SEAMET UNIFIED NOTES - November 2016

MASTER SEAMANSHIP
AND METEOROLOGY
bluewater crew training
Antibes, Palma, Fort Lauderdale

MASTER OF YACHTS
SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY
STUDENT STUDY GUIDE AND COURSE NOTES
These notes form a part of a programme of study leading to command qualifications

of large commercially and privately operated yachts, in accordance with the UK
Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) syllabus for Master of Yachts (less than 500
GT).
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retieval
system, or transmitted in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior consent of the publisher.
This publication is a training aid - under no circumstances should it be used as legal

advice or justification for any action. Readers must base any decisions for action upon
current UK and International legislation and regulations. The publishers disclaim any
liability for any loss or damage caused by any errors or omissions.
© Copyright. Bluewater Yachting (Antibes, France; Ft. Lauderdale, FL). 2016
Tous droits réservé. Ce manuel est founi pour information uniquement. Tous les
informations présentées sont susceptible d’être modifiees. Bluewater Yachting ne
peut être tenu pour responsable de tout dommage direct ou indirect issu de, ou lié à
la utilisation de ce manuel.
Purpose of this Book
This book is intended to assist those studying for the five-day Master Seamanship
and Meteorology course and exam, a module in the Certificate of Competency for the
Command of large commercial yachts issued under the Commercial Code for large
yachts.
MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Course Notes 1 v. November 2016
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Course Overview 3
MCA Syllabus 4
MODULE 1: Seamanship 12
1.1 Dangers and precautions Necessary During Heavy Weather 12
1.2 Precautionary Measures for Maintaining Buoyancy 19
1.3 Procedures when Towing or Being Towed 21
1.4 Ship Handling 23
1.5 Procedures for Bringing a Vessel to Anchor 35
1.6 Navigational Dangers 39
1.7 Actions in Emergencies 40
1.8 Response in Emergencies 45
1.9 Action in the Event of the Loss of Essential Systems 48
MODULE 2: Navigation and Passage Planning 50

2.1 Watch Keeping 50
2.2 Navigation in Ice 61
MODULE 3: Meteorology 65
3.1 General Meteorology 65
3.2 Tropical Revolving Storms 94
3.3 Weather Forecasting 102
MODULE 4: SOLAS and MARPOL 122

4.1 International Requirements for the Safety of Life at Sea 122
4.2 International Requirements for the Prevention of
Pollution at Sea 124
MODULE 5: Safety Management and the Code of Safe Working

Practices for Merchant Seafarers 138
5.1 Personal Hygiene and Safety 138
5.2 Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant Seafarers 140
5.3 Safety Organizations and Role and Responsibility of the
Safety Officer 149
5.4 Reporting of Unsafe Practices and Incidents 154
5.5 Principles of Planning Work Activities, Setting Objectives and
Priorities to Ensure Requirements are Met 155

COURSE OVERVIEW
MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY
The objective of this course is to provide students with the basic theoretical
knowledge in Seamanship and Meteorology to enable them to meet the requirements
of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) Master of Yachts (less than 500 GT)
Certificate of Competency. This is the first step in obtaining an Officer of the
engineering Watch CoC.
The course is divided into topic areas: Seamanship, Navigation and Passage
Planning, Meteorology, SOLAS, MARPOL Safety Management and COSWP
Prerequisite: All participants MUST have successfully completed their Officer of the
Watch Courses and have basic seamanship and navigational skills prior to taking this
module. Students will be required to have basic drawing instruments. A basic
calculator will be an asset.
Duration: The course must take place over 5 days or 30 hours of formal instruction.
Required Resources: Bluewater Crew Training Course Notes
Attendance Policy: Students are required to attend all scheduled classes and
participate in all required activities. Students missing any class time must make
arrangements with the instructor to make up the lost instructional time. A student
missing more than 20% (7 hours) of instruction during the course will be not be
permitted to examine and will be required to re-sit the course at their own expense
for the full cost of tuition.
Assessment: Written examination on the final day. Five questions with a time limit
of 2.5 hours. The pass mark is 60%.
Certification: MCA Master Seamanship and Meteorology Certificate.
Expiration/Renewal: 3 years

MCA SYLLABUS
SECTION 1: SEAMANSHIP
Topic 1: Dangers and precautions necessary during heavy
weather
a) Can state the precautions necessary when heavy weather is forecast
b) Can describe the dangers of synchronous rolling
c) Can describe the possible dangers to the vessel and crew of heavy
rolling and pitching with regard to structural damage and types of
injury to personnel
d) Can describe the dangers of running before a following sea
e) Can describe the dangers of excessive speed in adverse conditions
f) Can state the procedure for heaving to, bow or stern to the sea
g) Can describe the dangers of squalls to sailing vessels
h) Can describe the handling characteristics of a disabled vessel in heavy
weather and methods that can be used to prevent the vessel
broaching to in a heavy sea
i) Can describe the dangers of launching and maneuvering a rescue boat
or survival craft in heavy weather
Topic 2: Precautionary measures for maintaining buoyancy

a) Can describe the importance of ensuring water-freeing arrangements
are maintained with particular reference to deck drains and scuppers.
b) Can describe the importance of securing anchors and chains with
reference to closing the hawse and spurling pipes.
c) Can detail the instructions to the crew for routine checks to maintain
watertight integrity
d) Can describe the possible dangers to buoyancy associated with side
openings and shell doors.
e) Can describe the practical aspect of keeping records regarding
watertight integrity.
Topic 3: Procedures when towing and being towed

a) Can describe the selection of suitable towing points
b) Can describe the procedure for preparing to tow or be towed including
the selection of suitable equipment with (if applicable) reference to the
Emergency Towing Procedure of the vessel
c) Can describe the various methods of passing and securing a tow
d) Can describe the methods of steering a vessel under tow and when
being towed
e) Can describe the procedure of letting go a tow

Topic 4: Ship handling
a) Can describe methods of handling a vessel in rivers, estuaries,
restricted waters, and in harbours including knowledge of the
following:
i. Turning Short round
ii. The effect and movement of the pivot point
iii. The effects of different propeller configurations causing
“Transverse Thrust”
b) Can describe the effects that weather, tide, head-reach, stopping
distance and currents may have during ship handling
c) Can define the following terms used in ship handling:
i. Head reach
ii. Advance and Transfer
iii. Turning Radius
iv. Tactical Diameter
d) Can describe the factors that should be taken into account when
approaching a dock or berth
e) Can describe the effects that may be experienced when maneuvering
in shallow waters, including:
i. reduction of underkeel clearance by squat,
ii. rolling and pitching
f) Can state the sources of maneuvering data and state how this should
be provided and displayed
g) Can describe the effect and dangers of interaction between passing
vessels
h) Can describe the design and limitations of different maneuvering and
propulsion systems
i) Can state the precaution necessary when embarking and
disembarking a pilot
j) Can outline the requirements when navigating with a pilot on board
Topic 5: Procedures for bringing a vessel to anchor

a) Can describe the factors in selecting an anchorage, with regard to
weather and the type of the holding ground
b) Can describe methods of anchoring using one or two anchors
c) Can describe the operation of a running moor, standing moor and
Mediterranean moor
d) Can describe the procedure for clearing a fouled anchor
e) Can describe the requirement for an anchor watch
f) Can describe the actions when dragging anchor
g) Can describe the precautions when anchoring in heavy weather
h) Can describe the precautions when anchoring in deep water

Topic 6: Navigational dangers
a) Can describe the possible navigational dangers likely to be
encountered in coastal and shallow waters
Topic 7: Actions in Emergency situations

a) Can describe action to assist a ship or aircraft in distress, including
sources of information
b) Can describe actions to be taken if grounding is imminent, and after
grounding
c) Can describe re-floating a grounded vessel with and without assistance
d) Can outline the procedure for beaching a vessel
e) Can outline the action to be taken after a collision
f) Can describe measures to preserve stability and trim in event of
damage
g) Can describe man-over-board maneuvers
h) Can state the necessity to keep records and make reports to meet
statutory and organizational requirements
Topic 8: Response in emergency

a) Can create and manage strategic procedures in event of an emergency
b) Can identify the allocation of resources, and emergency duties to
teams and individuals
c) Can outline the practical use of contingency plans
d) Can describe the organization and benefits of drills, musters and other
emergency training
e) Can outline crowd control management and the handling of passengers
and personnel
f) Can outline the actions necessary when preparing for, and abandoning
ship
g) Can describe the risk of abandoning the vessel
Topic 9: Action required in the event of loss of essential

systems
a) Can state the actions to be taken in the event of loss of steering
b) Can describe the operation of emergency steering systems
c) Can outline the options available for steering following the loss of
directional stability
d) Can describe the actions to be taken in a drifting vessel

SECTION 2: NAVIGATION AND PASSAGE PLANNING
Topic 10: Watchkeeping

a) Can detail the procedures for the keeping of a safe navigational watch
b) Can describe the procedures for establishing a navigational policy,
including watchkeeping arrangements and hours of work
c) Can state the importance of procedures and principles when handing
over, relieving and maintaining a watch
d) Can detail the officer of the watch’s role and responsibilities with
particular reference to maintaining a lookout, monitoring traffic, the
vessel and environment
e) Can describe the responsibilities and duties of lookouts
f) Can state the precautions necessary when changing over from hand to
automatic steering and vice-versa
g) Can outline the possible dangers in the use of VHF in collision
avoidance
h) Can state the importance of correct logbook entries and other record
maintenance activities
i) Can describe the necessity for clear and concise bridge communication
between members of the bridge team during the monitoring of the
passage
j) Can describe the importance and significance of Master’s standing
orders and night orders
Topic 11: Navigation in Ice

a) Can describe the dangers of navigation in or near ice
b) Can outline the formation of ice accretion on vessels and the
associated dangers
c) Can describe the preparations that should be made prior to entering
areas prone to icing as specified in Chapter 7.39 on NP 100
d) Can list the different types of ice and the hazards they may present
SECTION 3: METEOROLOGY
Topic 12: General Meteorology

a) Can describe the terms:
i. lapse rates and
ii. atmospheric stability.
b) Can outline the process of cloud formation
c) Can list the main types of cloud
d) Can describe local and regional effects of heating and cooling
e) Can describe the causes and the weather experienced during the North
East and South West monsoon of the Indian Ocean

f) Can describe the formation of permanent and semi-permanent high
g) and low pressure areas
h) Can state the relationship between pressure distribution and wind
i) Can show a basic understanding of air masses and their properties
j) Can describe the weather associated with rising and falling pressure
k) Can define the terms pressure tendency and pressure gradient
Topic 13: Tropical Revolving Storms
a) Can state the principle areas and times of year when tropical storms
can be expected (as defined in NP 100)
b) Can describe why tropical storms form in low latitudes
c) Can state the likely signs of an approaching tropical storms
d) Can describe the formation of tropical revolving
e) Can draw a diagram of a North or South hemisphere tropical storm
showing wind direction and the dangerous and navigable sectors (as
shown in NP 100)
f) Can describe, using diagrams, the probable paths of a tropical storm in
the southern and northern hemisphere and the strategies for the
avoidance of these storms as contained in the Mariners Handbook (NP
100)
Topic 14: Weather Forecasting
a) Can interpret marine weather forecasts

b) Can define the types of weather messages including surface analysis
and forecast charts and common weather chart symbols.
c) Can state the organizations providing meteorological information to
shipping
d) Can define the reliability of weather forecasts with respect to interval
and forecast duration
e) Can describe the use of weather messages to deduce the probable
weather and changes in the weather
SECTION 4: SOLAS and MARPOL
Topic 15: International requirements for safety of life at sea
a) Can state the lifesaving appliance required on a large yacht by LY3 (as
amended) and SOLAS
b) Can state the firefighting equipment required on a large yacht by LY3
(as amended) and SOLAS

Topic 16: International requirements for the prevention of
pollution at sea and MARPOL
a) Can describe the content of the SOPEP Manual,

i. the action to be taken in the event of an accidental oil spillage
ii. the oil anti-pollution measures
iii. the associated equipment to be carried onboard
b) Can state which yachts must maintain an Oil Record Book in an
approved form
c) Can list the contents of the Oil Record Book
d) Can state the circumstances in which discharges of oily substances
(MARPOL Annex 1) may be permitted
e) Can outline the practical prevention of oil spills with particular
reference to bunkering operations
f) Can outline the precautions required by MARPOL Annex IV necessary
to protect the marine environment with regard to sewage
g) Can outline the garbage management plan as contained in MARPOL
Annex V, including
i. the requirement for record keeping
ii. the limitations associated with at sea garbage disposal areas
iii. the problems associated with garbage segregation, onboard
storage and landing garbage in port
h) Can state which yachts must maintain a Garbage Record Book, have a
Garbage Management Plan and display a Garbage Placard
i) Can state the precautions required by (MARPOL Annex VI) necessary
to protect the marine environment with regard to air pollution and the
reduction of GHG emissions
SECTION 5: SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND THE CODE OF

SAFEWORKING PRACTICES FOR MERCHANT
SEAFARERS
Topic 17: Personal hygiene and safety
a) Can outline the importance of complying with the health and hygiene
requirements
b) Can state the importance of personal care in hot climates.
c) Can outline the importance of regular inspections of accommodation.

Topic 18: Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant
Seafarers
a) Can outline the content of the Code of Safe Working Practices for
Merchant Seafarers (2015) and describe its use in the management of
safety on board a yacht
b) Can state the regulatory status of the Code of Safe Working Practices
for Merchant Seafarers.
c) Can state the importance of personal responsibility for ensuring safe
working practices, safe work area and following safety procedures
d) Can outline the principles of risk assessment and describe the permit
to work system
e) Can describe and list the precautions necessary and the dangers
involved in the following;
i. Enclosed space entry
ii. Working over the side
iii. Working at height
iv. Launching and recovering tenders (including making way)
v. Using chemicals
vi. Using power tools
vii. mooring
f) Can outline the requirements of the COSHH regulations as a source of
information available for chemicals that are potentially hazardous
when used or carried onboard.
g) Can describe the importance of pre-task safety briefings (tool box
talks)
h) Can describe the importance of fire prevention on board and
firefighting emergency training exercises
Topic 19: Safety Organization and Role and Responsibility of

the Safety Officer
a) Can state the role of master, safety officer and safety representative
b) Can describe the role of the safety committee
c) Can summarize the duties of employer with regard to safety officers,
safety representatives and safety committees
d) Can outline the importance of the ISM Code
e) Can define the objectives of a Safety Management System under the
ISM Code
f) Can describe the requirement for and importance of safety meetings
g) Can describe the practical aspects of safety inspections
h) Can define the importance of keeping records
i) Can explain the duties and powers of the Safety Officer

Topic 20: Reporting of unsafe practices and incidents
a) Can outline the importance of reporting “near miss” incidents

b) Can describe the process of accident investigation
c) Can describe the action required on encountering an unsafe operation
d) Can explain the importance of rectifying and eliminating unsafe
conditions and potential hazards
Topic 21: Principles of planning work activities, setting

objectives and priorities to ensure requirements are
met
a) Can state the importance of onboard working relationships

b) Can describe the importance of crew resource management
c) Can outline the strategies for encouraging effective and working
relationships

MODULE 1: SEAMANSHIP
1.1 DANGERS AND PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY DURING
HEAVY WEATHER
Upon completion of this topic, the student should be able to:

1. State the precautions necessary when heavy weather is forecast
2. Describe the dangers of synchronous rolling
3. Describe the possible dangers to the vessel and crew of heavy rolling and
pitching with regard to structural damage and types of injury to personnel
4. Describe the dangers of running before a following sea
5. Describe the dangers of excessive speed in adverse conditions
6. State the procedure for heaving to, bow and stern to the sea
7. Describe the dangers of squalls in sailing vessels
8. Describe the handling characteristics of a disabled vessel in heavy weather and
methods that can be used to prevent the vessel broaching to in a heavy sea
9. Describe the dangers of launching and maneuvering a rescue boat or survival
craft in heavy weather
INTRODUCTION
The behaviour of a ship at sea is dependent not only on its design and
structure, but also on its subsurface shape, its beam, the position of the centre of
gravity and centre of buoyancy. The experience of the master and deck officers is
essential in operating the ship well within the operational guidelines to safeguard the
lives of crew and passengers but also to prevent damage to the vessel.
It is important to realise the kinds of movement a ship will display when

underway at sea. There are six types of motion acting in the longitudinal, transverse
and vertical axis of the ship. The following is a brief re-cap of the individual
movements:
Figure 1.1 Kinds of Movement of Ships

Along the Longitudinal axis:
ROLLING: Involves side to side movement of the vessel. The period of roll
is defined as the time taken for a complete cycle from the horizontal to the left, back
to the horizontal then to the right and finally back to the horizontal.
SURGING: The motion of the sea will accelerate and decelerate the ship in a
forward and backward motion and is linked to swaying motion.
Along the transverse axis:
PITCHING: This is the action of lifting of the bow and lowering at the stern
and vice versa. The pitching angle will depend upon the length of the vessel and the
period of encountering the wave.
SWAYING: The motion of the sea will accelerate and decelerate the ship in a
sideways motion and is linked to surging motion due to the angle of the wave motion
with respect to the course being steered.
Along the vertical axis:
YAWING: This involves the rotation of the vessel about its vertical axis. This
occurs due to the impossibility of steering the vessel on an exact course, the ship will
swing about its intended course which can increase with certain sea conditions and
rudder deflection.
HEAVING: This involves the bodily upwards and downward acceleration of

the ship along its vertical axis. The buoyancy will vary along the length of the ship in
a seaway due to wave crests and troughs, causing the ship to rise and fall in an
oscillating motion.
PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY WHEN HEAVY WEATHER IS FORECAST
When navigating into areas prone to adverse weather conditions, full use
should be made of weather reports and on board publications such as the following:
• Routing charts
• Relevant sailing directions
• Mariners handbook
• ICS Bridge procedures guide
• Ocean passages of the world
• MGN 315 Keeping a safe navigational watch.

Whilst on passage and encountering adverse weather the following precautions
should be considered:
• Verify ships position. Investigate safe port options. Attempt to re-route

and avoid storm vicinity. If there is a lee of land, then a possibility is to
anchor. Ensure that a shift of wind direction would not put you on a lee
shore.
• Obtain up to date weather forecasts and expected weather predictions
for surrounding areas.
• Warn all departments of impending heavy weather.
• Rig lifelines fore and aft.
• Check: securing of anchors, boats and tenders, watertight doors,
general stowage and securing, especially deck item lashings.
• Close up ventilation, removing cowls where necessary.
• Check stability — avoid slack tanks (free surface effect), drain swimming
pool etc.
• Note preparations in log books.
• Contact shore station, passing position and obtain constant plotting of
storm’s track.
• Secure lifting equipment and deck hatches.
• Clear surplus gear from decks.
• Close down deadlights.
• Slacken off signal halyards and other relevant cordage.
• Prohibit access to open deck by operating heavy weather work routine.
• Take down awnings.
• Secure bridge for excessive pitching and rolling motion.
• Warn engine room in plenty of time to reduce revolutions.
• Check distress rockets and LSA gear.
• Re-arrange meal times before bad weather arrives.
Note: The option of “heaving to” will delay the vessel for an indefinite time but
is less likely to sustain damage to herself. The ship’s head should be set to a
heading relative to the wind at which experience will show the vessel to ride
easy. As the wind veers or backs the heading would need to be adjusted.
Reduce revolutions in order to maintain steerageway.
THE DANGERS OF SYNCHRONOUS ROLLING
As previously stated, the performance of a vessel in a seaway is dependent

upon her construction, the distribution of weights on board and her stability which is
usually assessed by the value of GM. A large GM provides a stiff motion, whilst a
small GM provides a tender slow roll motion.
Synchronous rolling is most dangerous and highly undesirable condition for a
vessel to experience and occurs when the period of roll Is equal, or nearly equal, to
the period of the waves, this is more commonly associated with wave encounters on
or near the beam. Successive waves tend to increase the angle of roll of the vessel
with the possible danger of capsize. The 00W must recognise this condition
immediately, particularly in a small vessel. An immediate alteration of the vessel’s
course will effectively change the period of encounter and eliminate the condition.
Worst in beam seas where a ship reaches a greater max inclination at each crest and
trough. Equipment is likely to shift and the vessel will certainly be damaged or capsize
if left uncorrected.
DANGERS TO THE VESSEL AND CREW OF HEAVY ROLLING AND PITCHING
Whenever a vessel is underway, it is no longer a stable working platform, as

previously described, which will vary with the sea and swell and the course and speed
of the vessel. Personal injuries can easily occur when people are unprepared and
unfamiliar with the type of movement that can be experienced. Slips, especially on
wet decks, falls on ladders and companionways. Personnel contact with sharp or
pointed edges and impact with moving objects and items that have broken adrift.
Heavy rolling and pitching make it very difficult to stand and move around the vessel
which becomes tiring, sleep can be difficult if this movement is suffered over a long
period of time and fatigue is the normal outcome which could in itself lead to
accidents.
The structure of a vessel is designed to suffer the bending and flexing stresses
experienced in a seaway. The hogging and sagging forces being counteracted by the
longitudinal framing of the vessel. Racking stresses being counteracted with the
transverse framing.
When a vessel is in adverse weather and sea conditions, the assessment of the
vessel’s stability is crucial as to her reactions when encountering waves. Excessive
stability can be as bad as limited stability. If the ship is excessively stable, the righting
lever (GZ) will be large and there will be a large righting moment. Large forces lead
to large stresses. These can lead to structural damage and even fittings breaking
loose. The large forces generated can easily cause securing devices to fail. The first
things to fail in a ship are usually the beam knees. If there is cracking in the beam
knees, it is fairly certain that the structure has been over stressed. If this is confined
to the forepart of the ship, the probable cause is excessive speed, causing excessive
panting. If a vessel is pounding heavily, serious damage can result, especially to the
bottom plating in the forepart of the ship. The best action will be a large reduction in
speed.

DANGERS OF RUNNING BEFORE A FOLLOWING SEA
When a vessel is running before a following sea it is normal to experience

difficulty in steering as the stern is lifted by the sea causing a yaw. In addition, if the
vessel is within the trough of the wave and the sea is overtaking the vessel then
there is the likelihood of being pooped as the wave breaks. If the vessel and the
waves have equal velocities and the ship is in a position on an advancing wave slope,
she is surfing and is likely to slew violently, heel over and possibly be swamped. The
process of slewing is known as broaching-to. The addition of top weighted water
when the heeling occurs can lead to a large angle of inclination and capsizing is likely.
The greatest danger from a quarterly or astern sea is when the wavelength of the
wave approaches the length of the vessel and the velocity is equal or greater than
that of the vessel. It is prudent in this situation to reduce speed so that the sea
overtakes the vessel. The diagram below offers an illustration of the risk of surf-riding
in following or quartering seas. Guidance to masters for avoiding dangerous
situations in adverse weather and sea conditions is offered in (MSC.1/Circ.1228).
KEY: V = Ship Speed in Knots, v L = Length of Ship
Figure 1.2 Potential Surf Riding Zone in Relation to the

Sea Direction and Ship’s Heading

DANGERS OF EXCESSIVE SPEED IN ADVERSE CONDITIONS
A vessel in calm conditions will float displacing a fixed volume of water, the
centroid of which is the centre of buoyancy. When the vessel is moving within a
seaway the action of the entering a wave will cause the bow to lift. As the wave
advances along the length of the vessel, so the structure will flex and bend
accordingly. The increase of the ship’s speed will increase the degree of flexing within
the structure. In addition, localized stresses such as panting and pounding can result
in shock stresses rippling along the structure and with excessive speed can ultimately
cause damage to both ship and personnel. The angle at which the ship impacts with
the waves also introduces rolling in addition to the fore and aft stresses. Whilst many
commercial vessels are encouraged to maintain schedules and therefore speed, it is
the experience of the master as to the adjustment of speed to prevent damage to
the vessel. Loading of the vessel, the trim and the length of the vessel are all
important considerations then considering appropriate speed. A guide often used is
the reduction of log speed and opposed to shaft speed based upon engine revolutions.
HEAVING TO, BOW OR STERN TO THE SEA
A vessel heaves-to due to the stress of weather. The ship is manoeuvred to

ride out the storm in a comfortable position, holding either the ship’s head or stern
into the wind and weather at a minimum speed to effect steerage. In order to achieve
this situation, all departments should be advised of manoeuvring and an assessment
made of the wave cycle to affect any manoeuvre in the calmest wave period. The
speed should be reduced to minimum steerage, so that full use and effect of both
helm and engines can made during the turn. A ship will normally behave best in one
of three positions in relation to the waves.
1. The sea just off the bow, steaming at a reduced speed to maintain steerage.
2. The sea abaft the beam and at a similar reduced speed.
3. Stopped and drifting to leeward, though adequate sea room is required and
the vessel is still prone to synchronous rolling.
DANGERS OF SQUALLS TO SAILING VESSELS
A squall is a sudden change in wind velocity, often increasing considerably over

a short period of time and with very ittle warning. It can therefore cause serious
damage to small craft and sailing vessels. If too much sail is being carried or the
squall introduces a violent wind shift, the vessel may lay over on her beam. This
could potentially cause flooding and capsize.

Handling characteristics of a disabled vessel in heavy weather and methods
that can be used to prevent the vessel broaching to in a heavy sea.
A disabled vessel will, without assistance, tend to drift beam on to the sea or
weather. Large angles of roll will be uncomfortable and dangerous to any work on
repairing the vessels machinery. There is also the possibility of synchronous rolling
which has been covered previously in these notes. Few ships will carry sea anchors,
though they are required on survival craft such as liferafts and lifeboats. The action
of a sea anchor is to reduce the rate of drift and to ensure that the drag effect will
retain a head to wind and sea.
For vessels under 24 metres it is possible to purchase effective sea anchors

such as the para-anchor which will control the drift of a vessel of limited size. It is
also possible to improvise a sea anchor using sails, tarpaulins or buoyant mooring
ropes which will hold the bow towards the wind. The use of sea quelling oil in
conjunction with a sea anchor will assist in reducing the effect of breaking seas and
the comfort of the drifting vessel.
LAUNCHING AND MANOEUVRING A RESCUE BOAT OR SURVIVAL CRAFT IN

HEAVY WEATHER
A large number of accidents have been associated with the launching and
recovery of rescue boats in relatively calm or training situations. The familiarity of
the crew to the equipment and the methods to employ in launching and recovering
is essential. A thorough knowledge of the release mechanism should also be
understood by all concerned. If a boat has to be sent away, the whole operation will
depend on skillful handling of both the ship and the boat. Good communications and
a clear understanding of the intentions are necessary as well as proper preparations.
The boat’s crew will have to be properly dressed with lifejackets and possibly
survival suits. There must be adequate lighting at the launching position. If the ship
is stopped she will lie parallel to the troughs, i.e. across the wind. She will roll heavily,
which will add to the difficulties and dangers. The ship will make leeway and the boat
may be pinned against the ship.
A better approach is to place the ship head to wind and prepare the boat for
launching. A painter leading forward from the boat is essential. Once all is ready, the
boat can be swung out and lowered part way. Speed should be just sufficient to
maintain steerage way. When ready, full helm should be applied and, in a twin screw
ship, the propeller on the inside of the turn stopped. This will give a lee for launching
the boat. The action of turning the ship will produce a wedge of relatively smooth

water and lowering can be completed. If the timing is good, the boat can be released
and move clear of the ship before she starts rolling.
When the boat approaches the ship for recovery, the same process should be
adopted. The boat should approach the ship as the turn is started. Again, if the timing
is good, the boat can be hooked on and be lifted clear of the water before the ship
starts rolling. Once the boat is clear of the water an optimum heading can be held
until the boat is secured and all personnel are safely inboard.
In the case of launching liferafts the situation of the vessel is probably in

distress and sinking. There is little left to the master in way of providing a lee, though
whenever possible persons should attempt to enter the liferaft dry and once clear of
the distressed vessel the sea anchor should be rigged to ensure the limited drift of
the liferaft.
1.2 PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES FOR MAINTAING BUOYANCY

1. Describe the importance of ensuring water-freeing arrangements are
maintained with particular reference to deck drains and scuppers.
2. Describe the importance of securing anchors and chains with reference to
closing the hawse and spurling pipes.
3. Detail the instructions to the crew for routine checks to maintain watertight
integrity
4. Describe the possible dangers to buoyancy associated with side openings and
shell doors.
5. Describe the practical aspect of keeping records regarding watertight integrity.
THE IMPORTANCE OF ENSURING WATER-FREEING ARRANGEMENTS ARE

MAINTAINED WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO DECK DRAINS AND
SCUPPERS.
In heavy weather, a vessel will take on additional water via spray, seas and
rain. If this water is allowed to accumulate on deck, it will have the same effect as
having loaded a weight on deck, with the consequent rise in the ship’s centre of
gravity and accompanying reduction in stability. The water on deck will not be
constrained and the free surface effect could lead to an even larger reduction in
stability. Normally, the bulk of the water will be shed as the ship rolls, but the roll
could well take the ship beyond her ability to recover. It is essential that all means
of allowing water to escape must be maintained in good condition. If water is allowed
to accumulate on deck, it could leak into the ship, instead of draining overboard.

SECURING OF ANCHORS AND CHAINS WITH REFERENCE TO CLOSING THE
HAWSE AND SPURLING PIPES.
In larger vessels, anchors have to be secured in place. Anchors should be

hauled up as tightly as possible to reduce any chance of their banging about in the
hawse pipes. The cable stoppers or alternative securing arrangements should be
secured as tightly as possible and the windlass brakes tightened. The hawse pipe is
not always secured, but the spurling pipes must be or the cable lockers will flood.
There are many ways of doing this, the simplest being a canvas collar secured around
the cable and also around the top of each spurling pipe. Ships may be fitted with
dedicated closing devices. It may be considered prudent to fit additional lashings to
the anchor cables. All these heavy weather precautions will have to wait until there
is no further need of the anchors and they will have to be removed before arrival at
the next port so that the anchors can be prepared for use.
INSTRUCTIONS TO THE CREW FOR ROUTINE CHECKS TO MAINTAIN

WATERTIGHT INTEGRITY
Instructions to the crew for routine checks to maintain the watertight integrity
should be detailed in the vessel Shipboard Management System and highlighted in
the Master’s Standing Orders. In particular the requirement to close watertight doors
should be listed. Positive reporting should be the norm on your vessel.
DANGERS OF REDUCED BUOYANCY ASSOCIATED WITH SIDE OPENINGS AND

SHELL DOORS.
The Vessel Stability Book will detail openings, which must be secured before
proceeding to sea. If the ship does go to sea with any of these listed openings not
properly secured, she will be deemed to be unseaworthy. There have been many
instances of vessels sinking because doors and other openings have not been
secured. Many yachts have stern and/or side doors for tenders and toys. These must
be closed and checked to ensure that they are weathertight before sailing. Routine
maintenance should conduct the standard test for these openings which is to spray a
fire hose around the rim to check for any leakage.
These openings should have a status indicator on the bridge and may be fitted
with water seepage alarms. There should be routine checks on the security of all
openings on passage. All checks should be recorded in the bridge log book. An
improperly secured door or hatch can work loose and fail. Even if it is merely leaking,
the water may cause damage to fittings and electrical machinery and the free surface
effect may cause a serious loss of stability, even in relatively small amounts.

RECORD KEEPING WITH REGARDS TO WATERTIGHT INTEGRITY.
Records must be kept of the state of the watertight integrity of the vessel so
that the OOW is quite clear as to the level of watertight integrity at any particular
stage of the voyage. In the event of an accident records of this type would be
required by any investigation.
1.3 PROCEDURES WHEN TOWING OR BEING TOWED

1. Describe the selection of suitable towing points
2. Describe the procedure for preparing to tow or be towed including the selection
of suitable equipment with (if applicable) reference to the Emergency Towing
Procedure of the vessel
3. Describe the various methods of passing and securing a tow
4. Describe the methods of steering a vessel under tow and when being towed
5. Describe the procedure of letting go a tow
THE SELECTION OF SUITABLE TOWING POINTS
With the obvious exception of tugs, few ships are configured for towing or are
suitably equipped to do so. There will have to be a great deal of improvisation and
adaptation. At the forward end of the ship the situation is generally better than aft.
There will be anchor capstans or a windlass. These will offer some underdeck
strengthening and the anchor cables could be used for the tow. Aft, there is usually
little of any great strength, except for the mooring winches and these may not be
very strong. Fairleads, cleats and bitts will need strengthening or supporting to
distribute the load of towing. The load should be spread as much as possible and not
allowed to be taken by only one fitting. A sensible Master will check his own ship and
decide how best to arrange to be towed or to tow another ship. Very few ships tow
other ships, but planning and preparation in advance will be of great value in the
unlikely event of having to do so.
THE PROCEDURE FOR PREPARING TO TOW OR TO BE TOWED
Communications between the two ships are obviously important both in the
preparation stage and prior to the establishment of the tow. Also direct line of
communication between those paying out the tow and those receiving it is equally
important. The availability of power to warping drums may decide which ship pays
out and which hauls in the towing line. The towing vessel will have to work the towing
gear from aft and it is vital that this does not foul the propellers. There will have to
be a good level of cooperation between the two ships throughout the operation. A
knowledge of the depth of available water during the tow will ensure that the tow line
does not snag on the seabed and cause the towing vessel to veer.
Depending on the weather conditions and duration of the intended tow, the
choice in a yacht will usually be between the strength of her anchor cable and the
simpler process of using mooring ropes. One or several ropes can be paid out if of
suitable length. If more than one rope is used, they must be adjusted to that they all
carry an even load and be of the same material. In the preparation it should be
established whether the vessel to be towed has sufficient power and persons on board
to heave and secure the tow equipment.
Whatever is selected, some means of slipping the tow by the towing vessel in
an emergency should be incorporated. Great care will be needed, if injuries are to be
avoided
METHODS OF PASSING AND SECURING A TOW.
The initial problem is to pass a light line or messenger between the ships. A
number of alternative methods could be used depending upon weather conditions:
1. The towing vessel to pass upwind of the tow, streaming a buoyant rope, which
can be retrieved by the disabled ship.
2. The rocket line throwing line may be used to initially establish a line.
3. A boat or tender, in reasonably calm conditions, might be used to pass the tow
line.
During this period of establishing the tow, it should be remembered that

manoeuvring two vessels in close proximity of each other, within the confines of
messengers and ropes is very difficult.
The most likely time for the messenger to part is when the heavier line is
passing through the fairlead on the receiving ship. How the tow is secured aboard
both ships depends upon the deck layout, the fittings and their strength. The load
should be spread as evenly as possible over as many fittings as possible.
Arrangements to reduce wear and chafing where the towing line passes through the
fairlead may include padding the fairlead with canvas, grease and wood.
Towing lines do break and the most common cause is an excessive load caused
by snatching the line. A sea tow should incorporate adequate spring. The weight of
the anchor cable causes it to sag or hang down in a big bight. The tow should be
sufficiently long and with sufficient weight so that it will never become taught, which
is when it will break. It is sometimes possible to include a length of nylon in the tow
to give some degree of elasticity.
STEERING A VESSEL UNDER TOW AND WHEN BEING TOWED
It is important that the vessel being towed is as directionally stable as possible

i.e. rudder locked amidships, propeller/s feathered and where possible trimmed by
the stern. The towing vessel will also have to very slowly pick up speed before making
any attempt to alter course. The additional problem is effectiveness of the rudder on
the towing vessel due to the shift in pivot point of the combined tow. In a twin screw
vessel, it will be more effective to steer using the engines.
THE PROCEDURE OF LETTING GO A TOW
Except when having to let go the tow in an emergency, this should be a

carefully prepared operation. The tow should not be simply let go, but the whole
process should be the reverse of taking the tow. The towing vessel should reduce the
strain on the line to a minimum. The receiving ship should shorten the line as much
as possible before the tow is disconnected. The weight of the line should be
transferred to a suitable messenger and paid out carefully as the receiving ship
recovers the tow. When entering confined or shallow water the tow will have to be
shortened. To enter port a short scope will be necessary and it would be prudent to
disconnect the sea tow and engage harbour tugs to berth the disabled vessel.
1.4 SHIP HANDLING

1. Describe methods of handling a vessel in rivers, estuaries, restricted waters,
and in harbours including knowledge of the following: Turning Short round, the
effect and movement of the pivot point, and the effects of different propeller
configurations causing “Transverse Thrust”.
2. Describe the effects that weather, tide, head-reach, stopping distance and
currents may have during ship handling.
3. Define the following terms used in ship handling: Head reach, Advance and
Transfer, Turning Radius, and Tactical Diameter.
4. Describe the factors that should be taken into account when approaching a
dock or berth
5. Describe the effects that may be experienced when maneuvering in shallow
waters, including: reduction of underkeel clearance by squat, rolling and
pitching
6. State the sources of maneuvering data and state how this should be provided
and displayed
7. Describe the effect and dangers of interaction between passing vessels
8. Describe the design and limitations of different maneuvering and propulsion
systems
9. State the precaution necessary when embarking and disembarking a pilot
10. Outline the requirements when navigating with a pilot on board.
HANDLING A VESSEL IN RIVERS, ESTUARIES, RESTRICTED WATERS, AND IN

HARBOURS
When ship handling in confined waters, it is important to be fully familiar with

how the vessel will react. This will be dependent upon the type of machinery, the
design of the hull, the effectiveness of the rudder and propeller /s. Also in the case
of cargo vessels whether the ship is loaded or in ballast. In addition to the knowledge
of the ship it is also important to understand the location and for this purpose it is
normal to make use of pilotage services to support the local knowledge.
Turning Short round
In this description it is assumed the vessel to have a single right-handed

propeller. Twin-screw vessels have the advantage of being more easily handled in
confined spaces. The vessel is manoeuvred to the port hand side of the channel and
all headway removed. The intention is to affect the turn without gathering headway
or sternway. The engine is put full ahead with full starboard helm. At the first sign of
headway the helm is reverted to amidships and the engines placed full astern – the
action will continue the swing to starboard due to the effect of transverse thrust from
the propeller. At the first signs of gathering sternway, the engines are stopped and
the sequence is repeated until the vessel has been turned.
The effect and movement of the pivot point
The point about which a vessel seems to rotate is known as the pivot point.
This point is about a third of the length of the vessel from forward i.e. just in front of
the bridge in more centrally located bridges. A potential problem exists in larger
vessels where the bridge is aft and therefore the Office of the Watch (OOW) is aft of
the pivot point and greater judgement is needed to anticipate and alteration of course
and to monitor its execution. When the vessel moves astern the pivot point moves
aft, very close to the stern.
The effects of different propeller configurations causing ‘Transverse

thrust’
When put astern a left-handed propeller will rotate in a clockwise direction

throwing sideways wash against the portside of the ‘P bracket, hull and keel. The
Stern will be pushed to starboard (bows to port).

The art of boat handling is to try and make the transverse thrust work in your
favour when berthing or turning around in a short space. If you are approaching a
jetty and the effect will not be in your favour when you apply astern power, then you
must fight it by putting on an equal and opposite swing with the rudder prior to
engaging astern power. When fitted in single screw yachts Volvo engines have gear
box rotation requiring a left handed propeller, kicking the stern to starboard when
going astern. Virtually all other makes have the traditional right handed prop, kicking
the stern to port when going astern.
EFFECTS OF WEATHER, TIDE, HEAD-REACH, STOPPING DISTANCE AND

CURRENTS MAY HAVE DURING SHIP HANDLING.
When preparing a passage plan, it is essential to consider all the factors that
will affect both the sea passage and the more potentially dangerous landfall and
harbour approach. The items above will affect the way in which the ship is conducted
and prepared at each stage of the voyage.
Weather: The combination of visibility being effected by rain, fog, snow and the
changeable wind and waves effecting the manoeuvrability of the vessel at slow
speeds.
Tide: Considerations of under-keel clearance and the adjustment of speed to allow

for squat calculations. The effect of stemming the tide within an anchorage to control
speed. The utilisation of the tide to enter an estuary and river to control turns and
assist the transit speed.
Head-reach: The use of sea trial information, the master’s experience, the
combination of engine type with propeller and rudder configuration.
Stopping distance: Testing the engines astern, anticipation of reduction of speed for
alteration of course or anchoring.
Currents: Utilisation of surface currents to effect better passage time, knowledge of

the effects of offshore currents and their impact on coastal weather patterns.
Terms used in ship handling:
Head reach
Head Reach is defined as a distance along the direction of the course at the
moment when the “full astern” command was given. The distance is measured from
the moment when the “full astern” command is given until the vessel is stopped dead
in the water.

Advance and Transfer
The advance is the distance travelled by the pivot point along the original
course. The transfer is the distance travelled by the pivot point, measured from the
original track to the point where the vessel has altered her course by 90 degrees.
Turning radius
The turning radius of the circle that is the path of the vessel’s pivot point in a
full 360 change of heading
Tactical diameter
The tactical diameter is the transfer at 180 degrees change of heading.
Figure 1.3 Terms Used in Ship Handling
FACTORS TO NOTE WHEN APPROACHING A DOCK OR BERTH
Berthing head to wind and especially to stream is generally easier and safer.
An approach, stemming the tide can be easier than an approach with no tide.
Sufficient speed, depending upon the ship and her control systems, is needed.
Without a flow of water over it, a rudder will have no effect. The most common error
is to carry out the manoeuvre at too high a speed. Once the propeller(s) is/are turning

astern, to reduce the speed of approach, the flow of water past the rudder(s) is lost
and steerage is lost.
In a single screw ship with a right handed propeller, a transverse torque is

generated. This is especially marked when the propeller is only partially submerged.
Going ahead, this is countered by the rudder, but going astern, the rudder is
ineffective and the stern swings to port. Generally, it is easier to berth a single screw
ship port side to. With a single controllable pitch propeller, the stern will cant to
starboard with astern pitch.
Ships do carry anchors and these are often forgotten in crisis. An anchor can
be used to advantage in turning and to reduce the rate of approach to a berth.
Anchors should always be prepared for use, even if it is not planned to use one. In
ships with pronounced bulbous bows, anchors should be walked back until they are
below the bulb. If the wind is on the berth, it may be wise to drop an anchor to assist
in hauling off the bow if no bow thruster is available. While alongside, some tension
on the anchor cable may reduce the possibility of rubbing too hard on fenders or
pilings.
The approach to any berth will be dictated by many factors. These will include
the ship herself, the type of berth and the available room, the state of the tide, the
prevailing weather and the availability of a tug or other assistance. As a general rule,
an approach with the head to wind and current at an angle of about 45° to the line
of the berth is usual. As the bow closes the berth, the engine(s) and rudder(s) should
be used to swing the stern towards the berth. This will cause the bow to swing out,
and so reduce the transverse rate of approach. It is generally better to have at least
one mooring from forward secure ashore before attempting to send away moorings
from aft. Whether a spring or headline is sent away first will depend on the approach
and the berth. There is a danger of moorings fouling propellers, especially when going
astern. Moorings can be sucked into bow or stern thrusters. Good communications
between the bridge and the moorings decks are essential. Officers in charge on
mooring decks must always be alert for problems and must advise the bridge if there
is any possibility of fouling machinery.
EFFECTS OF MANOEUVRING IN SHALLOW WATERS
Shallow water will affect the handling of ships, by modifying the flow of water
around the hull and its interaction with banks and shoals. The effect is much greater
at high speeds and the shallower the water and the larger the ship, the greater the
effect. A full hull form will cause a greater effect than a fine hull. The propeller(s)
push water astern when the ship is being driven ahead. Most of the water flowing
past the ship to replace the water being pushed astern, flows aft, under the ship. A
smaller proportion of this water flows around the sides of the ship. As the ship moves
through the water, a bow wave is developed. The water displaced by the forward
motion of the ship causes a high pressure area at the bow. The effectiveness of the
rudder is also changed in shallow water with turning circles up to three times the size
of that in deep water.
Reduction of under-keel clearance by squat
Squat is caused when water that should normally flow under the hull
encounters resistance due to the close proximity of the hull to the seabed. This causes
the water to move faster, creating a low-pressure area with lowered water level
surface (Bernoulli principle). This squat effect results from a combination of (vertical)
sinkage and a change of trim that may cause the vessel to dip towards the stern or
towards the bow. Squat effect is approximately proportional to the square of the
speed of the ship. Thus, by reducing speed by half, the squat effect is reduced by a
factor of four. Squat effect is usually felt more when the depth/draft ratio is less than
two or when sailing close to a bank. It can lead to unexpected groundings and
handling difficulties.
Figure 1.4 The Squat Effect
Signs of squat will be the obvious increase in bow and stern waves with the
deep amidships trough, probable difficulty in steering, increased vibration aft and a
reduction in ground speed. The increase in draft may not be noticeable, but will be
present. If the vessel is in a narrow and shallow canal or river, the effect will be much
more marked. In this case, not only is the water flow under the ship restricted, but
so too is the water flow around the ship. In narrow channels or shallow water, it is
often possible to see an increase in water level ahead of the ship, followed by a rapid
drop in water level and then a rapid return of the water to the original level.
Excessive speed will make the ship very difficult to handle. Sudden reductions
of speed should be avoided, as this could further reduce the flow of water to the
rudder(s). Speed should be reduced gently. Squat tables showing the increase in
draft at various speeds are now supplied to new ships.
Rolling and Pitching
The effect of rolling and pitching will increase the potential of grounding in
shallow water. A reduction in speed will assist in stabilising the vessel.
SOURCES OF MANOEUVRING DATA AND ITS DISPLAY
After a ship is built, the builders will carry out sea trials. The owner and
classification survey will usually attend to ensure that the ship meets their
specifications, before accepting delivery. From information gained during these trials,
stopping distances and turning circle diagrams will be produced. These should be
displayed on the bridge, often in the form of the “Wheelhouse Poster”. Obviously this
is intended to assist a pilot and it will contain maneuvering data, length, beam,
engine, propeller and rudder layouts. Many pilotage authorities insist on a pilot card
being made available to the pilot. Most sensible Masters will take any opportunity
offered to assess the handling characteristics of their ship as soon after joining as
possible.
DANGERS OF INTERACTION BETWEEN PASSING VESSELS
When vessels are passing there are two situations: (1) overtaking and (2) the
head-on encounter.
1. Overtaking: Interaction is most likely to prove dangerous when two
vessels are involved in an overtaking manoeuvre, this is due to the
relatively slow speed of the manoeuvre. One possible outcome is that the
vessel being overtaken may take a sheer into the path of the other. Another
possibility is that when the vessels are abeam of one another the bow of
each vessel may turn away from the bow of the other causing the respective
sterns to swing towards each other. This may also be accompanied by an
overall strong attractive force between the two vessels due to the reduced
pressure between the underwater portion of the hulls. There are other
possibilities, but the effect of interaction on each vessel during the
overtaking manoeuvre will depend on a number of factors including the size
of one vessel relative to the other, the smaller of the two vessels feeling
the greater effect.

2. The head-on encounter: In this situation interaction is less likely to have
a dangerous effect as generally the bows of the two vessels will tend to
repel each other as they approach. However, this can lead indirectly to a
critical situation. It may increase any existing swing and also be
complicated by secondary interaction such as bank-rejection from the edge
of a channel.
In all cases it is essential to maximise the distance between the two vessels.
The watchkeeper on the larger vessel should bear in mind the effect on adjacent
smaller vessels and take necessary care when manoeuvring.
THE DESIGN AND LIMITATIONS OF DIFFERENT MANOEUVRING AND

PROPULSION SYSTEMS
There are many variations for propulsion and direction equipment for ships.
The size of vessel and the trading area are some considerations that determine the
equipment used by the shipbuilders and the amount of fuel per day and their
fluctuating prices, but the variety of equipment fall into a number of categories.
• Single screw with single rudder.

• Twin screw with single rudder.
• Twin screw with twin rudders.
• Voith-Schneider drive.
• Azipod drive.
• Jet or impellor drive.
Bow and/or Stern thrusters are often fitted to improve manoeuverability. High
Lift Rudders of various types are common in commercial ships, particularly in those,
which use the smaller ports.
The most basic form of propulsion system fitted in the vast majority of the
world’s merchant ships depends on a single slow/medium speed diesel engine. The
crankshaft is directly coupled to the propeller. To go astern, the engine must be
stopped, the timing cams moved and, using compressed air to get it to turn, the
engine is started in reverse. Bulk carriers, tankers, container ships and most general
cargo ships are so fitted. Most container ships do have a bow and stern thrusters.
These ships rely on tugs at their terminal ports. More modern and flexible ships have
combinations of thrusters and controllable pitch propellers.
Propellers can be constant, variable or controllable pitch. Constant pitch

propellers are now rare. In these, the pitch is fixed and constant. In variable pitch
propellers, the pitch varies, being greatest at the hub and decreasing towards the
tips. This is because at any given rotational speed, the distance covered increases
towards the blade tips. These propellers are not controllable. The shaft speed must
be increased to increase ship’s speed and the shaft must be reversed to go astern.
In yachts, this is usually achieved by means of a reversing clutch. In a controllable
pitch propeller, the blades can be rotated on the hub and the pitch changed from full
ahead, through zero to full astern pitch. Normally, the shaft speed is constant and
unidirectional. In case of actuator failure, most propellers will revert to full ahead
pitch and maneuvering control will be achieved by stopping, starting and reversing
the engine. If the failure is in the bridge control system, control can be transferred
to local control at the Controllable Pitch Pump (CPP) Panel.
Some older ships were fitted with twin screws, but only a single rudder. The
modern arrangement is to have twin rudders, one behind each propeller. Very few
commercial merchant ships have two propellers. The twin screw arrangement is only
found in passenger ships and ferries. Controllable pitch propellers are fitted in most
passenger ships. Many ferries have twin bow thrusters and high lift rudders, but stern
thrusters are not common. Transverse thrust aft is achieved through the high lift
rudders. Most ferries have the ability to operate the rudders either together or
independently. Most twin screw ships with controllable pitch propellers have inward
turning propellers. Yachts tend to have fixed pitch propellers and reversing gearboxes
with clutches. The propellers are usually outward turning.
The Voith-Schneider system consists of two, or occasionally three, plates

on the bottom of the hull, rotating about vertical shafts. Vertical paddles attached to
the rotating plates can be angled to thrust water in any direction. This system is
common in harbor tugs or water tractors as they are called if so fitted. Some short
range ferries have this system. It is the best system if maneuverability is the most
important consideration. It does not offer great economy or speed.
Azipod Drive takes various forms. Some large passenger ships have a four
pod layout, with the two forward pods being fixed. The two after pods can be rotated
in azimuth, as required. Smaller ships have two pods aft. These can be rotated in
azimuth. Sometimes the electric drive motors are built into the pods, or the system
may use a vertical drive shaft from an electric motor or diesel engine within the hull.
Pods may have one pusher propeller or may be double ended with a propeller at each
end. Sometimes a conventional rudder is used for steering on passage and sometimes
heading is controlled by rotating the pods. Diesel alternators provide the electricity
required by the traction motors.

Water Jet or Impellor Drive uses jets of water directed out of the stern of
the ship. These may be angled to give steering control. Astern power is achieved by
placing a deflector or “bucket” in the jet. This deflects the jet through 180 degrees,
in a manner similar to reverse thrust in a jet airliner. These drives are fitted to many
high speed commercial craft as well as fast yachts. The prime movers are usually
diesels, but gas turbines are becoming more popular.
RUDDER DESIGN
Early rudders were simple hinged plates. Swinging the rudder to one side
deflecting the water flow past the ship, imparting a transverse force on the stern. To
reduce the force required to turn the rudder, semi-balanced and balanced designs
were introduced. Most cargo ships have rudders supported at the base by the stern
frame. Most twin screw ships have unsupported or “open water” rudders. All normal
rudders depend on a flow of water to provide the transverse force.
Some specialised ships have active rudders, incorporating propellers or water

jets mounted on the rudder. Many ferries have high lift rudders, such as Bekker or
Brostrom rudders. In these, the rudder is pivoted with about 45% forward and 55%
abaft the stock. The main part can be turned to 45 degrees. The trailing edge turns
to double the angle of the main part. With the rudder hard over, the propeller wash
is deflected at nearly right angles to the fore and aft line of the ship. The rudder angle
must be reduced before going astern.
Moorings can be used to great effect when leaving a berth. Springing off is
commonly used, normally to lift the stern off the quay. Always have fenders ready.
On arrival, sensible use of moorings can greatly simplify and reduce the time required
for the maneuver. There should always be spare heaving lines ready for instant use
in case the first line fails to reach the shore.
A twin screw ship, fitted with twin rudders and a bow thruster, can be made
to move sideways. Care should be taken in balancing the bow thruster and engines.
This can also be achieved in a ship with a single propeller and a high lift rudder. Stern
thrusters simplify the whole process. It must be noted that most installations are
more efficient going ahead than astern. The same power setting will produce more
ahead effect than astern effect.
Bowthrusters are not effective when making way through water at speed or
have minimal effect. This is due to the vessel’s pivot point being forward when
underway.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN EMBARKING, NAVIGATING AND DISEMBARKING A
PILOT
Pilotage may be optional or compulsory. Most major ports impose compulsory

pilotage, but many yachts could be exempt as they may be below the ceiling for
compulsory pilotage. Bear in mind that if a master chooses not to take a pilot and
causes damage to port facilities, to his own or to another vessel, the authorities might
well claim that the master failed to take all reasonable and available measures to
avoid such an accident.
Although nearly all pilot cutters are fast, highly maneuverable and well-
fendered, all the precautions, which apply to small boat operations, must apply to
embarking and disembarking pilots. Port authorities have vested interest in the safety
and well-being of their pilots and pilot cutters. If the boarding arrangements are not
satisfactory, the pilot may refuse to board and the ship will be unable to enter port.
There are standard regulations governing pilot ladders and if these are not followed,
fines may be imposed. The pilot ladder must be continuous. There must be no joins
in it. The treads must conform to the requirements and the ropes must be either
natural fiber or of approved manmade fibre.
Manropes must be available and the area must be properly lit. A lifebuoy with
a light must be available and a heaving line should be available in case the pilot has
a bag to bring on board. The whole operation, from rigging the ladder to receiving
the pilot on board, must be supervised by an officer. As always, reliable
communications are essential.
Before rigging the ladder, contact with the pilot or pilot station should be
established. Often the choice of which side to rig the ladder will be obvious, but it
pays to confirm with the pilot the side on which it is to be rigged and the height of
the ladder above the water. Some pilots will ask for the ship to be on a particular
heading at a particular speed for the transfer. The pilot should be escorted to the
bridge and not left to find his own way there.
When disembarking the pilot, the bridge team and the pilot ladder party must
keep a careful watch on the proceedings, at least until the pilot is safely on board the
cutter and it is well clear of the ship. If, for any reason, the pilot cannot be
disembarked safely, he/she will have to be carried to the next port and the ship will
be liable for his accommodation, pay and transport costs back home.

Figure 1.5 Required Boarding Arrangements for the Pilot

NAVIGATING WITH A PILOT ON BOARD
The status of a pilot depends upon whether pilotage is compulsory or not. If

pilotage is not compulsory, the pilot is considered to be an addition to the bridge
team providing important local knowledge. If pilotage is compulsory, the status of
the pilot is different. He takes charge of the navigation of the ship. He never takes
command of the ship, only the navigation (exception being the Panama Canal). The
bridge team must cooperate and give him all assistance. When the pilot gives
engine or steering orders, the bridge team must ensure that these are obeyed. The
navigator or OOW remains responsible for plotting the position of the ship. If there
is any doubt, the pilot must be advised. The pilot and captain should discuss and
agree a plan for the pilotage as soon as the pilot boards. The Master must make the
pilot aware of any defects in the ship or special circumstances, which might affect
the pilotage and berthing. These will include any handling peculiarities, main engine
defects or limitations, problems with windlasses and mooring winches, navigation
equipment or steering problems. As soon as practicable, after boarding, the pilot
should be shown the pilot card which will provide the essential details of the vessel
and told the draught and trim. Pilots will often circle the ship to make their own
assessment of draught, trim and list, before boarding.
The Bridge Team must continue to plot the position of the vessel and must
ensure that she does not stray from the intended track. He must work with the pilot
and advise the pilot if there is any cause for concern. Parallel Indexing is a good
and quick way of checking the ship’s position in channels. The ship’s officers will be
more familiar with the ship and her equipment than the pilot will.
1.5 PROCEDURES FOR BRINGING A VESSEL TO ANCHOR

1. Describe the factors in selecting an anchorage, with regard to weather and the
type of the holding ground
2. Describe methods of anchoring using one or two anchors
3. Describe the operation of a running moor, standing moor and Mediterranean
moor
4. Describe the procedure for clearing a fouled anchor
5. Describe the requirement for an anchor watch
6. Describe the actions when dragging anchor
7. Describe the precautions when anchoring in heavy weather
8. Describe the precautions when anchoring in deep water

SELECTING AN ANCHORAGE
When selecting an anchorage careful scrutiny of the chart of the area and any
advice offered by the pilot book should be noted. The area where the vessel is
proposing to anchor, and consideration of the depth of water and the holding ground
will all help to determine the amount of cable to use. The choice of anchorage, and
amount of cable veered, will be determined by the following:
1. Depth of water.
2. Type of holding ground, good or bad.
3. Length of time the vessel intends to stay at anchor.
4. Sea room available for circle of swing.
5. Expected weather conditions.
6. Strength of tide, if any.
7. Draught and amount of hull exposed to the wind.
8. Type of anchor and its holding power.
These factors will vary with each case and previous experience of own vessel’s
equipment; however, as a general rule, 6 to 10 times the depth of water may be
taken as a working minimum for vessels of 500 to 3,000 tons. Small yachts of less
than 20 metres may get away with only 4 times the depth of water. This would
change, say, if the holding ground was bad, the weather deteriorating, and you were
expected to remain at anchor for a long period of tune.
ANCHORING USING ONE OR TWO ANCHORS
If the available swinging room is restricted, it may be necessary to use two

anchors to reduce the swinging room. If the ship starts yawing it may be necessary
to drop a second anchor to damp down the yawing. Generally, it is better to anchor
with a good scope of cable on one anchor, rather than to use two at short scope. The
second anchor is then available for emergencies. Raising one anchor in a hurry is
much easier than having to heave two. There is always a danger of one anchor fouling
the other.
THE OPERATION OF A RUNNING MOOR, STANDING MOOR AND

MEDITERRANEAN MOOR
Running Moor /Standing Moor

There are two basic methods of anchoring using two anchors, the running moor
and the standing Moor. The results should be the same on completion. In a standing
moor the ship lets-go the first anchor while making sternway. She then lets-go the
second anchor and heaves on the first cable until there is approximately the same
scope on both cables. In a running moor, the ship maintains headway after letting
go the first anchor, until she is in position to let go the second anchor. The scope is
balanced as before.
Mediterranean Moor
This is the standard for many ports where there is a shortage of alongside
space. Ships moor stern to the quay, which allows many more ships to be squeezed
in. The bow is held in position by two anchors. There are various methods of achieving
a Mediterranean moor and the prevailing wind and room available for the maneuver
will probably dictate the approach. One method is to approach parallel to the quay,
perpendicular to the final direction of the moored vessel. An approach into wind is
usually favored. Some distance before coming opposite to the berth, the offshore
anchor is let go whilst steaming slowly ahead and allowed to pay out. As the ship
steams ahead, the cable is paid out to its fullest extent required. The second anchor
is let go and the ship is turned to put the stern towards the quay. The wind should
carry the ship downwind and as the stern approaches the berth, its position can be
controlled by engines and rudders. The bow can be controlled by heaving or paying
out the anchor cables. The first line ashore should be on the upwind quarter. Local
conditions will often force modifications to this maneuver. Tug assistance, a tender
or inflatable can be useful, if only to run moorings or to help hold the bow.
PROCEDURE FOR CLEARING A FOULED ANCHOR
Anchors can become fouled by becoming entangled in discarded debris or by

picking up wires or ropes from the bottom. If two anchors are used, it is important
to monitor the swing of the ship to ensure that the cables do not become twisted
around each other. It is possible for another ship to anchor in such a manner that
her cable will lie across your cable. Since you have been careful to avoid cable areas
in selecting your anchorage, it is unlikely that any cable fouling your anchor will be
of the high voltage variety. The usual method of clearing a fouled anchor is to heave
it up until a rope can be lowered and passed under the obstruction. The free end is
then made fast on the forecastle and the anchor is lowered until the weight of the
obstruction is taken by the rope. With great care, the anchor is raised above the
obstruction. The free end of the rope is then paid out and let go. The obstruction
should fall clear. It may warrant a report to the port authority.
If the cables become fouled when using two anchors, this is usually a simple
matter of the cables becoming twisted around each other due to the ship always
swinging in the same direction. OOWs should log the rotations made whilst at anchor
to help in untwisting the two cables. One solution is to steam ahead slowly with full
helm to unwind the cables. In extreme cases of entanglement, it may be necessary
to break one cable at a convenient joining shackle, always taking care to secure the
free end. Some commercial ships have to use tugs to tow their sterns around or to
use a barge to assist in freeing fouled anchors.
THE CONDUCT OF AN ANCHOR WATCH
The OOW should have all relevant information regarding the amount of cable paid
out, the charted position of the anchor and the standby time for main engines. His
duties include checking at regular intervals the ship’s position, by visual or electronic
means. Allowance must be made for the swinging circle. If in doubt take a three-
point fix and see if it lies inside the swinging circle.
There should be a deck watch while the ship is at anchor. Detection of the
vessel dragging may be ascertained by personnel engaged on this duty ‘feeling the
cable’. Vibration from anchor bouncing over seabed can be felt by laying a hand on
the cable. If the vessel falls across the wind and does not recover, as at the end of a
yaw, she is most certainly dragging her anchor. Deck watch must also be aware that
unauthorised persons may attempt to board: theft and piracy are rife is some parts
of the world. The deck watch is also responsible for regular inspections of the ship.
OOW’s must ensure correct deck lights and anchor lights are displayed. If
visibility reduces correct fog signals must be made, and a radar watch kept to ensure
vessel is not run down (remember one short, one long and one short blast on siren
to warn other ship approaching you that you are at anchor). A VHF listening watch
should be kept, on CH 16 and Port Control, and possibly CH13.
ACTIONS WHEN DRAGGING ANCHOR
When a vessel drags her anchor the speed of movement can be considerable,
so careful monitoring of the vessels position is crucial. Once confirmed that the vessel
is dragging her anchor, inform the Master and duty engineer immediately. Prepare
communications for forward and call crew to assist forward; make decision whether
to veer more cable, drop a second anchor, or weigh anchor and proceed to sea
(particularly if weather is worsening).
PRECAUTIONS WHEN ANCHORING IN HEAVY WEATHER
Anchoring in heavy weather should be avoided. Unless there are good reasons,
such as engine failure, it would usually be safer to steam slowly, unless a sheltered
anchorage can be found. An anchored ship will tend to lie across the sea, taking up
a heading parallel to the troughs of the waves. This heading will cause the ship to
roll. Depending upon the wind force, current, draught and windage, the ship will
actually take up a heading between the line of the troughs and the wind direction.
The rolling will be uncomfortable and the pitching can cause additional strain on the
cable and the possibility of the breaking out the anchoring causing the vessel to drag.
If engine failure or some other reason makes it necessary to anchor in heavy weather,
the dangers should not be underestimated. When anchoring, the speed of the ship
over the ground is critical. Excessive speed will cause the cable to pay out too quickly
and it may not be possible to control it on the brake and a better option might be
walk out the cable. If the ship is disabled and drifting, it is normal to pay out at least
two shackles, depending on the depth of water. When the anchor touches bottom,
additional cable can be released on the brake, in decreasing amounts. With about
half the cable on the first anchor, decide if it will hold the ship. If necessary drop the
second anchor or lower it by walking back on the capstan, trying to keep an even
strain on both cables.
PRECAUTIONS WHEN ANCHORING IN DEEP WATER
If anchoring in deep water, the anchor should not be let go in the normal
manner, but walked back, possibly all the way to the seabed. The officer in charge of
anchoring should have an idea of the depth of the water, and be able to estimate
when the anchor is on the bottom. As the vessel drops astern once the anchor begins
to hold, the cable will be seen to grow slightly. However, because of the considerable
weight of the cable in the up and down position, it will be increasingly difficult to see
the cable snatching or growing to indicate that the vessel is brought up. Keep close
watch of total amount of cable being laid out; joining shackle of final shackle of cable
may have distinctive colour if it is not rusted off.
1.6 NAVIGATIONAL DANGERS

1. Describe the possible navigational dangers likely to be encountered in coastal
and shallow waters.
NAVIGATIONAL DANGERS LIKELY TO BE ENCOUNTERED IN COASTAL AND

SHALLOW WATERS
Coastal waters require a heightened level of watchkeeping in comparison to

the open oceans due to the closer proximity of dangers to navigation. General traffic
will be busier with less room to manoeuvre, fishing vessels and other obstructions
will be in greater numbers. More frequent position fixing is required and cross
checking with visual as well as electronic systems. Offshore fish farms and wind
turbines have become more common around the coastlines. It should also be
acknowledged that larger vessels are operating on smaller margins of safety in order
to visit and service new destinations and ports. The International Hydrographic Office
have also acknowledged the unreliability of chart surveys and the need for greater
caution when establishing under keel clearance (UKC).
The UKC should allow sufficient margin for error and take into account factors
such as squat and increase in draught due to heel. Contact with a rocky bottom will
do more damage than contact with a sandy bottom. The echo sounder should be in
operation and allowance for any errors should be made. Most sounders allow a
minimum depth to be set and if this is reached, an alarm will sound. In some yachts
and most commercial ships, the cooling water inlets can be switched from low level
to high level, to reduce the chance of the suctions becoming blocked. The ship’s
handling characteristics will be very different in shallow water with greater turning
circles and less effective rudder control.
In some parts of the world, the depth can shoal from depths of three thousand
metres to very little, very suddenly. The echo sounder will give no warning of the
sudden shoaling. Breaking seas may indicate the presence of shallow water. A
lookout, high on the mast, may be able to give the best warning by noting the change
in colour of the sea from deep blue to dark and then light green, which will indicate
shallow water. Rock pinnacles and coral heads may be missed by traditional surveying
methods, but should be detected by sidescan sonar. It is important to realise that
not all surveys will reveal every danger and that not all areas are surveyed to the
same high standard. Information can be found within the Mariner’s Handbook on
navigating within areas of coral reefs and kelp beds.
1.7 ACTIONS IN EMERGENCIES

1. Describe action to assist a ship or aircraft in distress, including sources of
information
2. Describe actions to be taken if grounding is imminent, and after grounding
3. Describe re-floating a grounded vessel with and without assistance
4. Outline the procedure for beaching a vessel
5. Outline the action to be taken after a collision
6. Describe measures to preserve stability and trim in event of damage
7. Describe man-over-board maneuvers
8. State the necessity to keep records and make reports to meet statutory and
organizational requirements.
ASSISTING A SHIP OR AIRCRAFT IN DISTRESS
The success of rescue operations whether by ship, lifeboat, helicopter or other

means depends upon the co-operation of those in distress with their rescuers. Under

the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS), vessels operating in
any area of the world will have the level of radio communications equipment to
communicate directly with the shore rescue services. On receiving a distress alert or
message, a response should be given and details of the distress noted. Own vessel’s
position should be established and distance to the distress unit calculated.
Communication to shore rescue services established and also surrounding vessels.
Based upon the suitability and E.T.A. of the rescue unit, the vessel will proceed
to the distress position, keeping both the shore, surrounding vessels and the
distressed vessel informed. During this period the ship will prepare crew and
equipment to affect the rescue and receive survivors. It is essential that a log is kept
of all communications and preparations on board. The shore based rescue services
will require situation reports (SITREP) at regular intervals which will advise on
weather conditions in the area.
The IMO publish advice and guidance to those involved in distress operations
in their publication “International Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue
Manual Volume 3”. The Admiralty List of Radio Signals, Volume 5 provides
information regarding GMDSS and details of search and rescue facilities, where
known, can be found in chapter 1 of each volume of Admiralty sailing directions.
ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN IF GROUNDING IS IMMINENT, AND AFTER

GROUNDING
Grounding can be intentional, to save a sinking ship, in which case it is known

as beaching. There may be sufficient time to select and reach a suitable beach. If
there is choice, a sheltered location, without strong currents and with a gently sloping
sandy beach, offers the best prospect. Unintentional groundings may occur with or
without warning. A disabled ship may drift ashore if the anchors fail to hold her and
there may be time to make preparations. A grounding due to errors in navigation
may occur without warning.
If time allows, the watertight integrity of the ship should be at its best. All
watertight and weathertight doors and openings secured. All ship’s side valves should
be closed, unless it is necessary to keep them open. The best stability should be
achieved and ballast tanks filled in order to lower Center of Gravity and thus increase
GM. All crew remaining on board should be wearing lifejackets and all life-saving
appliances should be prepared for immediate use. At very least, a “Pan Pan” message
should be broadcast. If the ship is disabled, it is almost certain that a call for towage
assistance will have been made. If the ship starts to break up after grounding, it will
be necessary to abandon her and preparations should be made in advance, even if
the chances of having to do so appear slim.
After grounding, the situation must be assessed. Firstly, the position of the
ship must be ascertained. Soundings must be taken of all tanks and spaces. Where
possible a full internal inspection is carried out to assess the damage to the ship.
Soundings must be taken all around the outside of the ship to establish how much of
the ship is aground and how hard aground. There is no point in trying to refloat the
ship if she is so badly damaged that she will sink as soon as she reaches deep water.
It would be better to keep her firmly aground and not grinding on the bottom and
doing further damage. Much will depend on the state of the sea, the anticipated
weather and the type of bottom.
RE-FLOATING A GROUNDED VESSEL WITH AND WITHOUT ASSISTANCE
The decision to call for assistance or to try to refloat the ship without assistance
will be affected by all the above factors. If she is reasonably intact and not too firmly
aground, it may be possible to refloat her by pumping out ballast or by removing
weights such as boats and stores. Before any attempt is made to refloat, the
operation should be carefully planned. If possible, anchors should be placed to
seaward by ship’s boats. A careful survey of the proposed track of the vessel into
deep water should be made using boats. These may also be useful in towing the ship.
If possible, a diver’s inspection should be carried out to check for damage, and
especially to check the rudders and propellers. Any repairs to the hull should be
completed before trying to move the ship. Obviously, the best time to start the
operation is on a rising tide, soon before high water. If the main engines cannot be
used, it is almost certain that assistance will be required.
Assistance may be in the form of tugs. Barges can be used to lighten the ship
by taking off stores, or by using them as pontoons to take some of the weight of the
ship herself. This of often done when the ship has sustained damage. In some cases,
ships have been refloated by being pushed by bulldozers. Sometimes, channels are
dredged to assist in refloating. Passing of a tow line can present problems, though
rocket line or small boat might pass a messenger.
BEACHING A VESSEL
The main reason for beaching a ship would be to stop her sinking as the result
of uncontrollable flooding. Time the main consideration. Once it becomes clear that
the water level cannot be controlled then she must be put ashore quickly, before the
water reaches the engines. It is unlikely that the ship will be able to move far as she
will be getting lower in the water as time goes by. Therefore, this operation is only
possible close to the shore.

Successful beaching will help considerably in the subsequent salvage. The best
position is a shelving flat sandy shore. Beaching a ship with any sort of sea running
is going to involve considerable risk to personnel and will probably only be an option
in good weather.
ACTION TO BE TAKEN AFTER A COLLISION
Whenever a collision occurs, the vessel’s sound watertight integrity is likely to

suffer, and personnel may experience considerable shock, whether the collision is
with another, land mass or ice flow. No precise set of actions can be laid down for
this situation, though certain general rules are applicable:
1. Sound the general alarm to muster persons.
2. Stop main engines in most cases. Circumstances may dictate that if one vessel
is embedded in another, it is desirable to maintain a few revolutions on the
engines, since a rapid withdrawal from a gashed hull could result in the
immediate sinking of the stricken vessel.
3. Close all watertight and weather tight doors.
4. Assess the extent of the damage, and any risk of subsequent fire or explosion.
5. Establish communications and see what crew can assist in support of own
vessel and personnel.
6. Pumping arrangements set to gain maximum efficiency.
7. Position on chart established and safe port options investigated.
8. The Master of every vessel colliding with another vessel is obliged to provide
the other vessel with the following particulars:
a. The name of his ship.
b. The port of registry of his ship.
c. The port of departure.
d. The port of destination.
The Master is further obliged to render all possible assistance to the other
vessel.
9. Many variable factors will come into play over the period from impact up to the
time any decision is taken to abandon the vessel or a tow is organized.
10. The Master should report the collision to owners as soon as possible, and notify
the flag state within 24 hours of the ship’s arrival at the next port.
PRESERVATION OF STABILITY AND TRIM IN EVENT OF DAMAGE
The biggest hazard is loss of watertight integrity in one or more compartments

and subsequent loss of internal buoyancy from damaged areas. Immediate action of
closing all watertight doors throughout the ship will reduce further loss of buoyancy.
The development of consecutive flooding throughout the vessel’s length is a principle
cause of foundering. Should this flooding occur, the total loss of internal buoyancy
must be accepted as a probability, and the only course open is to delay the flooding
as much as possible to provide enough time to get survival craft clear. The dangers
of rafts being damaged by a sinking ship are obvious.
For a ship holed or cracked on or near the waterline, start the bilge pumps in
the area affected, and pump out ballast water fore and aft to raise the vessel bodily.
This should bring the damaged area above waterline. Have any temporary repairs
kept under constant watch, check on soundings around the damaged area, especially
in adjacent compartments.
Consult Shipboard Management System and checklist in Bridge Procedures guide
MAN-OVER-BOARD
There are considered to be two distinct types of man-over-board situations:

(1) A person or crew member seen to fall overboard
(2) A person found to be missing
In the case of situation (1), the bridge should be informed and then a number of
actions should be initiated as soon as possible:
1. Sound the general alarm to muster persons
2. Inform master
3. Adjust engine revs to slow vessel
4. launch MOB smoke float overboard to act as ref point.
5. post a lookout to track the man in the water, position as high as possible.
6. Initial a turn to quickly return the vessel to the point of the MOB position, this
might be a single turn/Anderson turn, or Williamson turn.
7. VHF radio message
8. A tender or rib to be launched to retrieve the casualty from the water.
In the case of situation (2), a greater period of time has elapsed since the person has
been seen:
1. Sound the general alarm to muster all onboard and Inform the master
2. Initialise an onboard search
3. Slow the vessel and turn using a Williamson turn manoeuvre to gain a
reciprocal course and initialise search
4. Alert ships in the vicinity and coast rescue station via alert and message.
5. Post lookouts
6. Prepare rib or tender to retrieve casualty

REQUIREMENTS TO KEEP RECORDS AND MAKE REPORTS
It is a duty to report accidents, dangerous occurrences and serious injuries. It

is therefore important to keep a log in all situations so that reports can be made
accurately and if required in a court of law the maintenance of accurate records is
paramount.
1.8 RESPONSE IN EMERGENCIES

1. Create and manage strategic procedures in event of an emergency
2. Identify the allocation of resources, and emergency duties to teams and
individuals
3. Outline the practical use of contingency plans
4. Describe the organization and benefits of drills, musters and other
emergency training
5. Outline crowd control management and the handling of passengers and
personnel
6. Outline the actions necessary when preparing for, and abandoning ship
7. Describe the risk of abandoning the vessel.
CREATION AND MANAGEMENT OF STRATEGIC PROCEDURES
All such emergencies, such as man overboard, fire or collision, must have
clearly laid down plans so that everyone onboard is clear about their initial response,
and subsequent actions to be carried out. Only by writing down these orders, and
regularly exercising them, will personnel become adept at reacting correctly and
efficiently to emergencies, which otherwise may leave personnel stunned into
inaction, or inappropriate action. Initial safety training courses assist in the
understanding by crew of the on board equipment and its use. Regular drills will
compliment this understanding utilising the equipment and space found on board the
particular vessel and bring about a harmonized team response.
The Master must instigate a “Delegation of Responsibility”. If a crew member

is not instructed in how to do something, then there is no such thing as common
sense. Delegation should be decided in consultation with the Master and should
include a feedback system. In the eyes of the law, the Master will order watches in
the engine room, but in reality he will delegate this to the Chief Engineer, who will
organise it (in consultation with the Master).

ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES, AND EMERGENCY DUTIES TO TEAMS AND
INDIVIDUALS.
What resources have you got to recover a man – over-board, fight a fire or
repair collision damage. You are required to have them in writing. All new personnel
must be shown them and be assigned to a muster list or station bill, and with the
assistance of safety familiarization know where all emergency repair/firefighting gear
is stowed. Can the crew use them, and can they use them effectively?
The “M” Notice on Emergency Drills must be carried out; must not be
repetitive, each drill must be different, and in a different part of the ship, and they
must be logged. This includes Fire, Emergency and Boat drills. Any feedback from
drills should be used to update and refresh the understanding of on board
documentation.
THE PRACTICAL USE OF CONTINGENCY PLANS
It is unlikely that the master could communicate quickly enough with all
members of his team to get the best response out of them in the event of an
emergency. Therefore, it is essential that an assessment is made of the likely
situations that the ship may find herself in and some immediate reaction drills drawn
up. These must be promulgated and, most importantly, exercised. The introduction
of the ISM code has provided an opportunity for contingency planning to be brought
together and modified for individual vessels.
The organisation and benefits of drills, musters and other emergency training.
MGN 71 outlines Emergency Drills. Drills will give reassurance to passengers and
crew, and handled well will produce a calming effect. All passengers must know where
his/her muster station is to be found.
CROWD CONTROL MANAGEMENT AND THE HANDLING OF PASSENGERS AND

PERSONNEL
Within the luxury yacht industry, the number of passengers on board is limited,
though it should be remembered that entertainment alongside will increase numbers
and will require careful management in the event of an emergency. In an emergency
situation guests can very quickly become disorientated and are easily panicked.
Senior officers must not go through passenger spaces in uniform. They must delegate
to others to keep the guests and crew informed. It is a Master’s decision to send a
Distress and Position Message, and he must ensure that lifesaving appliances are
kept under correct supervision.

ACTIONS WHEN PREPARING FOR, AND ABANDONING, SHIP
Abandoning should only be considered in two circumstances:

1. When all measures to keep the vessel afloat have failed and the ship is in a
sinking condition; or,
2. When, although the vessel is floating, it is no longer possible to remain aboard
because loss of life could result from heat, smoke or some other adverse
condition.
The decision to abandon must be made by the Master or officer in charge after
assessing all the facts of the situation. The decision will be influenced by some of the
following points:
• Weather conditions.
• Stability of the vessel in distress.
• Geographic position.
• Lifesaving appliances available and their condition.
• Casualties present, and expected, by remaining onboard or abandoning the
vessel.
• Numbers of persons to consider and their experience.
• Range of search and rescue craft and the time factor.
• Communications with rescue services.
• The danger of explosion.
• The danger of the situation worsening, and the time when abandonment
can be safely carried out being missed.
The order to abandon ship must be given word of mouth by the master or the
officer in charge, and passed on by all who hear it. Loud hailers, public address
systems, walkie-talkie radios etc., may be used to ensure everyone hears the order.
Some equipment, such as PA systems, need a power source, which may not be readily
available in such a situation.
THE RISK OF ABANDONING THE VESSEL
There is a real danger of panic setting in among passengers when the order to
abandon is given. Regular drills will play a major part in quelling any panic before it
begins, and also provide passengers with the necessary reassurance that the ship’s
personnel are trained and prepared to handle such emergencies.
Experience has shown that extensive loss of life will occur if people abandon
ship individually, and also if passengers without the required skills attempt to launch
survival craft.

In many cases the simple rules of warm clothing, donning the lifejacket
correctly, and knowing where to go have shown themselves to be essential to
survival.
Assembly points allocated at the beginning of the voyage will allow relatively
safe and calm assembly of passengers, who can be dispatched at controlled intervals
into life rafts and boats.
1.9 ACTION IN THE EVENT OF THE LOSS OF ESSENTIAL SYSTEMS

1. State the actions to be taken in the event of loss of steering
2. Describe the operation of emergency steering systems
3. Outline the options available for steering following the loss of directional
stability
4. Describe the actions to be taken in a drifting vessel.
ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN THE EVENT OF LOSS OF STEERING
If the rudder is anywhere other than amidships when the steering gear failure
occurs, when the ship is making headway, then the ship will go the way of the rudder.
The only way to regain control of the ship is to take all way off the vessel. Then
engage the auxiliary steering system. If the vessel is fitted with thrusters it may be
possible to initiate some form of steering using the thrusters at slow speed.
THE OPERATION OF EMERGENCY STEERING SYSTEMS
Every vessel shall have a means of steering independent from the main
steering. The vessel should have two lines of communication from the bridge to the
steering equipment to allow the order and response of helm orders. The gyro repeater
situated locally to the steering equipment should be checked for calibration before
giving a course to steer.
Auxiliary steering gear
Must be able to go from 15º one side to 15º the other side within 60 seconds
at half speed or 7 knots, whichever is greater. SOLAS regulation 29 requires steering
to be operated locally by operating solenoids, and there must be two methods of
communication between tiller flat and bridge.

OPTIONS AVAILABLE FOR STEERING FOLLOWING THE LOSS OF
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY
If the emergency has meant the loss of the rudder itself, then alternative
means should be organised to retain directional stability:
Rigging of a jury rudder by utilising on board material to cause a drag effect on one
side or another
• Operating the thrusters, if fitted, but not effective at speed.
• Organising a tow
ACTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN A DRIFTING VESSEL
A drifting ship will lie across the wind and sea/swell. Rolling may be violent
and every effort must be made to secure items on board.
If possible, flood lower tanks to lower centre of gravity. Shut all cowlings and
air vents that might flood. Try and turn bows or stern into the sea to reduce rolling.
Stream a drogue, or even long berthing hawsers streamed through the bow may
have some effect.
Any floating object that will offer reasonable resistance to the drift of the vessel
will behave as a sea anchor. The use of an anchor, (but check whether the anchor
windlass is capable of lifting the anchor and all the cable in a vertical pull,
unsupported by any seabed). In deep water they will offer a drag, and in water depths
where they only just touch the seabed there is still a chance they may hold.
A number of ships could have prevented grounding if the anchors had been
deployed in deep water. Insurance companies do not like to find a ship aground with
both anchors in the hawse pipe.

MODULE 2: NAVIGATION AND PASSAGE PLANNING
2.1 WATCH KEEPING

1. Detail the procedures for the keeping of a safe navigational watch
2. Describe the procedures for establishing a navigational policy, including
watchkeeping arrangements and hours of work
3. State the importance of procedures and principles when handing over,
relieving and maintaining a watch
4. Detail the officer of the watch’s role and responsibilities with particular
reference to maintaining a lookout, monitoring traffic, the vessel and
environment
5. Describe the responsibilities and duties of lookouts
6. State the precautions necessary when changing over from hand to automatic
steering and vice-versa
7. Outline the possible dangers in the use of VHF in collision avoidance
8. State the importance of correct logbook entries and other record maintenance
activities
9. Describe the necessity for clear and concise bridge communication between
members of the bridge team during the monitoring of the passage
10.Describe the importance and significance of Master’s standing orders and night
orders
PROCEDURE FOR KEEPING SAFE NAVIGATIONAL WATCH
Responsibilities of the Master
It is the duty of every Master to ensure that the watch keeping arrangements
for his ship are adequate for maintaining a safe navigational watch.
All watch keeping officers are the Master’s representatives and are individually
responsible for the safe navigation of the vessel, complying with collision regulations
and the protection of the environment, throughout their period of duty. Based on IMO
recommendations, it falls on the Master that watch arrangements are such that:
1. At no time shall the Bridge be left unmanned.
2. The composition of the watch is adequate for the prevailing circumstances and
conditions.
3. Watchkeepers are capable and fit for duty, and in no way fatigued in such a
manner as to impair their efficiency.
4. At all times a proper lookout is maintained by sight and hearing, as well as by
all available means.
5. The Master is aware of all navigational hazards that may make it necessary for
the OOW to carry out additional navigational duties. During such periods ample
bridge personnel should be available to provide full coverage of all duties.
6. The Master is satisfied that watch-keeping personnel are familiar with all
navigational equipment at their disposal.
7. The voyage is well planned beforehand and all courses laid down are checked
in advance.
8. Correct hand-over and relief watch keeping procedures are in practice.
9. The limitations of the vessel, a knowledge of the manoeuvring characteristics
and its equipment are known to watch keeping personnel.
10.When navigating under the advice of a pilot, the presence of that pilot in no
way relieves the Master or OOW of their duties and obligations for the safe
navigation of the vessel.
The Master should be aware that the protection of the marine environment is
a major consideration. He should take all necessary precautions to ensure that no
operational or accidental pollution of the environment takes place, being guided by
existing international regulations (MARPOL).
ESTABLISHING A NAVIGATIONAL POLICY (INCLUDING WATCH KEEPING

ARRANGEMENTS AND HOURS OF WORK)
Navigation policy and company procedures (ICS procedures)
Every management or ship owning company should have a safety

management policy. It should provide practical guidance concerning safe navigation
and include:
1. Clear statement that safety of life and safety of the ship take precedence over
all other considerations.
2. Allocation of bridge watch keeping duties and responsibilities for navigational
procedures.
3. Procedures for voyage planning and execution.
4. Chart and nautical publication correction procedures.
5. Procedures to ensure that all essential navigation equipment and main
auxiliary machinery are available and fully operational.
6. Advice concerning emergency situations and response.
7. Ship reporting procedures.
8. Accident and near miss reporting procedures.
9. The accurate recording of voyage events via logbooks and their safe retention.
10.Procedures for familiarisation training and hand over at crew changes.
11.A recognised system for identifying special training needs.
12.Company contacts, including the designated person under the ISM code.
PREVENTION OF FATIGUE
In order to prevent fatigue, the STCW Code stipulates that bridge team
members must take mandatory rest periods. Rest periods of at least 10 hours in any
24-hour period are required. If the rest is taken in two separate periods, one of these
periods must be at least 6 hours.
However, the minimum period of 10 hours may be reduced to not less than 6
consecutive hours provided that any such reduction does not extend beyond two
days, and not less than 77 hours of rest is provided during each seven-day period.
Detailed guidance is available in the ISF publication(IMO-ILO) “International
Shipboard Work Hour Limits”.
The STCW Code also advises governments to prescribe a maximum blood

alcohol limit.
HANDING OVER, RELIEVING AND MAINTENANCE OF A WATCH IN

ACCORDANCE WITH ESTABLISHED PRINCIPLES AND PROCEDURES
Duties of the OOW
The OOW must supervise the efficient running of the watch and ensure the
safe navigation of the vessel throughout the watch period, his main duty being to
maintain a proper lookout whenever the vessel is at sea, regardless of other
personnel engaged on a similar duty. His navigational duties include the regular
checking of the ship’s course and the comparison of the gyro compasses with the
magnetic compass. The former should be checked by obtaining the compass error at
least once a watch or on every alteration of the vessel’s course.
The position of the ship should be plotted at regular intervals. Depending on

the circumstances, the time interval between separate fixes will vary, especially when
navigating in coastal waters.
Traffic avoidance is of prime importance in the safe navigation of the vessel

throughout the passage time. The OOW should use all available means at his disposal
to ensure the safe passage of the vessel and should not hesitate to use any of the
following if required: whistle, engines, radar, additional manpower, helmsman, or
anything else considered necessary for the safety of the vessel (further reading: IMO
Recommendations on Navigational Watchkeeping).
The OOW should make full use of navigational aids, such as the echo sounder,
whenever possible to cross check navigational accuracy. Radar plotting should be
carried out in good weather as well as in foul to ensure that the mariner becomes
proficient in the correct plotting techniques.
Any watch officer should be aware of the ship’s capabilities in the way of
“turning circles” and emergency stop distances. He should not hesitate to summon
the Master at any time, day or night, should he require assistance. In any event the
Master should be kept informed by the OOW of all the movements and events
affecting the vessel’s progress.
Calling the Master
The OOW should notify the Master immediately:

• If restricted visibility is encountered or expected.
• If the traffic conditions or the movements of other vessels are causing concern.
• If difficulty is experienced in maintaining course.
• On failure to sight land or navigation mark, or to obtain soundings by the
expected time.
• If land or navigation mark is sighted or a change of soundings occurs
unexpectedly.
• On the breakdown of the engines, steering gear or any essential navigational
equipment.
• In heavy weather, or if in any doubt about the possibility of weather damage.
• If any vessel is going to pass within 1 mile of own ship or distance stipulated
by the master in his standing orders
• In any other emergency or situation in which he is any doubt.
The requirement for the OOW to call the Master in the above situations does
not relieve him of taking any immediate action necessary for the safety of the vessel
prior to the Master arriving on the bridge.
WATCH KEEPING — GENERAL DUTIES
The Bridge becomes the operational centre for the watch period, with all the
relevant information and orders processed through it.
The Deck Log is maintained on the Bridge by the OOW, together with continual
observation and supervision of the following:
• Watertight integrity of the hull, together with the opening and closing of
watertight doors.
• Fire watch, with continual observation of smoke detector systems.
• Cargo surveillance if required.
• Correct display of all lights and shapes.
• Weather conditions affecting the ship and its course.
• Routine working of the deck, inclusive of rigging pilot ladders, organising boat
and fire drills, etc.
• Monitoring of Permit to work schemes i.e. entry into enclosed spaces.
• All emergencies affecting the safety of the ship.
Handing over the Watch:
The OOW shall:

• ensure that the members of the relieving watch are fully capable of performing
their duties
• ensure that the vision of the relieving watch is fully adjusted to the light
conditions
• ensure that all standing orders and the Master’s night orders are fully
understood
The OOW should not hand over the watch:

• if there is any reason to believe that the relieving officer is unfit to, or is
temporarily unable to, carry out his duties effectively. If in any doubt the OOW
should call the Master.
• Illness or the effect of drink, drugs or fatigue could be reasons why the
relieving officer is unfit for duty.
• When a manoeuvre is in progress until such action has been completed
Before taking over the watch, the relieving officer must be satisfied as to the
ship’s position and confirm its intended track, course and speed, and engine controls
as appropriate, as well as noting any dangers to navigation expected to be
encountered during his watch.
Taking over the Watch
When handing over the watch relieving officers should personally satisfy
themselves regarding the following:
1. Standing orders and other special instructions of the Master relating to
navigation of the ship.
2. Position, course, speed and draught of the ship.
3. Prevailing and predicted tides, currents, weather, visibility and the effect of
these factors upon course and speed.
4. Procedures for the use of main engines to manoeuvre when the main engines
are on bridge control and the status of the watch keeping arrangements in the
engine room.

And, so far as the navigational situation is concerned:
5. The operational condition of all navigational and safety equipment being used
or likely to be used during the watch.
6. The errors of gyro and magnetic compasses.
7. The presence and movements of ships in sight or known to be in the vicinity.
8. The conditions and hazards likely to be encountered during the watch.
9. The possible effects of heel, trim, water density and squat on underkeel
clearance.
10.Any special deck work in progress.
THE WATCH KEEPER’S ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES — MAINTAINING A

LOOKOUT, MONITORING TRAFFIC, THE VESSEL AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Watch keeper’s role
Under the STCW Code, the OOW is the Master’s representative and is primarily
responsible at all times for the safe navigation of the ship and for complying with the
COLREGS. He is in charge of the bridge team. In compliance with shipboard
operational procedures and Master’s Standing Orders, the OOW should ensure that
bridge watch manning levels are safe for the prevailing circumstances.
His primary duties involve watch keeping, navigation, monitoring activity on

the upper deck, and GMDSS radio watch keeping.
This includes maintaining a lookout and general surveillance of the ship,

collision avoidance in accordance with the COLREGS, recording bridge activities and
making periodic checks on the navigational equipment in use. Procedures for handing
over the watch and calling for support should be in place and understood by the OOW.
Navigation:
The duties of OOW are based on the need to execute the passage plan, and
safely monitor the progress of the ship against the plan.
GMDSS:
The radio communications have now become an important part of watch
keeping, the officer of the watch is responsible for maintaining a continuous listening
watch at sea. During distress incidents an additional qualified radio person should be
designated.

Maintaining a look-out:
In compliance with the COLREGS, a proper look-out must be maintained at all
times for:
1. Maintaining a continuous state of vigilance by sight and hearing as well as all
available means, with regard to any significant changes in weather or traffic
density.
2. A full appraisal of any developing situation or risk of collision, stranding and
other possible dangers to the safe navigation of the vessel.
3. Detecting ships or aircraft in distress, shipwrecked persons, wrecks, debris and
other hazards to safe navigation.
Full attention to look-out duties must be given by the bridge team on watch.
A helmsman whilst steering is not a lookout. On ships with fully enclosed bridges,
listening equipment is required to support visual look-out.
Sole look-out
In certain circumstances of clear daylight conditions, the Master may consider
that the OOW may be the sole look-out. On each occasion the Master should ensure
that:
• The prevailing situation has been carefully assessed and it has been
established without a doubt that it is safe to do so;
• Full account has been taken of all relevant factors including but not limited to:
i. state of the weather
ii. visibility
iii. traffic density
iv. proximity of dangers to navigation
v. the attention necessary when navigating in or near traffic separation
schemes
vi. design and layout of the bridge
vii. arcs of visibility
viii. radar equipment fitted and their limitations with respect to
navigation
ix. other duties that the officer may have to engage in and which could
be a distraction from the keeping of a proper look-out such as:
• operation of GMDSS and other communications equipment such as cell phones

and email systems
• navigational maintenance such as completion of logs and other record keeping
and correction of charts and publications
• routine testing and maintenance of bridge equipment

In any event, an OOW acting as sole look-out should always be able to fully
perform both the duties of a look-out and those of keeping a safe navigational watch.
Assistance must be immediately available to be summoned to the bridge when any
change in the situation so requires.
General surveillance
The OOW needs to maintain a high level of general awareness about the ship
and its day-to-day operations. This may include maintaining a general watch over
the ship’s decks to monitor, where possible, people working on deck. Special watch
keeping arrangements may be appropriate in waters where there is thought to be a
risk of piracy or armed attack.
Wherever work is being carried out on deck in the vicinity of radar antennae,
radio aerials and sound signaling apparatus, the OOW should be particularly
observant and should post appropriate warning notices on the equipment controls
(Permit to work notices).
RESPONSIBILITIES AND DUTIES OF LOOK-OUTS
Look-out duties
The principal duty of the look-out is to maintain a continuous watch for all
hazards that may impair the safe navigation of the vessel. He is obliged to give his
full uninterrupted attention to the duty, reporting any of the following to the OOW:
1. All ships irrespective of size or position in relation to the vessel on which he is
sailing.
2. All navigation lights or marks.
3. All floating objects.
4. Any sightings of ice, no matter in what form.
5. Sandbanks or prominent navigational features.
6. Derelicts and any other hazards to navigation.
7. The malfunction of the ship’s navigation lights.
The look-out is also obliged to remain at his position until correctly relieved of
his duties. On being relieved, he should acquaint his relief of reported items.

PRECAUTIONS WHEN CHANGING FROM MANUAL TO AUTO STEERING AND
VICE-VERSA
Steering Modes
There are normally three operating positions:
“Auto”,
“Follow-Up” and
“Non Follow-Up”.
It is easy to make a mistake when changing from one mode to the other and
it is possible to accidentally cause the ship to make an unexpected and violent
alteration of course, if the wrong mode is selected. A thorough knowledge of the
possible operating modes should be understood by the OOW.
When changing the mode of the steering, do so in open waters, clear of other
ships and navigation hazards, and under the supervision of a responsible officer.
Always monitor the steering action after a change of steering mode to ensure correct
operation.
POSSIBLE DANGERS OF USING VHF IN COLLISION AVOIDANCE
The possibility of misunderstanding between ships makes the use of VHF for
collision avoidance more of a danger than a help. Any attempt to use VHF to agree
the manner of passing is fraught with the danger of misunderstanding. Valuable time
can be wasted whilst mariners on vessels approaching each other try to make contact
on VHF. The need for positive identification is essential but can rarely be guaranteed.
Ships should comply with the Collision Regulations.
LOG BOOK ENTRIES AND OTHER RECORD MAINTENANCE
Recording bridge activities (ICS Bridge Procedures Guide)

It is important that a proper, formal record of navigational activities and
incidents, which are of importance to safety of navigation, are kept in appropriate log
books.
This will allow the ship’s actual track to be reconstructed at a later stage,
sufficient information concerning position, course and speed should be recorded in
the bridge log book or using approved electronic storage systems. All positions
marked on the navigational charts also need to be retained until the end of the
voyage.

Safety of Navigation – implementing SOLAS Chapter V Annex 22 – Recording of
Navigational Events Bridge Procedures Guide
Clear bridge communications for alteration of course and speed

The STCW Code requires the OOW to have a knowledge of written and spoken
English adequate to understand messages concerning ship safety. A handbook on
“Standard Marine Navigational Vocabulary” (SMNV) has been published.
Communications with the bridge team need to be understood by all, and in a common
language or in English. Correct phrases must be used throughout to avoid an possible
misunderstanding. Familiarity within the bridge team can lead to a reduction in clarity
of communication.
Master’s standing instructions and standing orders

Shipboard operational procedures manuals (ISM) supported by standing
instructions based upon the company’s navigation policy should form the basis of
command and control on board.
Master’s Standing Orders should be written to reflect the Master’s own

particular requirements and circumstances particular to the ship, her trade and the
experience of the bridge team employed at that point in time.
Standing Orders and Instructions should operate without conflict within the
ship’s safety management system. Standing Orders should be read by all officers
before the commencement of the voyage and signed accordingly. A copy of the orders
should be available on the bridge for reference.
They should clearly indicate the Master’s requirement for conduct and
behaviour among the bridge team.
Bridge or night order book

In addition to general standing orders, specific instructions may be needed for
special circumstances.
At night the Master should write in the bridge order book what is expected of
the OOW. These orders must be signed by each OOW when going on watch.

PASSAGE / VOYAGE PLANNING
It is the Master’s responsibility to ensure that voyage planning, from berth to

berth, is carried out and that it is followed by the OOW. During the development of
this course and the periods spent within the simulator, a number of passage plans
will be developed and assessed as part of the successful completion of the course.
It is recognised that there are four stages in the development and monitoring
of a passage plan, it is important that officers understand the management of the
passage plan. The four stages are explained below:
Appraisal
This consists of an overall assessment of the intended voyage should be made
by the master, in consultation with the navigating officer and other deck officers who
will be involved, after all relevant information has been gathered. This appraisal will
provide the master and his bridge team with a clear and precise indication of all areas
of danger, and delineate the areas in which it will be possible to navigate safely taking
into account the calculated draught of the vessel and planned under-keel clearance.
Bearing in mind the condition of the vessel, her equipment and any other
circumstances, a balanced judgement of the margins of safety which must be allowed
in the various sections of the intended voyage can now be made, agreed and
understood by all concerned.
Planning
This process is usually undertaken by the navigating officer, acting on the
master’s instructions. The detailed plan should cover the whole voyage, from berth
to berth, and include all waters where a pilot will be on board. The plan should be
completed and include all the relevant factors listed in the Guidelines.
The appropriate charts should be marked clearly showing all areas of danger
and the intended track taking into account the margins of allowable error. Where
appropriate, due regard should be paid to the need for advanced warning to be given
on one chart of the existence of a navigational hazard immediately on transfer to the
next. The planned track should be plotted to clear hazards at as safe a distance as
circumstances allow. A longer route should always be accepted in preference to a
shorter more hazardous route. The possibility of main engine or steering gear
breakdown at a critical moment must not be overlooked.

Additional information which should be marked on the charts include:
• All radar-conspicuous objects and RACONs, which may be used in radar
position fixing.
• Any transit marks, clearing bearings or clearing ranges (radar) which may be
used to advantage. It is sometimes possible to use two conspicuous clearing
marks where a line drawn through them runs clear of natural dangers with the
appropriate margin of safety; if the vessel proceeds on the safe side of this
transit she will be clear of the danger. If no clearing marks are available, a line
or lines of bearing from a single object may be drawn at a desired safe distance
from the danger; provided the vessel remains in the safe segment, it will be
clear of the danger.
• Parallel index lines should also be drawn where appropriate.
Execution
This stage finalises the voyage plan and modifies the plan to take into account
the time of departure. The Master should take into account any special circumstances
which may arise, such as changes in weather, which may require the plan to be
reviewed or altered.
Monitoring
The vessel’s progress is monitored along the pre-planned track is a continuous
process. The officer of the watch, whenever in any doubt as to the position of the
vessel or the manner in which the voyage is proceeding, should immediately call the
master and, if necessary, take appropriate action for the safety of the vessel.
2.2 NAVIGATION IN ICE

1. Describe the dangers of navigation in or near ice
2. Outline the formation of ice accretion on vessels and the associated dangers
3. Describe the preparations that should be made prior to entering areas prone
to icing as specified in Chapter 7.39 on NP 100
4. List the different
NAVIGATION IN ICE
• When navigating in ice the following should be followed:

• Keep moving, even if very slowly
• Try to work with the ice movement and not against it
• Excessive speed leads to ice damage
• Always attempt to achieve a right angle approach to any floe

• Ensure rudder is amidships before making any sternway
• Avoid anchoring in moving close pack ice
DANGERS OF NAVIGATION IN OR NEAR ICE
The main dangers for vessels proceeding into areas where ice conditions can
be found are as follows:
1. Ice accumulation on the hull and superstructure effecting ship’s stability
2. Damage to the hull, propeller and rudder whilst navigating in Ice, which will
depend upon the thickness of ice and the type of ice encountered
3. Adequate planning and training for crew and officers.
4. This includes clothing, drills for removal of ice accumulation, materials to
prevent freezing of equipment and melting of ice and slippery surfaces.
5. Engine room preparation, this includes sea suctions, heating systems, auxiliary
machinery
6. Identification of approaching ice, poor radar reflection, monitoring sea
temperature, good lookout.
FORMATION OF ICE ACCRETION ON VESSELS AND ASSOCIATED DANGERS
This can be caused by

1. Fog, including fog formed by evaporation from a relatively warm sea surface,
combined with freezing conditions.
2. Freezing drizzle, rain or wet snow
3. Spray or sea water breaking over a vessel when the air temperature is below
the freezing point of sea water, about -2.0°C
Depending upon the air temperature and the wind force, ice accumulation can
occur very rapidly, it is essential that prior warning is found prior to entering a
potential area. The accumulation of ice on the superstructure and rigging can lead
to capsizing of the vessel. There is also associated risks for the crew in removing the
ice from the deck and fittings.
PREPARATIONS PRIOR TO ENTERING AREAS PRONE TO ICING
Deck Preparations
1. The Master shall ensure that measures have been taken to prevent damage to
Vessel, Machinery, Pipelines and Equipment prior entry into areas with
Freezing Conditions.
2. Freshwater lines outside accommodation and E/R should be drained
3. Freeze prevention for Fresh and Sea Water Tanks.
4. Ensure full tanks have sufficient void to allow for expansion.
Crew Protection
1. Crew shall be well equipped with warm working gear.
2. Crew work shall be planned such that they are less exposed to cold weather.
3. Heating in accommodation shall be checked for satisfactory working.
4. Consideration for adding de-icing salt to prevent slipping could be carried out.
5. All personnel shall be instructed in hazards of working in freezing conditions.
Freeze Prevention for Deck machinery

1. Keep the Hydraulic Pumps running continuously
Freeze Prevention for Nautical Instruments

1. Continuous operation of the Radar, subject to the Port or Terminal regulation,
while in port.
2. Turn on Navigation Lights at all times (at sea).
3. Switch on Heaters of the Air horn, Bridge Clear View Screen, Windows, etc.
Freeze Prevention in Machinery Space

1. Close openings to the outside
2. Adjust the number of ventilating fans on operation in the machinery space.
THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ICE AND THEIR HAZARDS
Patience is essential when in ice-bound waters. Many a difficult situation will

resolve itself if only the shiphandler has the patience to await a change of wind or
weather; pack ice opens up and closes dependent on wind direction.
The ability to differentiate between hard ice and soft ice and between passable
and impassable pack, to recognise weathered floes with their dangerous underwater
spurs, to detect lines of weakness and to select the most suitable leads, etc., can
only be gained by experience, and no amount of text-book knowledge will stand in
its stead. The use of radar, and its limitations, in the detection of ice should be well
understood by all those concerned.
Ice type can be categorised into four main types:

1. New Ice (Frazil, Grease, Shuga, Nilas), this first year ice is a thin layer up to
10 cm in depth and does not normally damage vessels though can be
responsible for blocking intakes.
2. First Year Ice, this can be of dark grey to milky white in colour and extend
up to 2 metres in thickness. This is dangerous to shipping and the main hazard
is detection and avoidance.

3. Old Ice, this ice has survived the summer melt and refrozen to gain a blue
green colour and extremely hard. This is very dangerous to shipping and ice
breakers!
4. Land Ice, (Icebergs, Bergy bits, Growlers) these has broken of ice shelves
and are blue in colour, dangerous to navigation as most of the ice is below the
surface. The main hazard is detection.
The Mariners’s Handbook gives advice, and reports on ice are given on Navtex
and Sat ‘C’, ALRS Vol 3 and 5 refer, and information from Coast Radio Stations, Vol
1. The Admiralty Manual of Seamanship Vol 3 also refers.
See also: IMO Guidelines for Ships operating in Arctic & Antarctic ice covered
waters; ‘Ice Seamanship & Handling Ships in Ice’ published by The Nautical Institute;
‘Navigating in Ice’, section 1 STCW training DVD from VideoTel International.

MODULE 3: METEOROLOGY
3.1 GENERAL METEOROLOGY

1. Describe the terms: lapse rates and atmospheric stability.
2. Outline the process of cloud formation
3. List the main types of cloud
4. Describe local and regional effects of heating and cooling
5. Describe the causes and the weather experienced during the North East and
South West monsoon of the Indian Ocean
6. Describe the formation of permanent and semi-permanent high and low
pressure areas
7. State the relationship between pressure distribution and wind
8. Show a basic understanding of air masses and their properties
9. Describe the weather associated with rising and falling pressure
10.Define the terms pressure tendency and pressure gradient
INTRODUCTION
The Earth is protected by a series of thin coatings which makes up the earth’s
atmosphere and extends up to 100 kilometres from the earth’s surface. A mixture of
gases, nitrogen, oxygen and trace gases, make up the composition of the atmosphere
which maintains life on the surface and shields the surface from harmful ultra violet
rays from the sun. The meteorology experienced on the surface is largely due to the
amounts of water vapour which exists within the atmosphere within the first 11
kilometres, this layer of the atmosphere is termed the Troposphere.
DEFINITIONS
Buys Ballots Law

In the Northern Hemisphere face the wind and the pressure will be lower on
the right hand. In the Southern Hemisphere face the wind and the pressure will be
lower on the left hand. This allows the mariner to determine the direction of the
pressure fields and relate to the weather forecasts etc.
Temperature
This is a measure of the Kinetic energy which exists within the motion of
molecules. Temperature is defined as the average of the kinetic energy of the many
molecules that make up a substance. On the absolute or Kelvin (K) temperature
scale, the temperature where all molecular motion ceases is zero Kelvin. The melting
point of ice is 273ºK (0ºC) and the boiling point of water is 373ºK (100ºC).

Density
This is the ratio of mass of molecules in a given volume. If the total mass of
molecules in that volume decreases, the density decreases. If the mass remains the
same but the volume increases, the density also decreases.
Pressure
This is the force exerted by the moving molecules of the gas on a given area
(square metre). Pressure at a point acts equally in all directions. An average value of
atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1013.25 Hecto Pascals (hPa), this is the weight
of a column of air over a particular cross sectional area measured or adjusted to sea
level and extended to the top of the atmosphere.
Heat Energy Transfer

Whilst the Sun provides all the heat energy for our solar system, the earth’s
atmosphere not only protects the surface of the earth but also retains the heat
energy, the solar energy warms the earth’s surface and then in turn transfers the
heat energy to the air in contact with the surface. This transfer is achieved in a
combination of processes:
Radiation
Heat can flow between two bodies, even if they are not in contact, in the form
of electromagnetic radiation. In this way the sun transfers solar (ultraviolet) energy
by electromagnetic waves, from sun to earth, first through empty space, then
through the earth’s atmosphere, then by heating land and sea.
Conduction
When two bodies are in contact some of the kinetic energy of the molecules in
a warmer body is transferred to the molecules in the colder body during collisions
and the boundary between the two bodies. Air is a poor conductor, though the land
and sea are moderately better. At night the ground cools and conducts heat away
from the air immediately in contact with the ground. During the day, solar radiation
heats the ground, which in turn heats the air in immediate contact with the ground.
Convection
This is the transfer of energy through the movement of mass within a fluid or
gas. In meteorological terms convection usually refers to vertical motion of a parcel
of air.

LATENT HEAT ENERGY ASSOCIATED WITH A CHANGE OF STATE
Weather and climatic conditions are associated with water contained within the
lower layer of the atmosphere. Water can exist in three states, namely ICE – LIQUID
– Gas or Vapour. The amount of heat energy that is absorbed or released when H20
changes from one state to another is called “Latent Heat”.
The release of latent heat when condensation occurs is a major source for
many meteorological circulations. For example, heat released in the condensation
process during cloud formation is an important factor in the production of the great
instability and strong vertical motions of thunderstorms. Similarly, the heat taken
from tropical oceans by evaporation becomes the primary energy source of
hurricanes when it is released in condensation.
LAPSE RATES AND ATMOSPHERIC STABILITY
Stability within the Atmosphere
The differing types of stability within the atmosphere are a complex

combination of heat transfer. The atmosphere in contact with the earth’s surface is
warmed by the surface in differing amounts due to the type of surface i.e. water,
rocks, sand etc. If the atmosphere is regarded as uniform in its composition as a
gas, then as temperatures are taken at increasing altitudes from the surface, the air
behaves as a gas. As height from the surface increases so the atmospheric pressure
is reduced and the volume of gas is increased causing the temperature to drop. This
is termed the lapse rate, which is defined as the rate at which air temperature falls
with increasing altitude.
There are three types of Lapse rate:
Environmental Lapse Rate

The environmental lapse rate (ELR), is the rate of decrease of temperature
with altitude in the stationary atmosphere at a given time and location. A
standard atmosphere is defined as having an average temperature lapse rate
of 6.49 °C/km.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate

The dry adiabatic lapse rate (DALR) is the lapse rate of a dry mass of air which
expands and cools as it rises. This rate is typically 10°C /km.

Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) The adiabatic cooling rate of a rising
parcel of air which is saturated, and in which condensation is taking place as
it rises, so that the energy release of the latent heat of vaporisation moderates
the rate of cooling. A typical value is around 5 °C/km
STABILITY
The determination of the stability of an atmospheric layer is a straightforward

procedure given an atmospheric sounding and your knowledge of DALR and ELR:
1. Select the layer in the sounding in which you are interested.
2. Within the layer, compare ELR and DALR.
3. Determine which of the following stability criteria exists:
If Then
ELR > DALR Absolutely unstable
ELR = DALR Neutral
ELR < DALR Stable
There are two different ways of determining whether an air parcel is stable or
unstable.
1. The first simply requires the comparison of the ELR with the DALR:
2. The second involves determining whether the temperature of an air parcel
would be warmer, colder or the same as its surroundings after it was pushed
upward:
Stable Atmosphere
Stability occurs when the ELR is less than the DALR. This means that the air
parcel cools more rapidly than the surrounding air. So if it has risen up say by 1000m
then it will have cooled more than the surrounding air and so it is colder, which means
it is more dense, so it will sink back down (if there is nothing else such as a mountain
forcing it to rise). This air is stable because the dew point might not have been
reached and the only clouds likely to form are cumulus which will not produce rain.
Stable conditions are associated with anticyclonic weather, which suppresses
convection currents and dry, sunny weather ensues.
Unstable Atmosphere
In this case the ELR is greater than the DALR (and therefore greater than the
SALR too as this is always less than the DALR). This means that the parcel cools down
more slowly with height from the ground than the surrounding air. This means that

as the air parcel rises it becomes warmer (and lighter) than its surrounding air,
encouraging it to rise further still.
If the dew point is reached then latent heat is released as the vapour
condenses, warming the parcel. The parcel then rises even more rapidly as the SALR
is now less even than the DALR from before. The only thing that can halt this rapid
rise of the air is the temperature inversion found at the tropopause. This means very
high clouds, such as cumulonimbus clouds, and the anvil shape at their top occurs
due to reaching the tropopause. Thunderstorms are likely with these clouds.
Conditionally unstable
The atmosphere is stable or unstable according to the relationship between its
environmental lapse rate and its adiabatic lapse rates. See the diagram below.
A SUMMARY OF ADIABATIC LAPSE RATES
The Adiabatic Lapse Rate is the rate of fall of temperature with height. A dry
parcel of air that is ascending will cool at the Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) of 10°
C /km. A ‘saturated’ parcel of air that ascends will condense excess moisture that it
can no longer carry, and consequently will release ‘latent heat’, often making it
warmer than its surroundings, and consequently ‘unstable’. The SALR is
approximately 5°C /km. A comparison between the actual Lapse Rate (LR) on the
day (obtained by balloon sounding), called the Environmental Lapse Rate (ELR), with
the DALR and SALR, allows meteorologists to determine the extent of cloud
development on that particular day.
CLOUD FORMATION AND CLASSIFICATION
A parcel of air is a mixture of the atmospheric gases and water vapour, the
warmer the parcel of air then the more water vapour can be held within the parcel.
As the parcel of air leaves the surface of the earth either due to instability of the
parcel of air or wind pushing air over a physical barrier such as a mountain range,
then the air will cool and the relative quantity of moisture will increase. This cooling
will continue until the air holds the maximum amount of water vapour, at that point
it is saturated and the dew point temperature has been reached. Any subsequent
cooling causes liquid water droplets to be deposited as minute particles suspended in
the air, the position of the cloud base has been formed and dependent upon the
mechanism causing the rise of the parcel of air the familiar cloud shapes will develop.
Methods of Classification
From a brief observation of the sky two fundamental characteristics of clouds
become apparent, firstly their infinite variety of shape and secondly their continual

changes in appearance. In order to introduce a method of classification for clouds,
Luke Howard in 1803 proposed a simple method using three principal cloud forms:
1. Stratus cloud, lying in a level sheet.

2. Cumulus cloud, having a flat base and rounded tops, and being lumpy in
appearance.
3. Cirrus cloud, having a fibrous or feathery appearance.
As more observations were carried out, this simple system proved insufficient
and later international cloud atlases were published to provide world-wide uniformity
of cloud types. Examples of these photographic atlases can be found in the Mariner’s
Handbook, where the ten distinct types of clouds with their associated height levels
are illustrated.
Height Designation Type Abbreviation

High CH Cirrus Ci
>6000metres Cirrostratus Cs
Cirrocumulus Cc
Medium CM Altostratus As
˃2000 and Altocumulus Ac
˂6000 metres Nimbostratus Ns
Low CL Stratus St
˂2000 metres Stratocumulus Sc
Cumulus Cu
Cumulonimbus Cb

Figure 3.1 Types of Clouds

LOCAL AND REGIONAL EFFECTS OF HEATING AND COOLING
Land and Sea Breezes

The local heating and cooling results in local winds. The land is heated by the
sun during the day and loses heat at night relatively quickly and therefore the
adjacent surface-air changes temperature accordingly. Hot air rises and therefore the
pressure drops, similarly cold air falls and the pressure increases. The sea
temperature however changes very little and will therefore throughout a 24-hour
period will be relatively hotter or colder to the adjacent land. The changes of pressure
over the land causes on and off shore winds to blow. The sea breezes may reach
force 5 in places, but land breezes are normally not as strong.
Figure 3.2 Land and Sea Breeze Circulation

Katabatic and Anabatic Winds
On clear nights the slope of mountains radiate out their heat and the
temperature falls. The adjacent air in contact with the cold ground becomes heavier
and rolls down the slope. Normally as it descends it would warm at the Adiabatic
Lapse Rate (variation of air temperature with height, see later notes), but because it
is still in contact with the cold ground, this effect is reduced and the air pressure
increases its flow down the hill. The speed of the wind down the slope and beyond
can reach high speeds. These are known as Katabatic Winds.
The Anabatic Winds are the mild uphill reverse of the Katabatic winds.
THE CAUSES AND THE WEATHER EXPERIENCED DURING THE NORTH EAST
AND SOUTH WEST MONSOON OF THE INDIAN OCEAN
The monsoon circulation is a continental wind pattern which undergoes a

seasonal reversal in direction. The low level winds of the monsoon of summer flow
from the ocean to the continent; moist ocean winds sweep inland at that time. With
the effects of Coriolis and friction, winds spiral counter-clockwise into the continental
low.
The “dry” monsoon flow is in the opposite direction. In winter the continent is
cold relative to the surrounding ocean. High pressure prevails over the land and cool,
dry surface winds spiral clockwise outward from the anticyclone.
On the real Earth, the monsoon circulation is embedded in the larger general
circulation. Continents also vary in size, shape and latitude. Consequently, the
monsoon is very well defined in some geographical areas (southeast Asia), but is only
barely noticeable in others (Europe). They also develop over Africa, Australia, and
some parts of North and South America, especially near the Equator and usually in
combination with the seasonal shift of the ITCZ. Their strengths depend on the shape
and size of the continents and the temperatures of the surrounding oceans.
In the northern parts of the Indian and western Pacific Oceans the trade winds
disappear to be replaced, between October to March, by the NE Monsoon. In the
northern hemisphere winter the great land mass of Asia becomes very cold, and an
intense area of high pressure becomes established over Siberia. The anticyclonic
circulation produces NE winds in the Western N. Pacific, Bay of Bengal and Arabian
Sea. Generally, cloud amounts are small and the weather fine. Winds are light in the
North Indian Ocean, but fresh and sometimes strong in the China Sea and N. Pacific
east of Formosa and the Philippines. Elsewhere they are generally moderate or light.
In the southern Indian ocean between the equator and the doldrums the winds are

deflected to the left on crossing the equator and become NW winds (a cross-
monsoon), and can be felt as far as 12º to 15ºS.
In the summer the Asiatic high disappears to be replaced by a deep and

extensive area of low pressure centred over NW India, due to the great heating of
southern Asia. The SW Monsoon s from May to September. The SE winds of the South
Indian and Western Pacific Oceans are drawn across the equator and directed to the
right by the Earth’s rotation. The SW Monsoon is only a light wind in the western
Pacific and China Sea and is moderate to fresh elsewhere, except in the western part
of the Arabian Sea where it blows fresh or strong, and frequently attains gale force
at the height of the season. Weather is generally cloudy and unsettled during the SW
Monsoon, with copious rainfall on the windward side of high ground.
The SW monsoon is particularly strong to seaward of Saudi Arabia and weaker

towards mainland India. The main centre of this low (NW India) stretches from
Afghanistan through Iran to Iraq, intensified by the fact that the Himalayas cause a
cold block to the NE of this region. Thus the winds affecting India tend to blow from
the NW down the Red Sea, from the south-west towards India, then from the East
across Northern Iran and Turkey, then from the North through the Greek Islands (the
Etesian winds). Thus the whole of the eastern end of the Mediterranean is affected in
summer by the low pressure over NW India.
Figure 3.3 Monsoonal Seasonal Wind Patterns

THE FORMATION OF PERMANENT AND SEMI-PERMANENT HIGH AND LOW
PRESSURE AREAS
Consider first an idealized earth with a smooth surface (no surface friction)
and no land-sea differences. Let the earth rotate very slowly, in its usual direction
towards the east.
The equator-to-pole temperature gradients create pressure gradients. Surface

high pressure areas are located over each of the cold poles and a surface low pressure
region is found around the warm equator. These features cause surface air to move
from the poles to the equator. The reverse occurs aloft where equatorial air moves
towards the poles. Each of these vertical circulation systems is called a circulation
cell.
The simple general circulation cell that develops with slow rotation is similar
to the thermal circulation (sea breeze) cell, but here, because of the scale, Coriolis
force has an important modifying effect. Surface winds in the Northern Hemisphere
are deflected to the right and become northeasterly. In the Southern Hemisphere,
surface winds become southeasterly. Winds aloft have the opposite directions.
Figure 3.4 Global Pressure Systems

If we increase the rotation of our idealized earth to its normal rate of one
rotation every 24 hours, the resulting wind circulation becomes more involved. We
will deal with the Northern Hemisphere. The Southern Hemisphere is a mirror image
because Coriolis force acts in the opposite direction.
With the faster rotation rate, the single cell circulation breaks up into three
cells. Air still rises at the equator and flows towards the poles aloft, but that branch
of the circulation only reaches 3Oº North, where the air sinks. At the surface there
are again northeasterlies. This cell is called the HADLEY CELL after an 18th century
scientist.
In the highest latitudes, a POLAR CELL develops. It is defined by air rising

near 60º North and sinking over the pole. Coriolis force causes the cold surface winds
in the polar cell to be northeasterly, and winds aloft to be southwesterly.
In the latitude belt between 3Oº North and 60º North, the strong north—south
temperature gradient in mid latitudes favours the development of smaller scale
eddies, called cyclones or depressions that cross the Pacific and Atlantic from the
west. In winter there is a sharp contrast in temperature between the polar regions
(in total darkness and receiving no solar radiation) and the heat of the equator, which
produce strong winds and gales.
In summer months the polar regions receive solar radiation and the contrast
in the temperature difference is less, producing less violent eddies and a calmer
period.
Their influence on the general circulation is to cause the average surface winds
to be southwesterly in this latitude belt, and to remain westerly up through to at least
the tropopause.
These average winds define a mid-latitude circulation cell called the FERREL
CELL, named after an early Investigator of the general circulation.
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION AND WIND
The three-cell circulation generates some important and well-known features

in the surface wind pattern. These include the steady, northeasterly trade winds
between 30°N and the Equator; the prevailing westerlies between 30°N and 60°N;
and the polar easterlies north of 60° North.

There is convergence, a net accumulation of air, at the surface at Oº and 6OºN
and S where the pressure is low. However, there is divergence, a net loss of air, at
the surface between 30º and 40ºN and S, and at the poles where the pressure is
high. In general, where there is convergence at the surface, there is divergence in
the upper troposphere and air ascends between the two levels. Conversely air
descends where there is divergence at the surface, and convergence in the upper
troposphere.
Important surface features of the general circulation are found in the ‘surface
pressure distribution’:
1. The Doldrums - a low pressure area near the equator. Because of the
convergence of trade winds from both hemispheres into that area, it is also
known as the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ).
The instability and large moisture content of the air in the ITCZ makes it the
wettest area on earth (viz the Amazon rain forest) and a favourite area for the
development of thunderstorms. As the warm moist air rises it cools and, unable
to carry the moisture anymore, it condenses, forms cloud and falls as rain. It
is an area of variable winds, calms, clear sunny periods, squally showers and
heavy rain.
The cloud type is cumulus to cumulonimbus, with diameters between I and

10km. A collection of these clouds is called a ‘convective cell’, 10 to 100km in
diameter, or a number of these cells may form a ‘cloud cluster', 100 to
1,000km in diameter. The ITCZ moves with the seasons towards the summer
side of the equator. Because of the bias of land in the northern hemisphere
the Atlantic ITCZ moves between about 2ºN in winter and 8°N in late summer.
In Asia the ITCZ moves from the vicinity of the Himalayas in July to
approximately Darwin in January.
2. Trade Wind Belt — Between the low pressure at the ITCZ and the subtropical
high is an area of constant winds with wind speeds of 10 to 25 knots (average
F4); this is the northeast or southeast Trade Wind Belt.
The cloud is the trade wind cumulus which occurs as cloud streets, on average
covering half the sky. This makes for excellent “trade Wind” sailing, but the
constant Wind builds up a considerable sea and the incessant rolling when
running can make sailing difficult and place strain and endless chaff on the
rigging.

Steaming a motor boat into the trades is not recommended because of the
violent pitching. There are very few motorboats to be found between the
Caribbean islands because of the dangerous rolling motion when steaming
north-south between the islands.
3. Horse Latitudes — Air sinks in a region of diverging surface winds that

correspond with a subtropical high pressure near 20º and 30º North. This part
of the general circulation is known as the Horse Latitudes or VARIABLES.
Cloud formation is suppressed and precipitation low, because the air is sinking
and warming up as its pressure increases, increasing its ability to carry
moisture. The great deserts which circumvent the continents are to be found
at these latitudes. Winds are very light and variable in direction and without
an adequate supply of diesel to cross this region life can be strained,
particularly from the incessant rolling caused by the long swells.
4. Polar Front — Near 60º North, pressures are low and surface winds converge,
bringing warm air masses from tropical regions into contact with cold air
masses from polar regions. The line separating the air masses at this location
is called the Polar Front, where warm moist air is undercut by cold air causing
uplifting. It is another region of cloudiness, precipitation and strong winds.
5. Polar Highs — Finally there are areas of sinking air and diverging winds in
high pressure systems near the poles. As with the Horse Latitudes,
precipitation is very low in these areas.

Figure 3.5 Global Wind Systems

Figure 3.6 Global Air Masses
Key: mT: maritime Tropical, cP: continental Polar
mTs: maritime Tropical subsiding. cT: continental Tropical.
mE: maritime Equatorial. A: Arctic,
mP: maritime Polar. AA: Antarctic
AIR MASSES
An air mass is a large body of air that has fairly uniform temperature, stability
and moisture characteristics. Typical air masses are about 1,000nm across and are
identifiable over a period of several days to more than a week after they leave their
area of origin.
They develop in regions where surface conditions are homogeneous and winds
are light. This allows the air to adapt to the temperature and moisture properties of
the surface. Locations are usually the centres of semi-permanent high pressure
systems over the snow and ice fields of polar regions, or over the sub-tropical oceans.
Generally identified by its geographical area: Arctic (A), Polar (P) and
Tropical (T).

Once an air mass leaves its source region, it is identified according to its
temperature relative to the ground over which it is moving. They are further identified
by their moisture content, whether recent paths were over land (Continental) or over
Water (maritime).
Weather is made out of air and its characteristics of pressure, temperature and
humidity. A block of air with roughly the same characteristics is called an air mass
and airbases come from source regions. Where these source regions are and the kind
of air masses they spawn are shown in the Figure 3.7 below:
Air masses undergo modification as they move away from their source region,
only a small modification if they move quickly. However, if they move slowly over
large distances, they undergo large modifications. A cold and dry Continental Arctic
air mass leaving NE Asia may become, after heating and evaporation over the Pacific
ocean, a cool and moist Maritime Polar air mass when it reaches North America.
Air masses tend to retain their identifying characteristics for long periods, even
when they are in close contact with another air mass. Because two air masses with
different characteristics do not mix readily, there is often a distinct boundary between
them, called a front.
Continental air masses are usually extreme in their characteristics. They are
often very dry, very cold or very hot depending on the history of the airflow. In
Atlantic Europe the dry warm southeasterly (or southerly) comes from a continental
Tropical (cT) source over North Africa. This produces unseasonably high
temperatures in spring and autumn and heat waves in summer. It also leads to falls
of Saharan dust, usually in showers.
The bad European winter comes with extensions of the Siberian continental
Polar (cP) source region as a ridge over Scandinavia. The resulting NE wind is very
cold and fronts merging into it bring extensive snowfall.
The North American continental Polar source exists over Canada and so lies
close to the centres of population. Because of this proximity unnaturally cold plunges
of air can occasionally sweep down to devastate Southern market gardens.

Figure 3.7 Source Regions of Air Masses
Figure 3.8 Air Mass effects on Great Britain

Figure 3.9 Meteorological Chart Showing Isobars
COMMONLY USED METEOROLOGICAL TERMS
Isobars - lines joining points of equal barometric pressure, pressure being measured
in millibars. Wind is dependent upon the pressure gradient (the closer the isobars the
stronger the wind). In the northern hemisphere winds blow clockwise around a high
and anti-clockwise around a low. Winds blow roughly parallel to the isobars, but near
the surface they are slightly deflected by the pressure gradient force as friction
reduces wind speed. They are deflected towards a low centre and away from a high
centre. Isobars are usually drawn at intervals of 4, 5 or 8 millibars.
Low Pressure System - also referred to as a depression (or cyclone in USA. An area
of closed isobars in which atmospheric pressure is lowest at the centre. It can be
described as deep or shallow, according to intensity. It is generally associated with
dull, wet weather and a deep depression causes stormy Weather.
High Pressure System - also referred to as an anticyclone. A large area of closed

isobars in which the atmospheric pressure is highest at the centre. It can be described
as intense or weak. It is generally associated with dry weather and light winds, but
it may be dull or foggy especially in winter.
Ridge of High Pressure - always gives rise to fine weather, but is usually only a
temporary feature between two depressions.
Fronts - are the boundaries between different air masses. Normally associated with
bad weather due to the lifting of the warm air by the denser cold air.
Warm Front - the boundary between two air masses, with the warm air advancing
behind the front. Cloud ahead of this front is layered and rain or snow can fall for
some hours.
Cold Front - the boundary dividing warm air from advancing cold air. It is usually
marked by a belt of rain or blustery, thundery, showers.
Frontal Wave - is a disturbance which forms on a cold front (rarely on a warm front)
and travels towards the centre of the primary depression. It is characterised by a
local fold of pressure which may develop into a secondary depression. A wave is
always accompanied by an intensification of the existing frontal weather. The
preferred area of formation of the wave is some 500—800 miles from the original
centre and the speed of travel initially is typically 30—50 knots. Occasionally a new
wave depression will deepen even more than the original Low and move eastwards
to the south of it. This type of Low can be particularly disconcerting to yachtsmen in
the English Channel. It was such a Low that caused the Fastnet disaster in 1979.
Warm Sector - the warm air mass between the warm and cold fronts. Usually
accompanied by dull, misty weather sometimes with fog and drizzle.
Occlusion - is the boundary between the cold air ahead of the warm front and the
cold air behind the cold front after the intervening warm sector has been lifted off
the surface (occluded). Caused by the cold front moving faster than the warm front.
Polar Low - is a winter depression which forms In a polar air mass moving over
relatively warm sea. They are found in non-frontal troughs and form in the cold
sector. It can be quite violent and is characterised by strong winds and snowfall over
a relatively small area. They always remain subsidiary to the parent Low and usually
decay as the Low rotates southwards. It fills and weakens when it moves over cold
land.
Lee Low, Lee Trough - These are quite common in the Gulf of Genoa, in the lee of
the Alps, when a strong northerly is blowing, see Figure 3.10 below.
Also at ‘L’ in Figure 3.9 - when easterly Winds blow across Scandinavia, the
Norwegian mountains act as a barrier to the air stream. The net result of this is a
ridge of high pressure on the windward (east) side of the mountains and a trough of
low pressure on the leeward (west) side. This lee trough is always to be found from
Stavanger to north of Bergen when these easterlies are blowing. The offshore extent
of the trough depends on the detail of the pressure distribution in the area. For the

oilfields of the NE Shetland basin, this frequently means the difference between very
light and variable winds and NNE gales.
Figure 3.10 Lee Low or Lee Trough
Heat Lows - After prolonged summer heating local small depressions called Heat
Lows may form. These are common over Spain and France. The wind circulation
around them is usually light — their main significance is they are often areas of
thundery weather.
Figure 3.11 Heat Low

Figure 3.12 Formation of a Secondary Low
THE FRONTAL DEPRESSION
A depression is a free moving ceil of air whose central pressure is lower than
that of the surrounding atmosphere. A system can vary in size from a young ‘LOW’
only a few hundred miles across to a mature system which has stalled on the eastern
side of the ocean, affecting conditions 1,000 miles from its centre. It can go quietly
by or it can be as viscious as a hurricane.
The machinery of a depression depends entirely upon the fact that air masses
originating in different climatic circumstances are unwilling to mix. Wherever you are
situated, your local air arrives in enormous packages, the nature of them governed
by where they have come from and what they have passed over.
A parcel of warm air, for example, is capable of holding more water vapour
than an equivalent quantity of comparatively cold air. If a mass of air moves
northwards up the Atlantic from the Tropics, it will therefore be rich in moisture by
the time it reaches the temperate zones. This type of air is referred to as TROPICAL
MARITIME.

Figure 3.13 Formation of a Frontal Depression
Air originating in polar and sub-polar zones is obviously much colder, and
hence is inclined to be drier and denser. In the North Atlantic the enormous mass of
Greenland’s two—mile—thick ice cap together with the Canadian Arctic supplies a
powerful source of POLAR MARITIME air. ‘Maritime’ because it has crossed enough
sea to take the edge of its dryness. The CONVERGENCE LINE of these two global air
masses is known as the POLAR FRONT to be found between 40° and 60° North and
South.
Depression Formation: in the northern hemisphere the high pressure centre

of the cold polar air lies to the north of the “polar front’. As the air moves south it is
deflected to the west by the Coriolis force. This sets up the anti-clockwise circulation
of the system. On the other side of the “polar front low pressure zone” lies the
midoceanic HIGH (in the northern hemisphere this is the AZORES HIGH). This funnels
‘tropical maritime’ air up its western side towards the polar front. By the time this air
has reached the front it is moving to the eastward and is still part of the main
clockwise circulation of the Azores High.

Where two air masses collide, the warm air will tend to rise as the dense, cold
air tries to slide underneath it like a wedge. As this happens the moisture in the warm
tropical air condenses in the form of clouds and rain; it also gives off heat making
the situation inherently unstable. Inevitably an eddy is caused by a disturbance
between the two air masses, perhaps by a local area of extra warming, an eddy off
a mountain in the Azores or collision between fast moving air masses.
Once a wave has formed the depression takes form. A package of warm air
moves up into the eddy, and as it does so, cold air moves down behind it from the
north and tries to undercut it. Cold air travels 130% faster than warm air and thus
the thermal activity at the COLD FRONT is the most active feature of a depression,
producing the heaviest rain, and strongest, most gusty winds. The warm air is rising,
causing precipitation (rain) which releases latent heat. This extra heat helps to
energise the system and set up the cyclonic circulation.
Within 24 hours the eddy will have developed into a young depression showing
a warm front (a front with warm air behind it, overlapping the cold air it is wedged
against to the east of it), a cold front (followed by colder air which undercuts the
western edge of the warm sector) and a complete anticlockwise air circulation.
It now continues to march across the Atlantic from west to east, often as much
as 800 miles a day. It may follow the polar front into the Baltic, but depressions are
not too keen at going over land (due to surface friction) and if the Siberian or
Scandinavian HIGH is dominating northern Europe it will find it an easy excuse to
move up into the Norwegian Sea, the most popular grave yard for depressions.
Depression speeds are announced in the shipping forecast by the following

expressions:
Slowly less than 15kts;
Steadily: 15 – 25kts;
Rather quickly: 25 – 35kts;
Rapidly: 35 – 45kts.
Veering or Backing: when there is a change in the direction in which the wind is
blowing, the wind is said to veer if it swings in a clockwise direction, and to back if it
swings in an anticlockwise direction.

DESCRIPTION OF SEQUENCE OF EVENTS FROM PASSING DEPRESSION
Figure 3.14 Low Pressure System in the Northern Hemisphere
If the Centre of the Depression Moves to the North of You:
As the Warm Front Approaches:

The first visible sign of a warm front arriving is the presence of high mares
tailes clouds known as cirrus. These are followed by a layer of thin cirro-stratus cloud
which often begins by generating a halo around the sun or moon but ends up by
obscuring the sky completely as the cloud base falls and thickens up. This is
accompanied by a falling barometer and the wind will be ‘backing’, generally to the
south or southeast. It will begin to feel warmer.

The breeze will now be strong if the depression is built on a sharp pressure
gradient. So, the approach of a warm front is indicated by backing south to south-
easterly winds, falling pressures, and a gradually lowering ceiling of cloud. The
progression of cloud types as the front approaches is cirrus (Ci), cirrostratus (Cs),
altostratus (As), and nimbostratus (Ns) with stratus (St) fog, poor visibilities, and
continuous precipitation.
Passage of the Warm Front:

Winds will veer as the warm front goes through. The barometer will stop falling
so fast. Rain will give way to drizzle, perhaps fog; the wind and temperature may
increase. The atmosphere will be damp and humid with low cloud.
In the Warm Sector:
Rain is now intermittent and visibility remains moderate or poor. Wind will
typically be from the south—west (Force 5 to 7). How long you stay there will depend
upon the size and rate of progress of the weather system (6 to 12 hours). The low
cloud may clear to bright spells before the approach of the cold front. The barometer
will steady or fall only slowly. At the Cold Front:
As the cold front approaches the wind may back a little and pressure often
drops momentarily. Cloud will be thick and low. Rain will fall heavily and conditions
generally deteriorate, often with noticeably stronger winds (Force 7 to 9). Huge
cumulonimbus clouds tower up to 40,000ft. As the advancing cold front drives the
moisture upwards (cold air undercutting the warm sector), convection in the clouds
may be so powerful that the raindrops are carried aloft until they freeze, to fall to
earth as hailstones, perhaps accompanied by thunder.
Behind the Cold Front:

Then all of a sudden the wind veers sharply into the north-west with a heavy
squall, the barometer climbs rapidly for the next six or so hours before slowly levelling
off, and visibility suddenly opens up as cold, clear air streams down from the Arctic.
There is a marked drop in temperature. Winds remain strong and possibly squally for
a time and then begin to moderate.
There is a build-up of isolated cumulus clouds with the possibility of showers

in the clear air after the passage of the cold front. The rule for deciding if showers
are possible is that: the sea must be warmer than the air over it. For this reason,
showers are the norm when NW winds blow down from the arctic behind depressions
which are either stuck north of Scotland or tracking into Scandinavia.

Figure 3.15 Occlusions
OCCLUSIONS
The cold front chases the warm front across the Atlantic. As the cold front
moves faster than the warm front it finally overtakes the cold air in front, its
advancing wedge lifting the warm air off the sea, forming an ‘occlusion’. For a while
this warm sector floats above the cold air below, still forming rain and giving off latent
heat and producing strong winds. It your boat passes under an occlusion you will get
all the rain at once (usually a period of 4 to 6 hours), but for a shorter period than if
you had passed through a section of the warm sector. The wind shift is also more
dramatic, starting with a moderate blow from the south to the south-east, then
veering rapidly to a strong north-west gale. The system may still remain active for
quite some time as the occlusion spirals in around the centre, but eventually it will
die, usually to the west of Norway.
ANTICYCLONES
An anticyclone, or HIGH, is an area of relatively high atmospheric pressure. It

appears on a weather map as a fairly large area of high pressure around which are
roughly concentric isobars. A well-developed anticyclone may have a central pressure
of over 1030 Hp.

Winds circulate around an anticyclone in a clockwise direction in the Northern
Hemisphere (anticlockwise in the Southern Hemisphere). In general, Highs are
larger, slower moving and more persistent than Lows, and their pressure gradients
make the winds characteristically light and variable near the centre; stronger breezes
are experienced further away, and at the periphery, where the Isobars may be
squeezed by the passage of a depression. Strong winds and gales are not uncommon,
even though the barometer is high and steady.
Figure 3.16 Anticyclone Circulation
As the wind in an anticyclone blows slightly outwards from the centre across
the isobars, air must be leaving the system at the surface, and if the pressure is
being maintained, this means that the air is being replaced, and this can only come
from aloft. Probably the most important characteristic of a developing anticyclone,
and one which largely determines the weather found in it, is the widespread slow
descent of air, known as SUBSIDENCE. This subsidence has two effects:
1. When descending air sinks into layers of higher pressure it is warmed, and
2. As the air temperature rises its relative humidity decreases and any cloud
present tends to dry out.
Thus anticyclones may be expected to be associated with warm, dry, clear

conditions, and this is usually true in summer when temperatures generally are
relatively high and cloud layers tend to burn away during the day. Occasionally,
however, moist air drifts inland from over the sea and turbulence may cause this air
to be lifted above the level at which condensation takes place, giving rise to cumulus
clouds. Frequently these clouds spread out horizontally to form a layer of
stratocumulus clouds which tend to disappear or reduce in thickness by night, but
reform or thicken after sunrise. During the Winter months, this type of cloud is slow
to clear since the sun is low in the sky and has little strength so that in this case an
anticyclone can produce dull and gloomy weather.
Sometimes a HIGH can block the path of depressions and give settled weather
for a few days. This occurs when one or more large, warm anticyclones form with
their centres between about 50° and 60° N, and so prevent the Polar Front from lying
in its position so that frontal depressions must either move into very high latitudes
(70° or more), or into low latitudes (30° to 40° N). The normal tracks of these
depressions are blocked and this has led to the use of the term ‘blocking high’.
PRESSURE TENDENCY AND PRESSURE GRADIENT
Figure 3.17 Barograph
The practical use of a barograph is that it shows PRESSURE TENDENCY.

Steady high pressure will indicate fair weather, while a falling barometer will indicate
the approach of bad weather. A fast fall will tend to indicate a vigorous depression
approaching with accompanying strong winds. A fast rising barometer, while
indicating the possible approach of better weather, may also be accompanied by
strong winds, because it will also be indicating a steep pressure gradient.

Pressure Gradient
The Pressure Gradient force driving the air towards the Lower pressure,
(perpendicular to the isobars). The isobars are normally curved around a high or low
pressure and therefore the Cyclostrophic force must be considered. The resultant
path of the wind must now be where the Gradient force balances the Geostrophic and
the Cyclostrophic forces and is known as the Gradient Wind. The gradient wind blows
along the curve of the isobars.
Friction due to the earth’s surface modifies this direction slightly for the wind
adjacent to the earth’s surface (not above 2000 feet clear of the friction effects) and
the final direction of the wind is almost parallel to the isobars, but slightly in towards
a Low and slightly out from a High pressure area.
Wind Speed is inversely proportional to the distance between the isobars.
3.2 TROPICAL REVOLVING STORMS

1. State the principle areas and times of year when tropical storms can be
expected (as defined in NP 100)
2. Describe why tropical storms form in low latitudes
3. State the likely signs of an approaching tropical storms
4. Describe the formation of tropical revolving
5. Draw a diagram of a North or South hemisphere tropical storm showing wind
direction and the dangerous and navigable sectors (as shown in NP 100)
6. Describe, using diagrams, the probable paths of a tropical storm in the
southern and northern hemisphere and the strategies for the avoidance of
these storms as contained in the mariners Handbook (NP 100)
PRINCIPLE AREAS AND TIMES OF YEAR WHEN TROPICAL STORMS CAN BE

EXPECTED
Tropical revolving storms (TRS) are intense depressions forming in the tropical
regions are known by various names such as hurricanes (Atlantic), typhoons (Pacific)
and cyclones (Indian Ocean). These storms can give rise to violent conditions in which
yachts and their crews will often be unable to survive. Tropical revolving storms do
not occur with anything like the frequency of the depressions experienced in
temperate climates.

Av. Freq TRS >
Area /Local name Start Finish per year force 12
North Atlantic / West Indies/ Hurricane May December 10 5

North East Pacific/ Hurricane May November 15 7
North West Pacific/ Typhoon April December 25-30 15-20
N.Indian Ocean/ Bay of Bengal/Cyclone March December 2-5 1-2
N.Indian Ocean/Arabian Sea /Cyclone April June 1-2 1
September December
S.Indian Ocean W. of 80E/ Cyclone November May 5-7 2
Austrailia W/NW/N /Hurricane November April 2-3 1
Fiji/Samoa/New Zealand/ Hurricane November May 7 2
THE REASON FOR THE FORMATION OF TROPICAL STORMS IN LOW

LATITUDES
Three conditions must be fulfilled for a tropical cyclone to develop:
1. Sea Surface Temperature. The rate of evaporation necessary to allow a TRS

to form requires a sea surface temperature greater than about 27° C (81°F).
Sea temperatures as has as this only occur in the North Atlantic, for example,
during the summer and autumn, and usually on the western side that is in the
Caribbean and the Gulf of Mexico.
2. Coriolis, or horizontal deflection force (due to the rotation of the Earth), exerts
an influence only some 7° north or south of the equator, and sets up a counter
clockwise spinning motion in the northern hemisphere and a clockwise motion
in the southern hemisphere.
3. The third requirement is for weak, upper level winds.
SIGNS OF AN APPROACHING TROPICAL STORM
Radio warnings of the existence of a TRS and forecasts of its track may be
available in some areas. Local radio stations, television stations, newspapers,
weather fax machines, etc., if available, will also give warnings and advice. Details
of the radio frequencies and times of warning broadcasts are in the Admiralty List of
Radio Signals.

Changes in Diurnal Variation:
During a 24-hour period, atmospheric pressure rises and falls slowly,
independently of the effects caused by the passing of high and low pressure systems.
Atmospheric pressure rises slowly to its maximum value at 1000 LMT and then falls
until 1600 LMT. From 1600 LMT pressure rises again until 2200 LMT and then falls
again until 0400 LMT. These daily variations in pressure are called diurnal variation.
In UK latitudes, the range of diurnal variation is small, about 0.5 Hp, and so it may
pass unnoticed. In the tropics however the diurnal variation range is about 3 Hp.
In the tropics, barometric pressure varies very little from day to day and so
barometric pressure should be recorded on a regular basis in the ship’s log along with
the usual navigational data. If the barometer, after correction for diurnal variation,
shows a drop of 3 millibars (millibars = hectoPascalls) below the average for the time
of year it may be assumed that a TRS is approaching. If atmospheric pressure, after
correction for diurnal variation, is 5 Hp below the mean pressure it is certain that a
TRS is approaching and a course of action must be decided upon.
Changes in Barometric Pressure

Barometric pressure gives an indication of the whereabouts of the TRS:
1. A slow fall in barometric pressure during which time the diurnal variation is
still discernible indicates that the observer is from 500 to 150 miles from the
storm’s centre.
2. A distinct fall hiding the diurnal variation indicates the observer is from 120 to
60 miles from the storm’s centre,
3. A very rapid fall indicates the observer is from 60 to 10 miles from the storm’s
centre.
4. The barometer may fall as much as 70 Hp at the storm centre.
Pressure will rise very rapidly as the storm passes
Swell
Swell may extend as much as 1000 miles from a storm centre and will certainly
be felt 500 to 600 miles from the centre. Higher and faster than usual swell should
be taken as an early warning sign. As swell extends outward in concentric circles
from the storm centre it may give an indication as to the direction of the TRS when
away from the effect of land.
Wind
Appreciable changes in wind direction and strength should be regarded with
suspicion.

Cloud
Cirrus, followed by altostratus, nimbostratus and then a wall of black
cumulonimbus cloud on the horizon will be visible as a storm approaches.
Radar
If radar is fitted it may be used to identify and track the centre of a TRS but
this will depend upon the radar range and proximity of the centre of the storm.
AVOIDING THE CENTRE OF A TRS
Three things must be decided before avoiding action can be considered. These are:
1. The bearing from the yacht to the centre of the storm
2. The expected path of the storm
3. If the yacht is in either the ‘navigable’ semicircle or the ‘dangerous’ semicircle.
THE FORMATION OF TROPICAL STORMS
Tropical Wave
The easterly Trade Winds blow from east to west across the southern part of
the north Atlantic and tropical waves, or troughs, forming in this air stream are the
forerunners of hurricanes which effect the Caribbean and the east coast of the USA.
Somewhere between the Cape Verdes (about 400 miles off the west coast of Africa
at 16° N 20° W) and mid-Atlantic, a deep layer of subsiding warm, but dry, air traps
a shallow layer of moist air beneath it forming what is called an ‘inversion’. With an
inversion, air temperature falls initially as altitude increases but then rises as the
altitude of the warm air mass is reached. The Trade Winds move the inversion steadily
in a westerly direction, the inversion weakens as the two air masses mix and clouds
form due to convection. At this point a tropical low pressure trough, or easterly wave,
may form. The weather in front of the trough will be fine but unsettled weather should
be expected behind the trough. This wave may be all that happens but, if the
convection increases so that more air is drawn in to the deepening wave, wind speeds
will increase, pressure will drop at the surface and Coriolis force will impart an anti-
clockwise component to the wind direction.
Tropical Disturbance
In tropical or sub-tropical areas, when light winds have been circulating for 24
hours around an area of low pressure, the air circulation is designated a tropical
disturbance. A tropical disturbance is non-frontal and may be approximately from
100 to 300 miles in diameter.

Tropical Depression
A tropical cyclone in which the sustained surface wind speed does not exceed
33 knots is called a tropical depression. At this stage the depression will be given a
name such as TD2 (i.e. Tropical Depression no. 2).
Tropical Storm
When the sustained wind speeds at surface level reach from 33 knots to a
maximum of 64 knots the cyclone is designated a tropical storm. The high speed
circulation of the wind in the center of the depression throws air outwards by
centrifugal force and cold, dry (and therefore cloudless) air from high altitudes is
drawn in to replace the outgoing air. Thus the cloudless, calm, center or ‘eye’ of the
storm is formed. At this stage the storm will be given a name, female and male names
being used alternately, i.e. Hurricane Charlie, Hurricane Camille, etc.
Hurricane
When the maximum sustained surface wind speed of the cyclone exceeds 64
knots, the cyclone is designated a hurricane. A hurricane is also given a category
number from 1 to 5, based on the maximum wind speed sustained over a period of
one minute of time. An international color tracking code is also used.

Figure 3.18 Diagram of a North and South Hemisphere
Tropical Storm Showing Wind Direction and
The Dangerous and Navigable Sectors

THE PROBABLE PATHS OF A TROPICAL STORM IN THE SOUTHERN AND
NORTHERN HEMISPHERE AND THE STRATEGIES FOR THE AVOIDANCE OF
THESE STORMS AS CONTAINED IN THE MARINERS HANDBOOK (NP100)
Navigable Semicircle
In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the left of the storm track (facing in
the direction toward which the storm is moving) is called the navigable semicircle.
(By observation, if the wind is backing)
1. A yacht in this semicircle has a free wind to run/reach away from the centre of
the storm.
2. When (if) the storm re-curves its path will move the centre of the storm away
from the yacht.
3. The wind speed is decreased by the forward motion of the storm.
Avoiding Action, Navigable Semicircle
Reach/run at the best possible speed, keeping the wind on the starboard
quarter, which will take the yacht away from the storm’s path.
Dangerous Semicircle
In the Northern Hemisphere, that part to the right of the storm track (facing
the direction in which the storm is moving) is called the dangerous semicircle. (By
observation, the wind is veering)
1. A yacht in this semicircle cannot escape by running or reaching before the

wind. In this sector a yacht, which is hove to, running or drifting, is moving
towards the storm’s track orcentre. A yacht trying to move outward away from
storm’s track will have to beat to windward in gale conditions or worse.
2. Even if a yacht can make good to windward the storm when (if) it re-curves,
may well pass over the yacht.
3. The apparent wind in this sector will be strongest due to the forward movement
of the storm.
Dangerous Quadrant
The forward, or leading, quadrant of the dangerous semicircle is called the

dangerous quadrant. A yacht in this quadrant is in the most dangerous position of
all. If it is considered feasible to run so that the yacht can cross the storm’s path and

reach the navigable semicircle before being hit by the storm centre then this is
perhaps the best approach.
If it is felt that yacht may not cross the storm’s path quickly enough the only
option is to sail/motor to windward on starboard tack in the northern hemisphere,
port tack in the southern hemisphere for as long as possible. If conditions become
such that this is no longer feasible the yacht must heave-to and prepare for very
heavy weather. In the other (rear) sector of the dangerous semicircle heave to in the
hope that the storm will pass the yacht quicker than her leeway will move her near
to the storm’s centre.
If it finally becomes necessary to run before the wind the yacht’s progress
must be slowed as much as possible to try to ensure that the centre of the storm will
have passed before the yacht reaches the storm’s centre line.
The boat ahead of the navigable semicircle has a free wind to run/ reach away
from the approaching storm with the wind on her starboard quarter. This track will
also take her away from the storm centre if the storm re-curves.
The boat ahead of the dangerous quadrant has to decide whether she can run
before the wind and reach the navigable semicircle before the centre of the storm
passes over her. If she does not have sufficient time to do this, she must sail as close
to the wind as possible, for as long as the physical conditions allow in order to
increase her distance from the storm’s centre. As the wind and seas increase, she
may well have to heave-to or lie a hull or to a sea anchor, the aim then being to
reduce the leeway to the minimum in the hope that thecentre of the storm will pass
before the boat drifts into the storm’s centre. Her other problem is that if she does
manage to beat to windward away from the storm’s centre she is increasing the
possibility of the storm passing over her again if it re-curves.

3.3 WEATHER FORECASTING

1. Interpret marine weather forecasts
2. Define the types of weather messages including surface analysis and forecast
charts and common weather chart symbols.
3. State the organizations providing meteorological information to shipping
4. Define the reliability of weather forecasts with respect to interval and forecast
duration
5. Describe the use of weather messages to deduce the probable weather and
changes in the weather.
INTRODUCTION
There are many different forms of weather forecast and analysis, whilst the
passage is being planned information can be extracted from the following sources:
Admiralty Sailing Directions

This publication amplifies charted detail and contains information necessary
for safe navigation that is not available from the chart or other hydrographic
publications. In particular, navigational advice is given for the area concerned,
weather details, tidal or current information, information on submarine and fishing
activities etc. All of which assist the navigator in selecting suitable safe courses.
These Sailing Directions are kept up to date by means of SUPPLEMENTS and
corrections via Notices to Mariners (Weekly). A list of such notices is published in
the weekly edition of Notice to Mariners.
Ocean Passages of the World and Admiralty Routing Charts

Contains details of ocean climatic conditions, currents, ice and TRS’s for the
main ocean areas of the world. They provide recommended routes between principal
ports of the world for both winter and summer passages together with respective
differences. Routing charts are published for the main ocean areas of the world and
are produced for each month of the year. They contain a wealth of information on
winds and currents etc.
Mariners Handbook
Compliments both Sailing Directions and Ocean Passages. It contains practical advice
on the use of charts and navigational methods. It also gives general meteorological
information and practical advice on TRSs detection and avoidance. Navigation in ice
is also dealt with in great detail.

Admiralty List of Radio Signals (ALRS)
Volume 3. Particulars of Radio Weather Services and Navigational Warnings
for the use of shipping with diagrams showing weather forecast areas.
Volume 4. List of Meteorological Observation stations.
Volume D of the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Publication No.9.
Radio Weather Forecasts for Shipping

Transmissions broadcasted several time a day. See Annual Summary of Notice
to Mariners.
Radio Navigational Warnings

Long-range weather warnings are broadcast on the Safety NET Service along
with NAVAREA navigational warnings as part of the World-Wide Navigational Warning
Service (WWNWS). These provide the mariner with early warning of important
incidents that may constitute a danger to navigation. Many navigational warnings are
of a temporary nature, but others remain in force for weeks and may be succeeded
by Notices to Mariners.
There are three types of radio navigational warnings:

1. NAVAREA warnings.
2. Coastal warnings.
3. Local warnings.
NAVAREA Warnings
The World-Wide Navigational Warning Service of long-range navigational
warnings comprises of 16 geographical sea areas, termed NAVAREAS,
identified by Roman numerals. The authority responsible for collecting and
issuing warnings to cover the whole of an area is known as an Area
Coordinator. The limits, Area Coordinator and transmitting station of each
NAVAREA are shown in diagrams in the Annual Summary, Mariners Handbook
and ALRS. The Area Coordinator for NAVAREA 1 is the UK. Full details of
transmission methods and times are given in ALRS in the Navigational Warning
Section. Usually transmitted at least twice daily in English or in one of the
official languages to the United Nations. Methods of transmission include WT,
RT., Telex Navtex and facsimile. The text of the week’s warnings, together with
those in force, is included in Section ii of the Weekly Notices to Mariners.

Coastal Warnings
Coastal warnings for all parts of the world are broadcast from the country of
origin. They are issued for information that is of importance only in a particular
coastal region i.e., in the area surrounding the hazard. They are transmitted
through the network of national Coast Radio Stations, more frequently than
NAVAREA warnings, and will often supplement the information contained in
NAVAREA warnings. The information is primarily to assist the mariner in
coastal navigation and between ports as far as the port outer limits. They are
broadcast in English and in the national language. Details of transmission
methods (WT, RT., VHF, NAVTEX) and also the times are given in ALRS.
Local Warnings
Local Warnings supplement the coastal warning service by giving detailed
information on matters that the ocean-going ship normally does not require.
They usually refer particularly to inland waters and are often originated by the
Coastguard, port or pilotage authorities. Local warnings are only issued in the
national language; full particulars are given in ALRS.
NAVTEX
This is a navigational telex service, developed by IMO to form an international
marine safety information service, broadcasting safety messages on 518 kHz.
Weather Routing Information

Sources of information are the same as 1.5.2, but should also include
Admiralty Weather Routing Charts and information. The US Naval Authorities and
some commercial meteorologists in the USA provide weather routing advice via Coast
Radio Stations (CRS) for N. Atlantic and N. Pacific. The UK and the Netherlands
Meteorological Services also provides N. Atlantic weather routing bulletins. The US
and UK issue Facsimile maps giving analysis and forecasts of surface weather over
the N. Atlantic every six hours. Similarly the US produces facsimile wave condition
maps every 12 hours. In addition to the normal passage planning, consideration of
routing for yachts and smaller craft taking into account the prevailing weather is
essential. The possibility of strong winds and heavy seas should be balanced with the
availability of safe havens en route. The risks of fog and poor visibility within heavy
shipping lanes should be evaluated and avoided. The dangers of hurricanes and the
ability to take sufficient avoiding action is part of the passage planning exercise. A
‘risk assessment’ of the dangers to yachts and smaller craft on a long ocean passage
should form an essential part of the evaluation procedure within the normal passage
planning procedure. Active weather routing can improve safety, reduce the time on
passage and reduce fuel consumption.

INTERPRET MARINE WEATHER FORECASTS
The sequence of the production of a weather chart is to first plot all the
information reported from the land, ship and satellite observation stations for a
particular time i.e. 0000 GMT. Then to plot the analysis associated with that
information. A chart is then assembled with isobars linking locations of similar
pressure. This indicates the state of the atmosphere at that time, which is historical
data.
Surface Analysis Chart

A surface analysis chart showing a summary of the general synoptic situation
in the N. Atlantic is provided below.
Figure 3.19 Surface Analysis Chart

Prognostic Chart
A Prognostic Chart is a chart showing the forecast positions of the pressure
centers, isobars and fronts in 12 hour increments ahead of the associated (most
recent) main synoptic hour chart.
Figure 3.20 Prognostic Chart
WEATHER MESSAGES AND COMMON WEATHER CHART SYMBOLS.
Weather charts consist of curved lines drawn on a geographical map in such a

way as to indicate weather features. These features are best shown by charts of
atmospheric pressure, which consist of isobars (lines of equal pressure) drawn around
depressions (or lows) and anticyclones (or highs). Other features on a weather chart
are fronts and troughs. These are drawn to highlight the areas of most significant
weather, but that does not mean that there is nothing of significance elsewhere on
the chart.

WEATHER SYSTEMS
High Pressure or Anticyclones

Anticyclones are areas of high pressure, whose centers are often less well
defined than depressions, and are associated with quiet, settled weather. Winds blow
in a clockwise direction around anticyclones in the northern hemisphere, this is
reversed in the southern hemisphere.
Low Pressure Systems or Depressions

Depressions are areas of low pressure, usually with a well-defined center, and
are associated with unsettled weather. Winds blow in an anticlockwise direction
around depressions in the northern hemisphere, this is reversed in the southern
hemisphere.
Figure 3.21 Wind circulation Patterns Around High and Low Pressure
Systems in the Northern Hemisphere
Fronts
Early weather charts consisted simply of station plots and isobars, with the
weather being written as comments, like ‘Rain, heavy at times’. During the 1920s, a
group of Scandinavian meteorologists, known collectively as the Bergen School,
developed the concept of representing the atmosphere in terms of air masses. Since
the air masses could be considered as being in conflict with each other, the term
‘front’ was used to describe the boundary between them. Three types of front were
identified which depend on the relative movement of the air masses.

Cold Front
A cold front marks the leading edge of an advancing cold air mass. On a
synoptic chart a cold front appear as a blue line with triangles. The direction
in which the triangles point is the direction in which the front is moving.
Warm Front
A warm front marks the leading edge of an advancing warm air mass. On a
synoptic chart a warm front appears as a red line with semi-circles. The
direction in which the semi-circles point is the direction in which the front is
moving.
Occlusion (or occluded front)

Occlusions form when the cold front of a depression catches up with the warm
front, lifting the warm air between the fronts into a narrow wedge above the
surface. On a synoptic chart an occluded front appears as a purple line with a
combination of triangles and semi-circles. The direction in which the symbols
point is the direction in which the front is moving.
Troughs
Fronts describe thermal characteristics. They also happen to be where there is
significant precipitation. However, precipitation is not confined to fronts.
Drizzle in warm sectors or showers in cold air occur fairly randomly, but
occasionally, lines of more organized precipitation can develop. These are
called troughs.
Isobars
Isobars are lines joining places with equal mean sea-level pressures (MSLP).

Figure 3.22 Identification of Weather Systems, Isobars and Fronts
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ISOBARS AND WIND
Wind is a significant feature of the weather. A fine, sunny day with light winds
can be very pleasant. Stronger winds can become inconvenient and, in extreme
cases, winds can be powerful enough to cause widespread destruction. The wind
can easily be assessed when looking at a weather map by remembering that:
• closer isobars mean stronger winds;

• the wind blows almost parallel to the isobars;
• in the northern hemisphere, the wind blows round a depression in an
anticlockwise direction and around an anticyclone in a clockwise direction. In
the southern hemisphere, the opposite is true;
• winds around anticyclones can sometimes be even stronger than indicated by
the isobars;
• in warm air, the wind is relatively steady and tends to blow at about two-thirds
the speed that the chart would suggest, though there are exceptions to this ;
• in cold air, the wind is usually as strong as indicated by the isobars and can be
very gusty.

UNDERSTANDING STATION PLOTS ON A WEATHER MAP
Good quality observations are one of the basic ‘tools of the trade’ for a weather
forecaster.
The weather conditions at each individual station can be represented on a

surface chart by means of station plot.
This means that information which would take up a lot of space if written on
to a chart can be displayed in a quick easy to understand format.
The land station plot can represent all the elements reported from that station, these
typically include:
• Air temperature
• Dew-point temperature
• Wind speed
• Wind direction
• Visibility
• Atmospheric pressure and three-hour tendency
• Cloud amounts
• Cloud types
• Cloud heights
• Present weather
• Past weather
Traditionally station plots for manned observing sites were based around a
central station circle. However, increasingly, automatic weather observations are
replacing these and being plotted on weather charts. To differentiate between the
two, automatic observations are plotted around a station triangle. Each element of
the observation, with the exception of wind, is plotted in a fixed position around the
station circle or triangle so that individual elements can be easily identified.

Figure 3.23 An Example of Plotted Met Observations
Figure 3.24 Plotting Positions on a Station Circle

Figure 3.25 Typical Coded Observations (Manual on left, Automatic on right)
Total Cloud Amount
The total amount of the sky covered by cloud is expressed in oktas (eighths)
and is plotted within the station circle for manned observations or station triangle for
automatic stations, by the amount of shading.
Figure 3.26 Symbols Used for Manual Cloud Cover Observations

Figure 3.27 Symbols used for Automatic Cloud Cover Observations
Wind Speed and Direction
The surface wind direction is indicated on the station plot by an arrow flying
with the wind. Direction is measured in degrees from true North. Therefore, a wind
direction of 180° is blowing from the south. The wind speed is given by the number
of ‘feathers’ on the arrow. Half feathers represent 5 knots whilst whole feathers
indicate 10 knots. A wind speed of 50 knots is indicated by a triangle. Combinations
of these can be used to report wind speed to the nearest 5 knots. The symbols used
are shown in Figure 3.28.
Gust speeds are measured in knots and proceeded by the letter G. Gust speeds
are normally only recorded if they exceed 25 knots and are plotted as whole knots,
i.e. G35 indicates a gust of 35 knots.

Figure 3.28 Symbols for Wind Speed
Air Temperature
Air temperature is plotted to the nearest whole degree Celsius, i.e. 23 would
indicate 23° Celsius.
Dew Point Temperature
Dew point temperature is plotted to the nearest whole degree Celsius, i.e. 18
would indicate a dew point of 18° Celsius.
Pressure
Pressure is recorded in millibars and tenths and the last three digits are plotted.
Therefore 1003.1 would be plotted as 031 and 987.1 would be plotted as 871.

Present Weather
In total the Met Office has 100 codes for recording the current weather at the
time of the observation. Different types of weather are represented using different
weather symbols.
Past Weather
A simplified version of the present weather plots is used to indicate past

weather.
Pressure Tendency
Pressure trend shows how the pressure has changed during the past three
hours, (rising or falling), and pressure tendency shows by how much it has changed.
The tendency is given in tenths of a millibar, therefore ‘20’ would indicate a change
of two millibars in the last three hours.
Visibility
Visibility, which is how far we can see, is given in coded format, in either
metres or kilometres. Visibilities below five kilometres are recorded to the nearest
100 meters, whilst those above five kilometres are given to the nearest kilometre.

STATION PLOT EXAMPLE
The decoding of this station plot is as follows:

MARINE FORECAST GLOSSARY
Marine forecasts contain a number of terms which are used to convey specific
meanings.
GALE WARNINGS
Gale Winds of at least Beaufort force 8 (34–40 knots) or

gusts reaching 43–51 knots
Severe Gale Winds

of force 9 (41–47 knots) or gusts reaching 52–60 knots
Storm Winds of
force 10 (48–55 knots) or gusts reaching 61–68 knots
Violent Storm Winds of force 11 (56–63 knots) or gusts of 69 knots

or more
Hurricane Force Winds of force 12 (64 knots or more)
Note: The term used is ‘hurricane force’; the term ‘hurricane’ on its own means
a true tropical cyclone, not experienced in British waters.
Imminent Expected within six hours of time of issue
Soon Expected within six to 12 hours of time of issue
Later Expected more than 12 hours from time of issue
VISIBILITY
Very Poor/Fog Visibility less than 1,000 meters
Poor Visibility between 1,000 meters and 2 nautical miles
Moderate Visibility between 2 and 5 nautical miles
Good Visibility more than 5 nautical miles

MOVEMENT OF PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Slowly Moving at less than 15 knots
Steadily Moving at 15 to 25 knots
Rather Quickly Moving at 25 to 35 knots
Rapidly Moving at 35 to 45 knots
Very Rapidly Moving at more than 45 knots
PRESSURE TENDENCY IN STATION REPORTS
Rising (or falling) more slowly Pressure rising (or falling) at a progressively slower
rate through the preceding three hours
Rising (or falling) slowly Pressure change of 0.1 to 1.5 hPa in the preceding
three hours
Rising (or falling) Pressure change of 1.6 to 3.5 hPa in the preceding
three hours
Rising (or falling) quickly Pressure change of 3.6 to 6.0 hPa in the preceding
three hours
Rising (or falling) very rapidly Pressure change of more than 6.0 hPa in the
preceding three hours
Now rising (or falling) Pressure has been falling (rising) or steady in the
preceding three hours, but at the time of
observation was definitely rising (falling)
Note: For those more familiar with the millibar, 1 hPa = 1 mb

WIND
Wind Direction Indicates the direction from which the wind is blowing
Becoming Cyclonic Indicates that there will be considerable change in wind

direction across the path of a depression within the forecast
area
Veering The changing of the wind direction clockwise, e.g. SW to W
Backing The changing of the wind in the opposite direction to

veering (anticlockwise), e.g. SE to NE
SEA STATE
Smooth Wave height less than 0.5 m
Slight Wave height of 0.5 to 1.25 m
Moderate Wave height of 1.25 to 2.5 m
Rough Wave height of 2.5 to 4.0 m
Very Rough Wave height of 4.0 to 6.0 m
High Wave height of 6.0 to 9.0 m
Very High Wave height of 9.0 to 14.0 m
Phenomenal Wave height more than 14.0 m
THE ORGANISATIONS PROVIDING METEOROLOGICAL INFORMATION TO

SHIPPING
The sources of information regarding weather forecasting for a local area or a

sea area are numerous. As the reliability of forecasting improves so radio stations,
TV stations and internet facilities provide information downloaded from national
weather organisations.

RELIABILITY OF WEATHER FORECASTS WITH RESPECT TO INTERVAL AND
FORECAST DURATION
The following statement is provided from the UK Met Office regarding the
reliability of weather forecasts:
The UK Met Office continue to increase our forecast accuracy through research,
investment in satellite remote sensing and supercomputing technology.
For many years we have verified our forecasts by comparing forecasts of mean
sea-level pressure with subsequent model analyses of mean sea-level
pressure. These comparisons are made over an area covering the North
Atlantic; most of western Europe, and north-eastern parts of North America.
From this long-term comparison an average forecast error can be calculated.
The graph shows how many days into a forecast period this average error is
reached compared to a baseline in 1980. This graph shows that a four-day
forecast today is more accurate than a one-day forecast in 1980.
Figure 3.29 Accuracy of PMSL Forecast

THE USE OF WEATHER MESSAGES TO DEDUCE THE PROBABLE WEATHER AND
CHANGES IN THE WEATHER
Weather is a result of the state of the earth’s atmosphere at any particular

time. The advances brought about by communications, computer modelling and
automated reporting stations have undoubtedly improved the speed of reporting the
state of the atmosphere and hence the prediction of the expected weather. The skill
is in the interpretation of the chart and the influence of additional forces acting upon
the atmosphere which will change the weather both on a daily basis and long term.

MODULE 4: SOLAS AND MARPOL
4.1 INTERNATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE SAFETY OF LIFE

AT SEA

1. State the lifesaving appliance required on a large yacht by LY3 (as amended)
and SOLAS
2. State the firefighting equipment required on a large yacht by LY3 (as amended)
and SOLAS
INTRODUCTION
Following the Titanic disaster in 1912, public inquiries in Britain and the United
States led to major improvements in maritime safety. One of their most important
legacies was the establishment in 1914 of the International Convention for the Safety
of Life at Sea (SOLAS), which still governs maritime safety today. The International
Convention for Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) now falls under the auspices of the IMO.
It is currently the 1974 convention with the latest amendments being from 2011.
SOLAS lays out regulations governing ship construction, fire and lifesaving
appliances, navigation, safety, security and various other aspects of the maritime
industry.
The MCA Large Yacht Code (LY3) is an industry agreed code of practice offering
an alternative method of compliance to SOLAS for vessels that cannot comply with
all the SOLAS requirements due to lack of size or their restricted area of operation.
Yachts over 500 GT must comply with the relevant chapters of SOLAS and yachts
under 500GT comply with the Large Yacht Code (as amended).
Reproduction of the SOLAS or LY3 document has not been included within
these notes but will be discussed in the classroom.
LIFESAVING APPLIANCES REQUIRED ON A LARGE YACHT BY LY3 (AS

AMENDED) AND SOLAS.
SOLAS CHAPTER III
The following table extracted from the LY3 document provides the detail required.

Figure 4.1 Required Lifesaving Appliances
FIREFIGHTING EQUIPMENT REQUIRED ON A LARGE YACHT BY LY3 (AS

AMENDED) AND SOLAS
SOLAS Chapter II-2

4.2 INTERNATIONAL REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PREVENTION OF
POLLUTION AT SEA

1. Describe the content of the SOPEP Manual, the action to be taken in the event
of an accidental oil spillage, the oil anti-pollution measures, and the associated
equipment to be carried onboard
2. State which yachts must maintain an Oil Record Book in an approved form
3. List the contents of the Oil Record Book
4. State the circumstances in which discharges of oily substances (MARPOL Annex
1) may be permitted
5. Outline the practical prevention of oil spills with particular reference to
bunkering operations
6. Outline the precautions required by MARPOL Annex IV necessary to protect the
marine environment with regard to sewage
7. Outline the garbage management plan as contained in MARPOL Annex V,
including: the requirement for record keeping, the limitations associated with
at sea garbage disposal, areas, the problems associated with garbage
segregation, and onboard storage and landing garbage in port
8. State which yachts must maintain a Garbage Record Book, have a Garbage
Management Plan and display a Garbage Placard
9. State the precautions required by (MARPOL Annex VI) necessary to protect the
marine environment with regard to air pollution and the reduction of GHG
emissions
INTRODUCTION
In 1973 a convention known as the Marine Pollution Convention (MARPOL)

convened and agreed certain measures to protect the environment. In the text of the
convention various measures are laid out in Annexes, of these 1, 1V, V and VI are
relevant to yachts, which are Petroleum Oil, Sewage, Garbage and Emissions
respectively. This convention was revised by a protocol in 1978 (a protocol does not
require the same degree of ratification by governments) which clarified some
ambiguities and stiffened enforcement measures and thus the convention is now
referred to as MARPOL 73/78. The convention was given force of law in the UK by
various acts and regulations such as The Merchant Shipping (Prevention of Pollution
by Sewage and Garbage from Ships) Regulations 2008

The particular measures necessary to prevent pollution from each of these
sources is set out in separate Annexes.
Annex I Petroleum oil (entered into force 2 October 1983)

Annex II Noxious Liquids / Bulk chemicals as cargo (entered into
force 2 October 1983)
Annex III Packaged chemicals as cargo (entered into force 1 July
1992)
Annex IV Ship sewage (entered into force 27 September 2003)
Annex V Ship garbage (entered into force 31 December 1988)
Annex VI Air Pollution (entered into force 19 May 2005)
Each Annex specifies the certificates and documents which ships must carry,
associated surveys required and the rules for preventing pollution of the marine
environment by the substances identified in that Annex.
MARPOL SPECIAL AREAS
Special Areas are identified in MARPOL as areas where for ecological reasons
the IMO has recognised the need for special measures to reduce or restrict disposal
of the various Annex substances. The selection in the Convention may be because of
one or more of the following:
1. The area is environmentally sensitive
2. There is a lack of movement of water
3. High traffic volume
4. An area of dense population.
Each Annex specifies different areas and not all the signatories recognize all of
these areas.
ANNEX 1: PREVENTION OF POLLUTION BY OIL
3 documents are required for vessels > 400 GT:
1. International Oil Prevention Pollution Certificate – valid for five years.

2. Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan - SOPEP
3. Oil Record Book

International Oil Prevention Pollution Certificate
Every United Kingdom registered oil tanker of 150 GT or above, and every
United Kingdom registered ship of 400 GT or above, must be surveyed. The survey
to be conducted by the MCA, or an approved Classification Society, to establish that
the ship’s structure, equipment, systems, fittings and arrangements satisfy the
requirements of the legislation implementing Annex I. On satisfactory completion of
the survey the ship will be issued with an International Oil Pollution Prevention
Certificate (IOPP Certificate) in the case of ships engaged on international voyages
or a United Kingdom Oil Pollution Prevention Certificate (UKOPP Certificate) in the
case of any other ship.
These certificates are valid for a maximum period of five (5) years, subject to
satisfactory annual survey within three months either side of the anniversary date of
issue and the endorsement of the certificate accordingly (Not required for UKOPP),
satisfactory completion of an intermediate survey within six months either side of the
halfway date of the period of validity, the certificate being endorsed accordingly (Not
required for UKOPP), as well as no material changes being made in the structure,
equipment, systems, fittings, arrangements or material the subject of the surveys
without MCA approval and that the flag of the ship is not changed.
If an accident occurs or a defect is discovered affecting the ship’s compliance

with these regulations it must be reported by the master or owner at the earliest
opportunity to the MCA, who may require a survey, and report to the port state
authorities of the country in which the vessel is situated. Although ships of less than
400 GT are not required to carry these certificates, they are bound by the provisions
of the Annex for the prevention of pollution by the discharge of oil.
Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan – SOPEP
The ‘Shipboard Oil Pollution Emergency Plan’ Manual is an MCA approved book
of instructions for each individual ship, and has to contain a ‘shipboard oil pollution
emergency plan’ personalised to the individual ship; in other words, the equipment
required to be carried by that ship so that it can attempt to clean up an oil spill, and
the method by which it will carry out this requirement. Vessels of more than 400 grt
(including yachts) must carry a SOPEP. This is a document which explains the
MARPOL rules with regard to when to report pollution accidents, what information to
report and whom to contact. It lists steps to be taken to control discharges under
normal operational conditions and under emergency conditions and has other
information of use to the Master. At the back are the contact details of all signatory
nations.

The contents of the SOPEP manual are as follows:
Section 1 Preamble
Section 2 Reporting requirements.
Section 3 Steps to Control Discharges
Section 4 National and Local Coordination
Section 5 Ship Specific Data
Appendices as follows:
App 1: List of coastal state contacts.
App 2: List of port contacts.
App 3: List of ship interest contacts.
App 4: Oil pollution prevention team.
App 5: Notification/ Contact list.
App 6: Damage stress and stability calculations.
App 7: Plans, drawings and ship specific details.
App 8: List of Oil Response Equipment carried onboard.
App 9: Record of oil pollution prevention drills.
App 10: Relevant Statutory Instruments and Industry Codes.
SOPEP Equipment to be carried onboard
• Oil Spill response kit according to IMO A 535/13 and OPA of 1990, section 4202
• Dimensions: 144 x 82 x 70 cm
• Stored in GRP box watertight – lockable.
• Absorption capacity: 1100 liter
• Consist of:
a. oilboom 3m x dia. 13m
b. oil sweep: 48cm x 30cm
c. oil socks 120cm x dia. 7.5cm
d. oil Truckpack KTO 100
e. oil pads 50 x 40cm
f. PVC protective gloves
g. disposal bags
Different SOPEP’s in force must be observed, depending on the trading area of

the vessel.

Subject to Port State control verification worldwide.
1. The MARPOL SOPEP (Regulation 26*)
2. The PANAMA CANAL SOPEP requires that vessel have shipboard SOPEP
equipment ready for operational spills.
3. The CALIFORNIA VRP for non-tank vessels and tank vessels, specifying
shipboard capacities capable of handling a 7-barrel (1100-litre) or 12-barrel
(1900-litre) operational spill, respectively, e.g. under 400′ LOA, the 7-barrel
rule, over 400′ LOA the 12-barrel rule.
4. The USCG approved VRP effective as of 8 August 2005 for non-tank vessels
and tank vessels, applies the same rules as for the California VRP for vessels
calling at US ports, e.g. on board capacities to be such as to handle a 7 barrel
or 12-barrel operational spill respectively.
OIL RECORD BOOK
Vessels are required to carry and maintain an approved Oil Record Book. This
book is in two parts, Part I to be kept by all ships over 400GT, and additionally Part
II is for oil tankers over 150GT.
The following must be recorded in Part I of the Oil Record Book
1. Ballasting or cleaning oil fuel tanks

2. Discharge of ballast or cleaning water from oil fuel tanks
3. Disposal of oily residue (sludge)
4. Discharge overboard of bilge water
5. Bunkering of fuel or bulk lubricating oil.
Ports are now required to provide reception facilities for all oil residues. In all
cases a receipt should be obtained from the reception facilities operator. The entry
must be made as soon as possible, signed by the officer and the master must sign
each completed page. The Oil Record Book must be kept on board readily available
for inspection for three years from the date of the last entry. If the vessel sold during
this period the books are to be kept, for the same time, at the selling owner’s office.
Oil Record Books may be inspected by the authorities of any Convention

country. Failure to make the required records available is an offence for which the
owner and master may each be liable on conviction to a fine.

ANNEX 1 OIL – SPECIAL AREAS
• Mediterranean Sea
• Baltic Sea
• Black Sea
• “Gulfs” area
• Gulf of Aden
• Antarctic Area
• North West European Waters
• Oman area of the Arabian Sea
• Southern South Africa Waters
DISCHARGE OF OIL OR OILY MIXTURE
A ship of more than 400 but less than 10,000 gross tonnes and above shall be
fitted with oil filtering equipment that is approved by the Administration and shall be
such as will ensure that any oily mixture discharged into the sea after passing through
the system has an oil content not exceeding 15 ppm.
CONTROL OF DISCHARGE OF OIL
Discharges outside special areas
Any discharge into the sea of oil or oily Mixtures from ships of 400 gross tonnes
and above shall be prohibited except when all the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The vessel is proceeding en route

2. The oily mixture is processed through an oil filtering equipment meeting the
requirements.
3. The oil content of the effluent without dilution does not exceed 15 ppm
4. The oily mixture does not originate from cargo pump-room bilges on oil
tankers; and
5. The oily mixture, in the case of tankers is not mixed with oil cargo residues.

Discharges within special areas
Any discharge into the sea of oil or oily mixtures from ship of 400 gross tonnes
and above shall be prohibited except when all of the following conditions are satisfied:
1. The ship is proceeding en route;

2. The oily mixture is processed through an oil filtering equipment meeting the
requirements and fitted with an alarm and automatic shut off.
3. The oil content of the effluent does not exceed 15 ppm
4. The oily mixture does not originate from cargo pump-room bilges on oil
tankers; and
5. The oily mixture, in the case of oil tankers, is not mixed with oil cargo residues.
In respect of the Antarctic area, any discharge into the sea of oil or oily
mixtures from any ship shall be prohibited.
REQUIREMENTS FOR VESSELS LESS THAN 400 GT IN ALL AREAS EXCEPT THE
ANTARCTIC
In the case of a ship of less than 400 GT, oil and oily mixtures shall be either
retained on board for subsequent discharge to reception facilities or discharged into
the sea in accordance with the following provisions:
1. The ship is proceeding en route;

2. The ship has in operation equipment of a design approved by the
administration that ensures that the oil content of the effluent without dilution
does not exceed 15ppm
3. The oily mixture does not originate from cargo-room bilges on oil tankers; and
4. The oily mixture, in the case of oil tankers, is not mixed with cargo residues.
SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES FOR THE DISCHARGE OF OIL
If oil or oily mixture is discharged in circumstances where one of the special

defenses can be pleaded an entry must be made in the ORB. Special defences include
any discharge made when:
1. Securing the safety of a ship
2. Saving life at sea
3. As a result of an accident such as after a collision
4. Any discharge of substances containing oil for the purpose of combating
specific pollution incidents.

PREVENTION OF OIL SPILLS WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO BUNKERING
OPERATIONS
1. Risk assessment and permit to work completed

2. Proper means of communication with the use of hand held radio sets or other
means should be established between the ships crew and the staff at the
bunkering installation to avoid misunderstandings.
3. The scuppers should be closed to make sure that no oil goes overboard.
4. Drips trays should be closed off.
5. The bunkering lines should be properly checked and fuel tank valves should be
carefully checked before commencing bunkering.
6. Valves not in operation should be effectively sealed or locked shut.
7. A sounding of all the ship tanks should be done before starting the bunkering
operation.
8. Sounding equipment should be checked properly before the bunkering starts.
9. A marker to indicate the filling up of a particular tank should be used.
10. Port authorities should be immediately contacted in case of a major oil spill.
11. There should be no damage to the hose and it should be of a sufficient length.
The couplings should also be checked for any damage.
12. High level alarms of bunker tanks should be properly checked for their
functioning.
13. The SOPEP lockers should be checked for availability of supplies.
14. Oil absorbing apparatus like oil absorbing pads should be kept at important
areas to reduce any oil leaks.
15. Make sure the bunkering plans are agreed upon by all officers onboard the
ship.
16. Discuss the procedures to be undertaken in case of an emergency with the
supplier.
17. A proper system of signals for communication should be established between
the shipboard crew and suppliers.
18. Fire extinguishers and other fire fighting apparatus should be readily available.
ANNEX IV - PREVENTION OF POLLUTION BY SEWAGE
Annex IV contains a set of regulations regarding the discharge of sewage into

the sea, ship’s equipment and systems for the control of sewage discharge, the
provision of facilities at ports and terminals for the reception of sewage, and
requirements for survey and certification. It also includes a model International
Sewage Pollution Prevention Certificate to be issued by national shipping
administrations to ships under their jurisdiction.

The Annex requires ships to be equipped with either an approved sewage
treatment plant or an approved sewage comminuting and disinfecting system or a
sewage holding tank.
Annex IV Special Areas
• Baltic Sea
Discharge of Sewage
1. Within 3 miles of land, no discharge except from an approved sewage

treatment plant.
2. Between 3 and 12 miles from land, no discharge except from an approved
sewage treatment plant or an approved system for comminuting and
disinfecting sewage.
3. More than 12 miles from land, discharges from an approved sewage treatment
plant or an approved system for comminuting and disinfecting sewage, and
discharges which are not comminuted and disinfected if the vessel is
proceeding at more than 4 knots at the flag state approved rate of discharge.
Special Circumstances for the Discharge of Sewage
May be claimed for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship and/or those
on board, saving of life at sea, or as a result of damage to vessel or its equipment
and all efforts were taken to minimize the escape.
ANNEX V - PREVENTION OF POLLUTION BY GARBAGE
As of July 1998 vessels of more than 400 GRT or those certified to carry more
than 15 persons must have a Garbage Management Plan and a Garbage Record Book.
Garbage must be segregated for disposal. Garbage can be classified into categories
laid out in Annex V of the convention, as follows: food waste, paper, crockery, rags,
metal, glass, plastics, dunnage, and packing materials.
Garbage Management Plans
All ships of 100 gross tonnes and above, every ship certified to carry 15
persons or more, and every fixed or floating platform will have to carry a garbage
management plan, which includes written procedures for minimizing, collecting,
storing, processing and disposing of garbage, including the use of the equipment on
board (regulation 10.2). The garbage management plan should designate the person
responsible for the plan and should be in the working language of the crew. Resolution
MEPC.220(63) provides the 2012 Guidelines for the development of garbage
management plans.
Garbage Record Book
Implementation and enforcement is also the focus of regulation 10.3, which

requires all ships of 400 gross tonnage and above and every ship which is certified
to carry 15 persons or more engaged in voyages to ports and offshore terminals
under the jurisdiction of another Party to the Convention and every fixed or floating
platform to provide a Garbage Record Book and to record all disposal and incineration
operations.
The date, time, position of the ship, description of the garbage and the
estimated amount incinerated or discharged must be logged and signed. The Garbage
Record Book must be kept for a period of two years after the date of the last entry.
This regulation does not in itself impose stricter requirements - but it makes it easier
to check that the regulations on garbage are being adhered to as it means ship
personnel must keep track of the garbage and what happens to it. It may also prove
an advantage to a ship when local officials are checking the origin of discharged
garbage - if ship personnel can adequately account for all their garbage, they are
unlikely to be wrongly penalised for discharging garbage when they have not done
so. When garbage is landed to shore reception facilities a receipt must be obtained
from the port so that you can prove that you disposed of it correctly.
The appendix to MARPOL Annex V provides a standard form for a Garbage

Record Book. Matters which should be addressed in the garbage plan:
1. Designated person in charge of carrying out the plan
2. Procedures for collection garbage
3. Procedures for processing garbage
4. Procedures for storing garbage or reusable or recyclable material
5. Procedures of discharging of garbage
Garbage Placard
Every ship of 12m in length or over are required to display placards notifying
passengers and crew of the disposal requirements of the Annex: these placards
should be written in the working language of the ship’s crew and also in English,
French or Spanish for ships travelling to other states’ ports

Annex V – Special Areas
• Mediterranean Sea • Antarctic area (south of latitude

• Baltic Sea 60° South)
• Black Sea • Wider Caribbean region
• Red Sea including the Gulf of Mexico and
• “Gulfs” area Caribbean Sea
• North Sea
Special Circumstances for the Discharge of Garbage
May be claimed for the purpose of securing the safety of the ship and/or those
on board, saving of life at sea, or as a result of damage to vessel or its equipment
and all efforts were taken to minimize the escape.
USA Waste Management Plan

Not strictly part of this course but very relevant to all yacht captains operating
in US Waters. (Refer to 33 CFR 151.67)
The Master of the vessel is designated as the person in charge of waste

management including authorised trash disposal for the vessel while it is within the
navigable waters of the United States, its Exclusive Economic Zone, or in international
waters.
Although the task of disposal may be delegated, the responsibility for

compliance with the requirement of MARPOL 73/78 and all relevant domestic
statutes, rules and regulations remains with the Master. Each person handling waste
is required to follow the Waste Management Plan.
• All refuse will be collected, processed and disposed of property on a daily basis.
• All refuse will be contained in plastic bags and stored in an area defined for
this purpose.
• The Galley hand and/or Cook will be responsible for refuse generated by the
galley.
• The Engineer and/or Oiler will be responsible refuge generated by the engine
spaces.
• The A.B. and/or O.S. will be responsible for refuse from all other areas of the
vessel.
• The Master will insure that all stored refuse transported will be removed from
the vessel promptly and properly deposited into an approved port or terminal
facility.

• All garbage will be handled and disposed of in accordance to the regulations
posted on Waste Management Plan Placards.
Simplified Overview of the Discharge provisions of the Revised
MARPOL Annex V (resolution MEPC.201(62))
Entered into force: January 2013
Offshore
platforms
Ships outside Ships within and all ships
Type of Garbage
special areas special areas within 500 m
of such
platforms
Discharge permitted Discharge permitted Discharge permitted
Food waste
≥3 nm from nearest ≥12 nm from nearest ≥12 nm from
comminuted or ground
land and en route land and en route nearest land
Discharge permitted
Food waste not
≥12 nm from nearest Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
comminuted or ground
land and en route
Cargo residues1 not
contained in wash Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
Discharge permitted
water
≥12 nm from nearest
Cargo residue1 Discharge only
land and en route
contained in wash permitted in specific Discharge prohibited
water circumstances2
and
Cleaning agents and
≥ 12 nm from
additives1 contained in Discharge prohibited
nearest land
cargo hold wash water
and en route.
Cleaning agents and Discharge Permitted
additives1 contained in
Discharge permitted Discharge prohibited
deck and external
surfaces wash water
Carcasses of animals Discharge permitted
carried on board as as far from nearest
Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
cargo and which died land as possible and
during the voyage en route
All other garbage
including plastics,
domestic wastes,
cooking oil, incinerator Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited Discharge prohibited
ash, operational
wastes and fishing
gear
When garbage is mixed with or contaminated by other substances
Mixed garbage prohibited from discharge or having different requirements, the
more stringent requirements shall apply
1 These substances must not be harmful to the marine environment.

2 According to regulation 6.1.2 of MARPOL Annex V, the discharge shall only
be allowed if: (a) both the port of departure and the next port of destination
are within the specific area and the ship will not transit outside the special
area between these ports (regulation 6.1.2.2); and (b) if no adequate
reception facilities are available at those ports (regulation 6.1.2.3).
ANNEX VI - PREVENTION OF AIR POLLUTION FROM SHIPS
MARPOL Annex VI, first adopted in 1997 applies to all vessels 400 gt and
above, limits the main air pollutants contained in ships exhaust gas, including sulphur
oxides (SOx) and nitrous oxides (NOx), and prohibits deliberate emissions of ozone
depleting substances (ODS). MARPOL Annex VI also regulates shipboard incineration,
and the emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOC) from tankers.
A revised MARPOL Annex VI came into force 2010 which will progressively
reduce global emissions of SOx, NOx and particulate matter and the introduction of
emission control areas (ECAs) to reduce emissions of those air pollutants further in
designated sea areas.
Under the revised MARPOL Annex VI, the global sulphur cap will be reduced
from current 3.50% to 0.50%, effective from 1 January 2020, subject to a feasibility
review to be completed no later than 2018. The limits applicable in ECAs for SOx and
particulate matter were reduced to 0.10%, from 1 January 2015.
Progressive reductions in NOx emissions from marine diesel engines installed

on ships are also included, with a “Tier II” emission limit for engines installed on a
ship constructed on or after 1 January 2011; and a more stringent "Tier III" emission
limit for engines installed on a ship constructed on or after 1 January 2016 operating
in ECAs (North American Emission Control Area and the U.S. Caribbean Sea Emission
Control Area). Marine diesel engines installed on a ship constructed on or after 1
January 1990 but prior to 1 January 2000 are required to comply with “Tier I”
emission limits, if an approved method for that engine has been certified by an
Administration.
INTERNATIONAL AIR POLLUTION PREVENTION CERTIFICATE (IAPPC)
The IAPPC is issued by Class and renewed every 5 years subject to annual and
intermediate surveys.

It covers the following emissions:
• Ozone depleting substances from refrigeration plants and fire fighting
equipment
• Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) from diesel engines
• Sulphur Oxides (SOx) from diesel engines
• Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from cargo tanks of oil tankers
• Shipboard incineration
• Fuel oil quality
ODS Record Book
Vessels require to keep a record of all ozone depleting substances (ODS) kept
on board, and when they are added and removed to/from plants.
Mandatory Technical and Operational Energy Efficiency
A chapter adopted in 2011 covers mandatory technical and operational energy

efficiency measures aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions from ships. These
regulations will be dealt with at the newbuild stage of yacht’s life. The engine room
and machinery will have to comply and certificates issued.
Emission Control Areas (ECA) and Environmentally Sensitive Sea Areas

(ESSA).
Annex VI establishes Emission Control Areas (ECA) and Environmentally

Sensitive Sea Areas (ESSA) which equate to special areas in the other annex..
ECA - Emissions of sulphur oxide (SOx), nitrogen oxide (NOx) and particulate matter
from ships are controlled within these areas. There are 4 ECAs currently in place:
1. Baltic Sea
2. North Sea
3. North America
4. United States Caribbean Sea
ESSA - Environmentally Sensitive Sea Areas
Areas that require special protection through action by IMO because of its significance
for recognized ecological or socio-economic or scientific reasons and which may be
vulnerable to damage by international maritime activities. The criteria for the
identification of particularly sensitive sea areas and the criteria for the designation of
special areas are not mutually exclusive. In many cases a Particularly Sensitive
Sea Area may be identified within a Special Area and vice versa.

MODULE 5: SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND THE CODE
OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES FOR
MERCHANT SEAFARERS
5.1 PERSONAL HYGIENE AND SAFETY

1. Outline the importance of complying with the health and hygiene requirements
2. State the importance of personal care in hot climates.
3. Outline the importance of regular inspections of accommodation.
COMPLIANCE WITH THE HEALTH AND HYGIENE REQUIREMENTS
The aim of the Code as a whole is to provide information and guidance aimed
at improving the health and safety of those living and working on board ship. Section
2.4 gives some more specific advice to the seafarer:
It is the responsibility of individuals to ensure high standards of personal

hygiene and to look after their own health. Attention should be paid to:
• Seafarer’s responsibility to look after own health and fitness.
• High standards of personal cleanliness and hygiene required.
• Simple infections spread rapidly through ship. Take preventative measures.
• Good health depends on sensible diet and adequate sleep. Regular exercise.
• No recreational drugs. Avoid excess of alcohol and tobacco.
• Treatment to be sought right away for minor injuries to avoid infection. Barrier
creams may help avoid dermatitis.
• Avoid risk of malaria by avoiding mosquito bites; netting, keeping openings
closed, use of insecticides.
• Never handle dead or alive rats as they often carry diseases.
• Maintenance of working clothes and protective equipment in clean condition.
• Appropriate dress for the work and climate.
On international voyages, any vaccinations/inoculations required should be

fully updated. Medications for the prevention of illness (e.g. anti-malarial tablets)
should be taken as and when required.
In hot climates, it is important to protect the skin from strong sunlight and
drink plenty of salt-containing liquids to replace the body fluids lost through
perspiration.

THE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL CARE IN HOT CLIMATES
High humidity and heat can lead to heat exhaustion and heat stroke. Replace
perspiration (salt and water) by drinking at least 4.5 litres of cool, not iced, water
daily. Small quantities at a time. Salt can be taken in food, supplemented by salt-
containing drinks to prevent heat cramps. Alcohol should be avoided. Dioralyte
sachets/tablets are good for replacing fluid and electrolyte loss.
If working in enclosed spaces, they should be well ventilated. Minimum of light

clothing to be worn.
Working outside, wear light cotton clothing to reflect the heat. Keep well
covered to avoid sun burn.
When working in exceptionally hot and humid conditions or when wearing

respiratory equipment, breaks at intervals in the fresh air or in the shade may be
necessary.
THE IMPORTANCE OF REGULAR INSPECTIONS OF ACCOMMODATION

All ships move in a seaway and as space is very limited aboard any vessel,
good housekeeping is essential for safe working/access and hygiene control. The
employer should regularly inspect accommodation to maintain standards and access
any wrongs such as possible misuse of drugs. In particular:
• Safe access to all parts of the vessel.
• Safe and secure stowage of loose items.
• Proper securing of doors and drawers.
• Good maintenance of fittings and fixtures.
• Adequate illumination of all work/transit/accommodation areas.
• Avoidance of overloading of electrical circuits particularly in cabins.
• Clear and legible signs/operational notices, and inspection plates.
• Garbage and waste materials cleared up and disposed of correctly.
• Signs of infestation (cockroaches).
• All ventilation clear.
• LSA and FFA stowed correctly and clear, ready for immediate use.
• Emergency exits clear. All living spaces must have 2 escape routes.

5.2 CODE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES FOR MERCHANT
SEAFARERS

1. Outline the content of the Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant
Seafarers (2015) and describe its use in the management of safety on board
a yacht
2. State the regulatory status of the Code of Safe Working Practices for Merchant
Seafarers.
3. State the importance of personal responsibility for ensuring safe working
practices, safe work area and following safety procedures
4. Outline the principles of risk assessment and describe the permit to work
system
5. Describe and list the precautions necessary and the dangers involved in the
following; enclosed space entry, working over the side, working at height,
launching and recovering tenders (including making way), using chemicals,
using power tools and mooring.
6. Outline the requirements of the COSHH regulations as a source of information
available for chemicals that are potentially hazardous when used or carried
onboard.
7. Describe the importance of pre-task safety briefings (tool box talks)
8. Describe the importance of fire prevention on board and firefighting emergency
training exercises
THE CONTENT OF THE CODE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES FOR MERCHANT

SEAFARERS (2015) AND DESCRIBE ITS USE IN THE MANAGEMENT OF
SAFETY ON BOARD A YACHT
The Code of Safe Working Practices (2015) is a major shift from the previous
edition of 2011 with changes in the following areas:
• Increased emphasis on practical guidance rather than legislation.

• Improved guidance on risk assessment.
• Simplified advice on permits to work.
• Dangerous (Enclosed) Space chapter updated.
• New content on good safety culture, fatigue and ergonomics.
• Revised chapter on vessels serving offshore oil and gas.Each chapter
provides best practice guidance for improving health and safety on board
ship.

A list of the chapter subjects follows:
Chapter 1 Managing occupational health and safety
Chapter 2 SAFETY INDUCTION
Chapter 3 LIVING ON BOARD
Chapter 4 EMERGENCY DRILLS AND
Chapter 5 FIRE PRECAUTIONS
Chapter 6 SECURITY ON
Chapter 7 HEALTH SURVEILLANCE
Chapter 8 PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
Chapter 9 SAFETY SIGNS AND THEIR USE
Chapter 10 MANUAL HANDLING
Chapter 11 SAFE MOVEMENT ON BOARD SHIP
Chapter 12 NOISE, VIBRATION AND OTHER PHYSICAL AGENTS
Chapter 13 SAFETY OFFICIALS
Chapter 14 PERMIT TO WORK SYSTEMS
Chapter 15 ENTERING DANGEROUS (ENCLOSED)
Chapter 16 HATCH COVERS AND ACCESS LIDS
Chapter 17 WORK AT HEIGHT
Chapter 18 PROVISION, CARE AND USE OF WORK EQUIPMENT
Chapter 19 LIFTING PLANT AND OPERATIONS
Chapter 20 WORK ON MACHINERY AND POWER SYSTEMS
Chapter 21 HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES AND
Chapter 22 BOARDING ARRANGEMENTS
Chapter 23 FOOD PREPARATION AND HANDLING IN THE CATERING
DEPARTMENT
Chapter 24 HOT WORK
Chapter 25 PAINTING
Chapter 26 ANCHORING, MOORING AND TOWING OPERATIONS
Chapter 27 ROLL-ON/ROLL-OFF FERRIES
Chapter 28 DRY Cargo
Chapter 29 TANKERS AND OTHER SHIPS CARRYING BULK LIQUID CARGOES
Chapter 30 PORT TOWAGE INDUSTRY
Chapter 31 SHIPS SERVING OFFSHORE OIL AND GAS INSTALLATIONS
Chapter 32 SHIPS SERVING OFFSHORE RENEWABLES – to follow in 2016
Chapter 33 ERGONOMICS
The new publication will greatly assist in the promotion of a safety culture on
board and the daily management of the tasks and their associated risks.

THE REGULATORY STATUS OF THE CODE OF SAFE WORKING PRACTICES FOR
MERCHANT SEAFARERS
The Code provides authoritative guidance on best practice in health and safety
on board ships and is endorsed by the National Maritime Occupational Health and
Safety Committee. It details the regulatory framework for health and safety on board
ship, safety management and statutory duties underlying the advice.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR ENSURING SAFE

WORKING PRACTICES, SAFE WORK AREA AND FOLLOWING SAFETY
PROCEDURES
All personnel, at every level of the Company, need to be fully engaged and
committed to nurturing and developing the safety culture.
All personnel have a role to play and they can adversely affect others on board
by their acts and/or omissions. For these reasons, it is important that:
• there are well-defined rules and guidelines, which are clearly understood;
• responsibilities are clearly defined for all on board and ashore;
• consequences of unacceptable (safety) behaviour are made clear; and
• there is a fair, transparent and consistent response to unacceptable safety
behaviour, commonly referred to as a ‘just culture’.
THE PRINCIPLES OF RISK ASSESSMENT AND DESCRIBE THE PERMIT TO

WORK SYSTEM
Risk assessment must address risks to the occupational health and safety of
seafarers. There are no fixed rules about how risk assessment should be undertaken.
The assessment will depend on the type of ship, the nature of the operation, and the
type and extent of the hazards and risks. The intention is that the process should be
simple, but meaningful. The relevant legislation regarding risk assessments should
be referred to when deciding on what methodology will be employed. There is a
requirement that seafarers must be informed of any significant findings of the
assessment and measures for their protection, and of any subsequent revisions
made. It is therefore advisable that copies are carried on board each vessel and that
there is a process for regular revisions to be carried out. In particular, the risk
assessment must be reviewed and updated as necessary, to ensure that it reflects
any significant changes of equipment or procedure or the particular circumstances at
the time, e.g. the weather or level of expertise of those carrying out the task.

Risk assessment should be seen as a continuous process. In practice, the risks
in the workplace should be assessed before work begins on any task for which no
valid risk assessment exists.
A very effective approach that is employed by some companies is to use a

four-level process, as outlined below.
Risk Assessment - Level 1

The ISM Code requires that the safety management objectives of the Company
should, amongst other things, assess the risks associated with all identified hazards
in respect of its ships, personnel and the environment, and establish appropriate
safeguards.
These risk assessments, sometimes known as generic risk assessments,

should therefore be carried out at a high level in the Company with appropriately
knowledgeable and experienced personnel, and the results used to ensure that
appropriate safeguards and control measures are contained within the Company’s
safety management system in the form of policies, procedures and work instructions.
Risk Assessment - Level 2: Task based

In addition to the general requirements under the ISM Code, the Merchant
Shipping and Fishing Vessels (Health and Safety at Work) Regulations 1997 require
that a suitable and sufficient assessment shall be made of the risks to the
occupational health and safety of seafarers arising in the normal course of their
activities or duties.
There are vessel and task-specific risk assessments that must be carried out
on board each vessel. Whilst it is clear that the Company can assess the generic risk
of, for example, working at height, working with electricity, movement about ship,
etc., it is not possible for them to conduct a risk assessment for changing a navigation
light bulb up the main mast on a given vessel on a given day because they would not
be able to take into account all the factors that were applicable at that time on that
vessel. For this reason, it is essential that any generic risk assessments are used in
context, and not seen as being suitable for specific tasks. For this, task-based risk
assessments (TBRAs) should be carried out on board each vessel by those involved
in the work.
Two distinct types of TBRA may be used. First, a range of vessel-specific

generic TBRAs that can be used for all routine and low-risk tasks can be developed.
These should be periodically reviewed, but frequency would very much depend on
the particular circumstances on the vessel and the level of risk.

The second type of TBRA would be used for specific high-risk jobs that are not
routine, such as working aloft or enclosed space entry. These should relate to the
specific persons who will be involved in the work and valid only for the duration of
that job.
In both cases, the assessments should be carried out by a competent person

or persons who understand the work being assessed. It is also preferable that
seafarers who will be involved in the work should also be involved in the assessment
process.
Risk Assessment - Level 3: Toolbox Talk

A toolbox talk is another form of risk assessment carried out in support of a
TBRA. Its prime purpose is to talk through the procedures of the job in hand and the
findings of the TBRA with the seafarers involved.
When carrying out a toolbox talk, it is important to actively involve those

carrying out the work and others who may be at risk, i.e. seafarers, sub-contractors
and others on board ship who may be affected by the work. Full and active
participation should be encouraged and any questions or concerns discussed and
taken into consideration. Once finished, confirm that all fully understand their role in
the task and the precautions in place (‘closed-loop communication’). This should then
be recorded along with details of any relevant risk assessment referred to.
A toolbox talk should be conducted prior to any work being carried out that
involves more than one person and where there is significant risk to persons or
assets.
Risk Assessment - Level 4: Personal Assessment of Risk

This is an informal assessment of day-to-day risks carried out as you are going
about your work and life in general. It is a technique used to ensure that we perform
even the most mundane of tasks without getting hurt. It is used to maintain
awareness of our environment at all times and aid in the identification and control of
immediate hazards as we go about our work. Use of personal assessment of risk
should be developed and encouraged.
This is about taking a few minutes to step back, look at the job to be done,
consider what could go wrong and how it may occur, and what steps you can
personally take to avoid any incident occurring. As the work is proceeding, you should
also monitor the worksite for any change in conditions that might alter the hazards
and controls in place. If there is any concern, stop the work, re-assess the controls
and, if necessary, re-plan and re-assess the task.

This approach may also be called a ‘dynamic risk assessment’. If the person
does not believe that the dynamic risk assessment is sufficient move back to stage
2.
Every task carried out on board the vessel should be subject to risk
assessment. This does not mean that a risk assessment needs to be written every
time a simple task is carried out, but the existing risk assessment must be referred
to as part of a toolbox talk (stage 3) before the task can commence to ensure that
the hazards and controls are fully understood, still relevant and appropriate.
Once the task commences, it is important to monitor the work site for any
changes in conditions that might alter the hazards and controls in place. If there is
any concern, stop work authority should be used.
In all cases, on completion of the task, it is important to record or feedback any
lessons learned and make improvements for next time including, where appropriate,
reviewing and updating existing risk assessments. Everyone should be encouraged
to contribute.
It is recommended that a proactive hazard-reporting system with

empowerment and expectation for immediate corrective action is also in place and
that information on hazards and risks is shared as widely as possible.
PERMIT TO WORK SYSTEMS
There are many types of operation on board ship when the routine actions of
one person may inadvertently endanger another, or when a series of action steps
needs to be taken to ensure the safety of those engaged in a specific operation. In
all instances, it is necessary, before the work is done, to identify the hazards and
then to ensure that they are eliminated or effectively controlled.
The safety management system for individual ships will determine when permit to
work systems should be used, and the form of the permit to work. In using a permit
to work, the following principles apply:
• The permit should be relevant and as accurate as possible. It should state the
location and details of the work to be done, the nature and results of any
preliminary tests undertaken, the measures undertaken to make the job safe
and the safeguards that need to be taken during the operation.
• The permit should specify the period of its validity (which should not exceed
24 hours) and any time limits applicable to the work that it authorises.
• Only the work specified on the permit should be undertaken.
• Before signing the permit, the authorised officer should ensure that all
measures specified as necessary have in fact been taken, or procedures are in
place.
• The authorised officer retains responsibility for the work until they have either
closed the permit or formally transferred it to another authorised officer who
should be made fully conversant with the situation. Anyone who takes over
from the authorised officer, either as a matter of routine or in an emergency,
should sign the permit to indicate transfer of full responsibility.
• The competent person responsible for carrying out the specified work should
countersign the permit to indicate their understanding of the safety
precautions to be observed.
• On completion of the work, the competent person should notify the authorised
officer and get the permit closed.
• The competent person carrying out the specified work should not be the same
person as the authorised officer.
Various examples of permits can be found in the Annex to chapter 14.
THE PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY AND THE DANGERS INVOLVED IN THE

FOLLOWING
Enclosed Space Entry

An enclosed space is one that: (IMO Resolution A.1050(27))
• has limited openings for entry and exit;
• has inadequate ventilation; and
• is not designed for continuous worker occupation.
Any enclosed space deprived of regular and constant ventilation may become
a ‘dangerous space’. The UK regulations define a dangerous space as: ‘Any enclosed
or confined space in which it is foreseeable that the atmosphere may at some stage
contain toxic or flammable gases or vapours, or be deficient in oxygen, to the extent
that it may endanger the life or health of any person entering that space.’
Working Over the Side, Working at Height

Anyone working in a location where there is a risk of falling may be regarded
as working at height. This includes undertaking work inside a tank, near an opening
such as a hatch, or on a fixed stairway. Further guidance is contained in marine
guidance note (MGN) 410(M+F). Work at height should be subject to risk assessment,
and suitable control measures should be taken to protect those who may be put at
risk. Depending on the severity of the risk, a permit to work may be required (e.g.
for working aloft).

Launching and Recovering Tenders (Including Making Way)
Personnel involved in the launching and recovery should be competent and
familiar with the equipment. The main dangers associated are the release of the
tender on entering the water and moving away from the side of the vessel and its
recovery from a seaway.
Using Chemicals
Relevant MGNs give further guidance on the handling of chemicals and should
be consulted. Particular emphasis is given to health monitoring for those exposed to
chemicals. Employers should ensure workers are instructed to familiarise themselves
with the accompanying data sheet for any chemical agents they may use in the course
of their work. They should also be aware of the potentially hazardous gaseous by-
products that may be produced from the reaction of a cleaner/de-scaling product and
the object itself, or products used together, because this may result in an
asphyxiating, explosive or another hazardous atmosphere. Chemicals should always
be handled with the utmost care. Industrial formulations may be stronger. Eyes and
skin should be protected from accidental exposure or contact.
Using Power Tools

A thorough knowledge of the safety with regards to the particular power tool.
Follow any manufacturing precautions. Risk assessment and permit to work
established.
Mooring
All seafarers involved in anchoring, mooring and towing operations should be
given additional instruction on the specific equipment and mooring configurations
used on the vessel. This should include (but may not be limited to):
• the types of winches and windlass and their operation;
• the location of emergency stop buttons;
• the types of ropes and/or wires used; and
• the location and use of rollers, dollies and leads.
The requirements of the COSHH regulations as a source of information

available for chemicals that are potentially hazardous when used or carried on board.
Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH)
COSHH is the law that requires employers to control substances that are hazardous
to health. You can prevent or reduce workers’ exposure to hazardous substances by:
• finding out what the health hazards are;
• deciding how to prevent harm to health (risk assessment);
• providing control measures to reduce harm to health;
• making sure they are used;
• keeping all control measures in good working order;
• providing information, instruction and training for employees and others;
• providing monitoring and health surveillance in appropriate cases;
• planning for emergencies.
THE IMPORTANCE OF PRE TASK SAFETY BRIEFINGS (TOOL BOX TALKS)
The pre task safety meeting is essential when ensuring that all those employed
in the task understand the planning, the risk assessment and the control methods to
be employed. Good communications will assist in the understanding of the task and
also the realisation when changes occur which might impact on the completion and
safety of the task.
THE IMPORTANCE OF FIRE PREVENTION ON BOARD AND FIREFIGHTING

EMERGENCY TRAINING EXERCISES
The materials used in the construction of the vessel are controlled with regards
to fire control. Fire and smoke alarms will indicate and provide the required
information as to the extent and space under fire. However, prevention of the fire
with good housekeeping and awareness of fire hazards will promote the overall
safety.
Emergency training on board to practice the management of the fire teams

and the use of onboard equipment is vital. Various spaces should be selected to
practice assess and the problems that might be encountered by fire control teams.
The debrief of these exercises will update the risk assessments previously carried
out.

5.3 SAFETY ORGANIZATIONS AND ROLE AND RESPONSBILITY OF
THE SAFETY OFFICER

1. State the role of master, safety officer and safety representative
2. Describe the role of the safety committee
3. Summarize the duties of employer with regard to safety officers, safety
representatives and safety committees
4. Outline the importance of the ISM Code
5. Define the objectives of a Safety Management System under the ISM Code
6. Describe the requirement for and importance of safety meetings
7. Describe the practical aspects of safety inspections
8. Define the importance of keeping records
9. Explain the duties and powers of the Safety Officer
THE ROLE OF MASTER, SAFETY OFFICER AND SAFETY REPRESENTATIVE
The Master
The Master has the day-to-day responsibility for the safe operation of the ship
and the safety of those on board.
The Safety Officer

The Safety Officer is the safety adviser aboard the ship and can provide
valuable assistance to the Company and to individual employers in meeting the
statutory responsibilities for health and safety. Some training may be provided on
board, but the safety officer should have attended a suitable safety officer’s training
course. The safety officer’s role should be a positive one, seeking to initiate or develop
safety measures before an incident occurs rather than afterwards. The safety officer
should do the following:
• Be on the lookout for any potential hazards and the means of preventing
incidents.
• Try to develop and sustain a high level of safety consciousness among
seafarers so that individuals work and react instinctively in a safe manner and
have full regard to the safety not only of themselves but also of others. The
objective is to become the ship’s adviser on safety to whom the master, officers
and all seafarers will naturally turn for advice or help on safe working
procedures.
• Where unsafe practice is observed, approach the individual or responsible
officer concerned to suggest improvements in the method of working or use
the safety committee to discuss examples of dangerous or unsafe practices in
a particular area. If this brings no improvement, the safety officer should

consider approaching the head of department or, as a last resort, the master
to use their influence.
• Ensure that each worker joining the ship is instructed in all relevant health and
safety arrangements, and of the importance attached to them before starting
work.
• Where possible, ensure that arrangements are made for each new entrant to
work with a seafarer who is thoroughly safety conscious.
• Remind experienced seafarers joining the ship for the first time of the
importance of a high level of safety consciousness and of setting a good
example to less experienced seafarers.
• arranging the distribution of booklets, leaflets and other advisory material on
safety matters;
• supervising the display of posters and notices, replacing and renewing them
regularly;
• arranging for the showing of films on safety publicity and, where appropriate,
organising subsequent discussions on the subjects depicted;
• encouraging seafarers to submit ideas and suggestions for improving safety
and enlisting their support for any proposed safety measures which may affect
them (the person making a suggestion should always be informed of decisions
reached and any action taken); and
• effectively communicating new requirements or advice in relevant shipping
legislation, marine notices and Company and ship’s rules and instructions
relating to safety at work about the ship.
THE ROLE OF THE SAFETY COMMITTEE
The Company is required to appoint a safety committee on every ship with five
or more seafarers. The committee must be chaired by the master, and members will
include, as a minimum, the safety officer and any elected safety representatives. The
role of the safety committee is to:
• Ensure that the provisions of the Code of Safe Working Practices,
• relevant legislation, Marine Guidance Notices and Merchant Shipping
• Notices are complied with;
• Improve the standard of safety consciousness among the crew;
• Make representations and recommendations on behalf of the crew to the
Company/Operator on matters relating to occupational health and safety of
the crew;
• Ensure the Company’s/Operator’s occupational health and safety policies are
observed and to make recommendations for their improvement,
• Inspect any of the records required to be kept by the Safety Officer and ensure
that any conclusions reached on matters of safety are followed up.

THE DUTIES OF EMPLOYER WITH REGARD TO SAFETY OFFICERS, SAFETY
REPRESENTATIVES AND SAFETY COMMITTEES.
Every employer is required to appoint one or more competent persons to

promote health and safety in their undertaking. On board some large ships, where
there are personnel working who are employed by several different employers, each
employer must appoint (a) competent person(s). They do not have to work on the
ship themselves, but to be ‘competent’ for the task they should have a knowledge of
the duties undertaken by those for whom they are responsible, and should ensure
that any specific risks encountered as a result of that particular working environment
are dealt with appropriately, e.g. by checking that the Company has adequate safety
procedures for all on board, and by coordinating risk assessments with the Company.
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE ISM CODE
International Safety Management (ISM) Code under the provisions of chapter

IX of the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), 1974,
became mandatory for companies operating certain types of ships, as from 1 July
1998. The code is designed to:
• Ensure Safety at Sea
• Prevent human injury or loss of life
• Avoid damage to the environment and to the ship.
THE OBJECTIVES OF A SAFETY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM UNDER THE ISM CODE
Safety Management System (SMS) consists of the following elements:

• Commitment from top management
• A Top Tier Policy Manual
• A Procedures Manual that documents what is done on board the ship, during
normal operations and in emergency situations
• Procedures for conducting both internal and external audits to ensure the ship
is doing what is documented in the Procedures Manual
• A Designated Person Ashore to serve as the link between the ships and shore
staff and to verify the SMS implementation
• A system for identifying where actual practices do not meet those that are
documented and for implementing associated corrective action
• Regular management reviews

THE REQUIREMENT FOR AND IMPORTANCE OF SAFETY MEETINGS
On every sea-going ship on which more than five workers are employed, the
Company is required to appoint a ‘safety officer’; the Master must record this in the
official logbook.
On every ship on which more than 5 workers are employed, the company must
make arrangements for the election of safety representatives.
• With a crew of 6-15, 1 elected by officers and ratings together.
• With a crew of 16+ normal to have one elected by officers and one by ratings.
Once safety representatives have been elected, the Company must appoint a
‘Safety Committee’. The committee must be chaired by the master, and members
will include, as a minimum, the safety officer and all elected safety representatives.
If practical, include another competent person appointed by employers other than
Company.
Safety meetings are the way in which ideas and concerns about health and
safety can be freely discussed, and where new recommendations can be proposed.
It is the chance for all departments of the ship to have a say. It also gives a chance
for the master to encourage the safety officer and crew over health and safety
aspects. As a general rule the frequency of the meetings is about every 4-6 weeks.
THE PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF SAFETY INSPECTIONS
The regulations require the safety officer to carry out health and safety
inspections of each accessible part of the ship at least once every three months, or
more frequently if there have been changes in the conditions of work. Accessible
means all parts of the ship to which any member of the crew has access without prior
authority.
It is not necessary to inspect the whole ship at the same time. The safety
officer must be accompanied by the officer responsible for the compartment.
Before beginning an inspection, consult previous reports of inspections,

together with recommendations and subsequent action taken. The control measures
identified in any risk assessment should also be read and checked during the
inspection. There is no definitive check list, but safe access, the environment and
working conditions are major items. (See COSWP Annex 13.1)

THE IMPORTANCE OF KEEPING RECORDS
The safety officer must maintain a record of all accidents and dangerous
occurrences. On a ship where no safety officer is appointed, this duty falls to the
Company. These records must be made available on request to any safety
representative, the master or to any person duly authorised by the Secretary of
State. Any record of incidents and dangerous occurrences should contain the
information contained in paras 3.14.10-12. The records must be kept for the life of
the ship
The duties and powers of the Safety Officer.

• To maintain a good working relationship with safety representatives.
• To try and ensure compliance with the Code and any health and safety
guidance and instructions for the ship.
• To promote safety onboard, by booklets, leaflets, posters, films; by
encouraging the crew to submit ideas.
• Effective communication of new requirements.
• To investigate notifiable accidents or dangerous occurrences affecting persons
on board ship or during access, as well as potential hazards to health and
safety and any reasonable complaints made by any personnel, and to make
recommendations to the master.
• To carry out safety inspections every 3 months.
• Must maintain a record of all accidents and dangerous occurrences.
• The safety officer has a duty to stop any work which he reasonably believes
may cause a serious accident and immediately to inform the master.

5.4 REPORTING OF UNSAFE PRACTICES AND INCIDENTS

1. Outline the importance of reporting “near miss” incidents
2. Describe the process of accident investigation
3. Describe the action required on encountering an unsafe operation
4. Explain the importance of rectifying and eliminating unsafe conditions and
potential hazards
THE IMPORTANCE OF REPORTING ‘NEAR MISS’ INCIDENTS.
Near misses can be as informative as real incidents in learning about necessary

safety features and guidelines. The information gathered can upgrade risk
assessments.
THE PROCESS OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
The investigation of accidents and incidents plays a very important part in

safety. It is by the identification and study of accidents principally through the MAIB’s
accident reporting system that similar events may be prevented in future.
Requirements are in MSN No.1584. The master is responsible for reports but he/she
may use the safety officers’ findings.
The priority after an accident is to take care of the injured. The safety officer
should establish the immediate facts. He/She should record the names (and
addresses of non-crew) of all witnesses. He/She should note and mark the position
of the injured and the use and condition of any protective equipment or of any tools
likely to have been used. Possession should be taken of portable items. Sketches and
photographs are often very useful.
The Safety Officer then investigates compliance with control measures in risk
assessment; type of access equipment used; any effect of external factors like ice,
water on deck; use of ancillary equipment; state of safety features like guardrails;
distances; weather conditions.
Interviews of witnesses should take place as soon as possible when memories

are still fresh. The actual interview should be carried out in an informal atmosphere
designed to put the witness at ease. Statements for signature by the witness should
be prepared as quickly as possible.

• Preserve the evidence
• Take written statements
• Conduct onboard investigation
• Make reports to: MAIB, and Insurance Company, National State Pollution
Authority, Designated person ashore, and to MCA, before leaving next port, if
ship no longer seaworthy
THE ACTION REQUIRED ON ENCOUNTERING AN UNSAFE OPERATION.
The safety officer has a duty to stop any work which he/she reasonably
believes may cause a serious accident and immediately inform the master, who is
responsible for deciding when work can be safely resumed.
RECTIFYING AND ELIMINATING UNSAFE CONDITIONS AND POTENTIAL

HAZARDS
A ship which takes action to rectify unsafe conditions will win the respect and
trust of its crew members. If the potential hazards are not eliminated, then at some
stage there will be inefficiency and the likelihood of an accident.
5.5 PRINCIPLES OF PLANNING WORK ACTIVITIES, SETTING

OBJECTIVES AND PRIORITIES TO ENSURE REQUIREMENTS
ARE MET

1. State the importance of onboard working relationships
2. Describe the importance of crew resource management
3. Outline the strategies for encouraging effective and working relationships
ON BOARD WORKING RELATIONSHIPS
The Code of Conduct for the Merchant Navy applies to any officer or rating
once he has signed the crew agreement. It is agreed to by NUMAST, RMT, the CoS
and approved by the MCA. It means that the seafarer can be dismissed or given
warnings depending on the severity of his misconduct, such as:
1. Informal warning administered at an appropriate level lower than that of the
master.
2. Formal warning by the head of department which will be suitably recorded.
3. Formal warnings by the master recorded in the ship’s official logbook.

4. Written reprimands administered by the master and recorded in the ship’s
official logbook.
Orders must be given and obeyed if a ship is to operate safely and efficiently.
Co- operation cannot be imposed but will normally be forthcoming if the request is a
reasonable one.
An important factor in securing co-operation, which cannot be too strongly

stressed, is good communications. This applies both to communications between a
company’s shore-based administration and the ship and to communications within
the ship itself. If all concerned are kept as fully informed as possible about the
company’s (owner’s) policies and objectives and can be made to feel that they have
a personal stake in the successful outcome of the voyage upon which they are
engaged, co-operation and harmony will be much more readily assured.
THE IMPORTANCE OF CREW RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
The importance of investing in the crew on board as a resource is crucial to

the improvement of co-operation and the building of team work. The reduction of
crew sizes, the introduction of multinational crews and the globalisation of the
shipping industry has resulted in reduction in shipping safety. The formal awareness
of flag states to introduce crew resource management is the reaction to this changing
world of shipping.
The establishment of trained and certified crew operated under guidelines from
flag states and monitored under the framework from management companies
provides a structure which improves safety and the perception of the vessel’s
management.
THE STRATEGIES FOR ENCOURAGING EFFECTIVE WORKING

RELATIONSHIPS
The manager’s role in motivating includes the responsibility of staff to work for
what they want.
Some Principles of Motivation:

• What your staff expect and what they value
• Deal with fear of failure and to assist with motivation
• Create a need.
• Develop a sense of personal responsibility.
• Create and maintain an interest.
• Create and use real world applications
• Invest in training

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MASTER SEAMANSHIP

Antibes, Palma, Fort Lauderdale

These notes form a part of a programme of study leading to command qualifications

This publication is a training aid - under no circumstances should it be used as legal

© Copyright. Bluewater Yachting (Antibes, France; Ft. Lauderdale, FL). 2016

Purpose of this Book

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

MODULE 2: Navigation and Passage Planning 50

MODULE 4: SOLAS and MARPOL 122

MODULE 5: Safety Management and the Code of Safe Working

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Required Resources: Bluewater Crew Training Course Notes

Certification: MCA Master Seamanship and Meteorology Certificate.

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 2: Precautionary measures for maintaining buoyancy

Topic 3: Procedures when towing and being towed

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 5: Procedures for bringing a vessel to anchor

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 7: Actions in Emergency situations

Topic 8: Response in emergency

Topic 9: Action required in the event of loss of essential

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 10: Watchkeeping

Topic 11: Navigation in Ice

Topic 12: General Meteorology

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 13: Tropical Revolving Storms

Topic 14: Weather Forecasting

a) Can interpret marine weather forecasts

SECTION 4: SOLAS and MARPOL

Topic 15: International requirements for safety of life at sea

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

a) Can describe the content of the SOPEP Manual,

SECTION 5: SAFETY MANAGEMENT AND THE CODE OF

Topic 17: Personal hygiene and safety

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Topic 19: Safety Organization and Role and Responsibility of

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

a) Can outline the importance of reporting “near miss” incidents

Topic 21: Principles of planning work activities, setting

a) Can state the importance of onboard working relationships

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

Upon completion of this topic, the student should be able to:

It is important to realise the kinds of movement a ship will display when

Figure 1.1 Kinds of Movement of Ships

Along the transverse axis:

Along the vertical axis:

HEAVING: This involves the bodily upwards and downward acceleration of

PRECAUTIONS NECESSARY WHEN HEAVY WEATHER IS FORECAST

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

• Verify ships position. Investigate safe port options. Attempt to re-route

THE DANGERS OF SYNCHRONOUS ROLLING

As previously stated, the performance of a vessel in a seaway is dependent

DANGERS TO THE VESSEL AND CREW OF HEAVY ROLLING AND PITCHING

Whenever a vessel is underway, it is no longer a stable working platform, as

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

When a vessel is running before a following sea it is normal to experience

KEY: V = Ship Speed in Knots, v L = Length of Ship

Figure 1.2 Potential Surf Riding Zone in Relation to the

MASTER SEAMANSHIP AND METEOROLOGY © Bluewater Crew Training

HEAVING TO, BOW OR STERN TO THE SEA

A vessel heaves-to due to the stress of weather. The ship is manoeuvred to

DANGERS OF SQUALLS TO SAILING VESSELS