology of Cypriot late Roman ware is as yet as imperfectly
understood as the full story of its development’14. By analogy with the Panayia excavation, it is
suggested that the Cypriot red slip could be dated anywhere between AD 550 and 750. Second
are a group of plain jugs (nos. 5, 6, 8-10), for which, with comparanda from ’Ain el Jedide, ‘the
only dating evidence is an Umayyad coin of the eighth century’15. Third is an amphora (no. 4), of
LR1 type16. Although the form matches the amphoras in the cargo of the Yassı Ada wreck (of sev-
enth century date), as suggested by the excavator, the fabric is quite different17. While modern
9 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 37-54.
10 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 54-6.
11 Archaeological Reports 1958, 34.
12 Catling 1972.
13 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, pl. 30.
14 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 46.
15 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 47; R. W. Hamilton, “Note on a chapel and wine press at ‘Ain el Jedide”, Quarterly of the
Department of Antiquities of Palestine 4 (1935) 116 fig. 2 a-b.
16 For a recent assessment of the state of knowledge of this amphora with full bibliography, see: Hugh Elton, “The economy of
southern Asia Minor and LR 1 amphorae”, in: J. Ma, Gurt I Esparraguera - J. Buxeda Garrigós - M. A. Cau Ontiveros (eds.),
LRCW 1. Late Roman Coarse Wares, Cooking Wares and Amphorae in the Mediterranean. Archaeology and Archaeometry.
BAR International Series 1340 (2005) 691-695.
17 20 kiln sites producing this type of amphora have been identified along the coasts of Lycia, Pamphylia, North Syria, Cilicia,
and on Rhodes and Cyprus: J.-Y. Empereur - M. Picon, “The Production of Aegean Amphorae: Field and Laboratory Stud-
ies”, in: R. E. Jones - H. W. Catling (eds.), New Aspects of Archaeological Science in Greece (1988); J.-Y. Empereur - M.
Picon, “Les régions de production d’amphores impériales en Méditerranée orientale”, in: Amphores Romaines et Histoire
Economique: Dix Ans de Recherche (1989) 223-248.
22 III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

literature suggests this type of amphora is not common on Cyprus, the Kornos cave report says
of it ‘… certainly very common on Byzantine Cyprus … recognized in surface finds from most Cypriot early
Byzantine sites’18. The end date for LR1 has until recently been understood to be in the seventh
century19. However, examples with the same form and pale-buff fabric as that from the Kornos
cave, have been found on excavations in Crete, in contexts firmly dated to the eighth century20.
Finally, amongst the Kornos cave ceramics was a Dhiorios cooking pot (no. 14), possibly from the
eighth century. The latest coins found in the cave are mid-seventh century. Correlating all the
evidence available to them, the excavators proposed a date range, within which the cave complex
would have been occupied, of AD 650 to 72521.
The Salamis bath complex was damaged a number of times in its history, with its penultimate
destruction being by far the worst. Some time after this destruction it was repaired and brought
back into limited use. In the course of these final repairs a so-called ‘bench’ was constructed and
sealed off across the top with a layer of plaster. Within the bench was much debris, and amongst
it three coins: two of the early seventh century and one mid seventh century. Also in the bench
was some Cypriot red slip ware of Hayes’ type 922. The interpretation of the material sealed in this
bench given by the excavators is that the majority of it is dated to the mid seventh century and
should be associated with the conclusive destruction of the building, probably during an Arab
raid. Then, at a later date, when the building was being repaired, debris resulting from the (?
Arab) destruction was gathered up and used to fill the inside of the bench. Other material inside
the bench was contemporary with the repair work and therefore of a later date.
The excavators proposed that the material in the bench fell within the range of AD 650-725.
The concern here is the Cypriot red slip ware: if it was associated with the destruction horizon,
then it would would be mid seventh century, if part of the reconstruction material, then it should
have a late date23. Of great significance is an almost intact Islamic type of lamp found in the
bench24. At the time of publication of the excavation it was considered to belong to the first
half of the eighth century25. Since then knowledge of these forms of lamps has increased, and
the earliest date that should be assigned to it is ‘post-Umayyad’, that is, after the middle of the
eighth century, and it is possibly considerably later26. The lamp, perhaps being used by the work-
men involved in the reconstruction, would place the date of the repairs in the second half of the
eighth century at the earliest. This means that there is a possibility that Cypriot red slip ware bowls
continued to be made until some unspecified date from AD 750+.
The brief rescue excavation at the Panayia site produced large quantities of Cypriot red slip
ware from domestic contexts. Most significantly for the chronology of the ware was the destruc-
tion deposit of an early Byzantine building, in which Cypriot red slip of Hayes’ type 9 was found

18 Peacock – Williams 1991, 186; Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 47.

19 Peacock – Williams 1991, 187.
20 N. Poulou-Papadimitrou, ‘Βυζαντινή κεραμική άπο τον Ελληνικό νησιώτικο χωρό και άπο την Πελοπόννησο (7ος-9ος αι.): μία πρώτη
προσέγγιση in Οι Σκοτεινοί αιώνες του Βυζαντίου (7ος-9ος αι.): μία πρώτη προσέγγιση in Οι Σκοτεινοί αιώνες του Βυζαντίου (7ος-9ος αι.)
(Athens, 2001) 245 figs. 21 and 22.
21 Hayes 1971, 382, refers to the ceramics from the Kornos cave as a “closed group of the 640s”, which contradicts the conclu-
sions of the excavators, as referred to on the previous page (Hayes 1971, 381 cat. no. 7).
22 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 54.
23 Hayes 1971, 382 n. 4, dated the Cypriot red slip ware from the Salamis bench to the last years of the seventh century.
24 Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970, 55 fig. 8.
25 Following Baramki, Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine 10 (1944) pl. XVIII, group II from Khirbet el
Mafjar.
26 I am most grateful to Alistair Northedge for this information.
 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century: new evidence 23

together with a silver coin of Artavasdus and Nikephoros dated to AD 742/3. This was the first
indication of how late this ware might have been circulating.
Three sample areas of Dhiorios were excavated in 1958, revealing shallow levels of Hellenistic
and Roman domestic habitation underlying an extensive early Byzantine cooking pot factory.
Fourteen kilns were excavated, an unspecified number were noted in the sections but not exca-
vated. Different types of kiln were recorded; subsequently it has been pointed out that the final
kiln, from the last period of use, was an islamic-type kiln27. Associated with the kilns was a potter’s
house, which yielded domestic wares. Initially a chronology was established in relative terms as
periods I, II, II and IV. Eventually the chronology was set into real terms, shown on table 1. Cyp-
riot red slip ware of the final type were found in deposits of periods III and IV28. The deposits
themselves consisted of both kiln products and associated domestic wares, that is, the everyday
pottery being used by the potters at home.
Tab. 1 The chronology of the four periods

Period I Hellenistic to Roman domestic occupation, ended 2nd c

Period II Founding of pottery factory, date uncertain
Gap ? Arab raids
Period III Construction of Potter’s house, c. 650
Period IV Destruction of Potter’s House; construction of final kiln, mid 8th c

The kiln products of period III were very distinctive: they had a dark-red to reddish brown
fabric with lots of wheel-ridging. It is clear that that the kiln products of periods III and IV, while
they can be distinguished from each other by differences in shape, were both very different from
the cooking pots made at Dhiorios during Period II. Period II probably began around about AD
650, while the material of Period IV, being tied in to the Panayia excavations referred to above,
was operating in the eighth century, and possibly abandoned at the same time as the other sites
shown on the map in fig. 2. Dhiorios kiln products, traded all around the Mediterranean, have
occasionally been found in deposits securely dated to the eighth century, providing external evi-
dence for the seemingly ‘late’ dating proposed here29.
To summarise: until now it has been generally accepted that Cypriot red slip wares ceased
to be made c. AD 700. Excavations in Cyprus show that it was still being produced around 750,
though are inconclusive about when its manufacture ceased. The islamic-type lamp in the Salam-
is bench may indicate a much longer life-span for Cypriot red slip ware. This is supported by
excavations at Limyra, in Lycia, where Cypriot red slip ware sherds of Hayes’ type 9 have been
found in a closed deposit in association with some ninth-century Islamic glazed pottery30. Estab-
lishing the correct chronology is crucially important for our understanding of what was going
on in Lycia in the eighth century, where much Cypriot red slip wares of Hayes’ type 9 has been
found. And not just Lycia: Cypriot red slip ware of the final type is found in large quantities all
over the Levant31.

27 Illustrated: Catling 1972, 53 fig. 31. The final kiln and the lamp from the Salamis bench indicate Islamic and Byzantine
trade and technological exchanges.
28 Catling 1972, 9 fig. 5; 45 fig. 27.
29 Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine 4 (1935) 116 fig. 2 a-b.
30 I am grateful to Joannita Vroom for this information; she is responsible for the forthcoming publication of the relevant deposit.
31 A preliminary catalogue of sites in the Levant where Cypriot red slip wares of the late type have been identified may be
found in: P. Armstrong, “Trade in the East Mediterranean in the Eighth Century”, in: M. Mango (ed.), Byzantine Trade
from the IV to XII Centuries (at press).
24 III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

Lycia in the seventh and eighth centuries32

Lycia has always been blessed with two important natural assets: its forests and its hospitable
coastline. The coastline hosts a number of natural harbours which were vital in the north-south
shipping network, while Patara was the setting-off point for the Western Mediterranean. The
forests were renowned and exploited by the Byzantines as a source of the particular timber used
in shipbuilding33. With the fall of Syria to the Arabs in AD 636 Lycia acquired a new strategic
importance. Reorganisation of provincial administraton created the new theme of Kibyrrhaiotai
into which Lycia was incorporated with reponsibility for providing raw materials for the fleet.
Then the crushing defeat of the Byzantine navy off the coast of Lycia in AD 655 left the coastal
islands undefended, and Cyprus prey to the kind of attacks demonstrated in the destruction of
the public buildings at Salamis. In that case we know that the citizens of Salamis were sent off
to a new settlement at Nea Justinianiopolis, on the south shore of the Sea of Marmara. But the
historian Theophanes records that other Cypriots also went to inland Lycia, in the early eighth
century, as well as to Pamphylia. The secondary works dealing with Lycia in the seventh century
all talk about decline, to varying degrees. Harrison believed that a large part of the population
of late antique Lycia moved from the coastal region to inland sites34. Foss and Hellenkemper
disagreed with this: for them there was a more universal decline; recovery came slowly, and was
never more than partial35.

The New Evidence

The new archaeological evidence in the title of this paper is from the Balboura survey and exca-
vations at Xanthos36. Annually from 1986 to 1993 an intensive survey was conducted both within
the city of Balboura and within its territory (area shown on map in fig. 3)37. This consisted of
a systematic collection of sherds from selected areas within the territory as well as at previously
identified sites. In the course of the survey, amongst other ceramics, were found two groups of
late Roman and early Byzantine ceramics. One group was Cypriot red slip ware ware (fig. 4),
from different stages of its production. The other group consisted of cooking wares from the
Dhiorios factory (fig. 5). Those illustrated are from Dhiorios Period II, other examples from
Periods II and IV were also found at Balboura.
Tab. 2 Late Roman Cooking Pots found in the course of the Balboura Survey

When in use Rural City Total Dhiorios

5th c on 47 19 66 0
6th c on 60 36 36 65
7th – 8th cs 59 29 29 74

The figures in tables 2 and 3 provide some statistics to indicate Balboura’s Cypriot connec-
tions. Table 2 refers to cooking pots only. The fourth (the total of the second and third columns)

32 This is discussed in more detail in the publication of the Balboura Survey.

33 Constantine Porphyrogennetos, De thematibus, A. Pertusi (ed.) (1952) 149-53.
34 Harrison 1963, 117-152.
35 C. Foss, “The Lycian Coast in the Byzantine Age”, DOP 48, 1994, 1-52; H. Hellenkemper, “Lykien und die Araber”, in: J.
Borchhardt - G. Dobesch (eds.), Akten des II. internationalen Lykien-Symposions.Wien, 6.-12. Mai 1990 (1993) 99-106.
36 I am indebted to J. J. Coulton and J.-P. Sodini for help and guidance at every stage of my work in Lycia.
37 Directed by J. J. Coulton, under the auspices of the British School of Archaeology at Ankara. Preliminary reports are pre-
sented in: AnatSt 36, 1986, 7-8; AnatSt 37, 1987, 11-13; AnatSt 38, 1988, 14-17; AnatSt 39, 1999, 12-13; AnatSt 41, 1991, 17-19;
AnatSt 42, 1992, 6-8; AnatSt 43, 1993, 4-6; AnatSt 44, 1994, 8-10.
 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century: new evidence 25

and fifth columns show that of the 66 cooking pots assigned to the fifth century none are from
Dhiorios. Of the 96 dated to the sixth century, 65, that is 68%, are from Dhiorios. Of the 88 dated
to the seventh and eighth centuries, 74, that is, 84%, are from Dhiorios.
Tab. 3 Late Roman red slipped wares found in the course of the Balboura Survey

CRS CRS Phocaean ARS ARS

Location
5th-6th cs 7th-8th cs 5th-6th cs 5th-6th cs 7th-8th cs
City 7 2 2 0 1
Rural 1 24 0 5 0

Table 3 quantifies some of the late Roman red wares, which are not numerous, found at
Balboura in the fifth to sixth centuries. There are 8 Cypriot, 2 Phocean and 5 African, so that
in these centuries Cypriot red slip ware and African red slip ware are roughly comparable. This
needs to be noted in the context of the African ware being the most popular, and most prolifical-
ly produced, of all the late Roman red wares. But by the seventh and eighth centuries, there is only
1 African to 26 Cypriot – a clear indication of where Balboura’s connections lay in those centuries.
When these arguments are synthezised in the context of Balboura, the results can be seen on
the map in fig. 6, indicating early Byzantine sites indentified in the course of the Balboura sur-
vey. The outlined square on the map in fig. 3 corresponds to the map on fig. 6. The rectangles
in map 6 show areas that were treated intensively; all sites were treated extensively. If we accept
the end chronology for Cypriot late Roman wares as c. AD 700 then all the sites on the map in
fig. 13 cease to exist about that time, and the landscape is blank throughout the eighth century
until the mid ninth century, when there is evidence for a small number of rural settlements in
the territory of Balboura. But if we accept the later chronology – all the evidence for such a late
chronology is there, it’s just its disparate nature which has held up recognition – then a much
more complex, and realistic, picture emerges of what is happening in the rural landscape in the
eighth century.
Those sites indicated by gray dots were occupied during the sixth century (some of them
started earlier) until well into the eighth century, the date of their demise being dependant on
the end date of Cypriot red slip ware. Those sites marked black dots are new sites founded in the
second half of the seventh century and occupied until well into the eighth century. As for the
Cypriot connection: a number of these sites were importing cooking pots from Dhiorios from
the end of the fifth and throughout the sixth centuries. Then in the seventh century a significant
number of new sites are formed in the territory of Balboura, possibly resulting from an influx of
new settlers. Coincidental with this in a notable increase in our Cypriot markers, Cypriot red slip
ware and Dhiorios cooking pots, which leads to the proposal that these settlers may have come
from Cyprus. We know that the government in Constantinople moved the whole population of
Salamis to Nea Justinianopolis, and that others went to Lycia. Elsewhere in this volume, Luc Bu-
chet and Anne-Marie Manière Lévêque have indentified anthropologically interred migrants in
the cemetery at Xanthos – could some of these have been Cypriots?
This revised ceramic chronology and its implications also contributes to the bigger discussion
of the general nature of late Roman and early Byzantine Lycia. It supports Harrison’s thesis that
there was an increase in settlement in the hinterland38. But it is not so clear that the people who
went into the hinterland actually came from the coast, as he thought. From my work on the late
Roman ceramics from Xanthos, from that city’s cathederal, and even more so from the work of

38 Harrison 1963, 117-152.

26 III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

Emmanuel Pelegrino on the ceramics from the agora there, it is clear that there was much inter-
action with Cyprus in the seventh and eighth centuries, from the very large quantities of Cypriot
red slip ware of the final type found there39.
It would appear that exaggerated importance given to the defeat of the Byzantine navy by the
Arabs in AD 655, so well-documented in the historical sources, taken together with the univer-
sally-accepted cut-off date of AD 700 for some of the more recognisable ceramics in circulation,
have together created a hiatus in historical events which did not actually exist. Until a full typol-
ogy with a firm chronology has been established for the end of Cypriot red slip ware, it is not
really possible to say when our eighth-century sites at Balboura went out of use. But all the sites
indicated as early Byzantine on the map in fig. 2, in north west Cyprus, also ceased to exist at
some time in the eighth century. Their demise is attributed to the arrival of bubonic plague in
AD 742. For obvious reasons the plague is not well-documented in the provinces40. But like Cy-
prus, it was probably the plague, and not the Arabs, which was the originator of the catastrophic
demographic changes in Lycia in the eighth century.
The main thrust of this paper, that the end chronology of a well-known late Roman red ware
should be extended, and possibly extended by quite a significant number of years, has been ap-
plied to a small region, the city of Balboura and its territory (which supplied the necessary data
for the exercise) to produce results significant in a broader consideration of the Byzantine world
of the eighth century. Balboura’s Cypriot connections are not valid for extension into the wider
spectrum; they are specific to that region. It is a fortunate accident of fate that the eighth century
evidence, long available from Cyprus, should have been appropriate in elucidating some histori-
cal understanding of a region so geographically remote in a period so barren historically.
It is time for an new evaluation in the light of archaeological advances over the last thirty years
of the final stages of Cypriot late Roman ware. The material presented in this paper indicates the
need for such an exercise, and illustrates the potential advances in our historical understanding
that could be borne from it.

39 E. Pellegrino, “Le materiel céramique issu des fouilles menées en 1995 et 2000 sur l’acropole lycienne de Xanthos”, Anato-
lia Antiqua 10, 2002, 245-60.
40 Authors lived in Constantinople or other major cities.
 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century: new evidence 27

Abbreviations
Hayes 1971 J. W. Hayes, Late Roman Pottery (1971).
Catling – Dikigoropoulos 1970
H. W. Catling - A. I. Dikigoropoulos, “The Kornos Cave: An early Byzantine site in Cyprus”, Le-
vant II (1970) 37-54.
Catling 1972 H. W. Catling, “An Early Byzantine Pottery Factory at Dhiorios in Cyprus”, Levant IV (1972) 1-82.
Harrison 1963 R. M. Harrison, “Churches and Chapels of Central Lycia”, AnatSt 13, 1963, 117-152.
Peacock - Williams D. P. S. Peacock - D. F. Williams, Amphorae and the Roman Economy. An Introductory Guide2
(1991).
28 III. Likya Sempozyumu / The IIIrd Symposium on Lycia

Fig. 1 Cypriot red slip ware, type 9

(after Hayes 1971, 378 and 380)

Fig. 2
Map of Cyprus showing places
referred to in the text
 Rural settlement in Lycia in the eighth century: new evidence 29

Fig. 4 Cypriot red slip wares from the fourth to eighth centuries
found in the course of the Balboura Survey

Fig. 3 Map of Lycia showing location Fig. 5 Dhiorios cooking wares found in the course of
of the Balboura Survey the Balboura Survey

Fig. 6 Early Byzantine rural sites identified in the territory of Balboura