GEN.

BIO [2ND QUARTER]

Membrane Transport
Cell Membrane
– Important for maintaining/regulating
homeostasis because it controls what enters
and leaves a cell.
- Composed of phospholipid bilayer that has a:
a. Head (polar = hydrophilic)
b. Tail (non-polar = hydrophobic)
c. Proteins
Proteins
a. Integral Proteins : proteins which pass
into the bilipid layer and are like tunnels
or channels for the passage of water
and/or other substances
Types:
1. Uniporter – transports substances in
a unidirectional manner depending on
the concentration gradient.
2. Symporter – transports different type 2 Types of Cell Transport:
of molecules in the cell membrane at 1. Active Transport – requires energy
the same time 2. Passive Transport – doesn’t require
3. Antiporter – transports different type energy
of molecules in the cell membrane at
Types of Passive Transport
different time
b. Peripheral Proteins : acts as receptors 1. Simple Diffusion
for hormones, recognition centers and - particles move from an area of higher
antigens. concentration to an area of lower
concentration.
- example:
a. movement of oxygen from air into
blood
b. movement of carbon dioxide out of the
blood into the surrounding air in the
lungs
2. Osmosis
- diffusion taking place across a semi-
permeable membrane
- movement of water through a semi-
permeable membrane from an area of
high concentration to relatively low
concentration of water
 - CONCENTRATION OF CELL CONTENTS

Hypertonic Isotonic Hypotonic

Relative Lower Equal Higher

Concentration concentration concentration concentration
(more solute (more solute
outside the inside the cell)
cell)

Effect on cell Shrink Stay the same Enlarge

2. Exocytosis
- vesicles from the inside of the cell fuse
a. Hypertonic – water moves out of the
with the plasma membrane which
cell by osmosis
travels across the membrane to be
b. Isotonic – water stays the same
released outside the cell
c. Hypotonic – water moves into the cell
- usually applies to enzymes and
by osmosis
hormones
Name Direction Requirement Examples

Energy Diffusion High to low Concentration Lipid-soluble

not concentrati gradient molecule and
Require on gases
d

Facilitat High to low Channels/carri Some sugars,

ed concentrati er; amino acids,
Diffusion on concentration sodium ions,
gradient chloride ions

3. Facilitated Diffusion
- relies on carrier proteins in order for Energy Active Low to high Carrier and Sugars, amino
Require Transpo concentrati ATP acids, ions
the substances (amino acids, glucose, d rt on
etc.) to move down their concentration
gradient
Bulk Toward Vesicle Macromolecul
- integral proteins serve as gates which Transpo inside or utilization es
open and close in regulating the flow of rt outside

substances.

Types of Active Transport
1. Endocytosis
- intake of large molecules
- the portion of plasma membrane
invaginates to enclose the substance
a. Phagocytosis – the vesicle holds a
solid substance
b. Pinocytosis – the vesicle contains a
liquid material
c. Receptor-mediated endocytosis –
the molecule binds to the surface of
the membrane
Genetics
Genetics – science of studying hereditary
information
Heredity – refers to the passing of traits from
the parents to their offspring
Hereditary Characteristics – characteristics
that are passed on from one generation to
another (skin complexion, eye color, etc.)
Gregor Johann Mendel – father of Modern
Genetics
Punnet Square – a chart used in studying the
possible combinations of genes and analysis of
the possible outcomes during crossbreeding
MONOHYBRID CROSS – crossbreeding involving
a single trait or character factor
Parental generation – where pure breeding
varieties produce only one form of a particular
trait
Phenotype – observable expressions or
physical appearance of the trait (round or
wrinkled, etc.)
Genotype – genes located inside the nucleus of
the cells that are responsible for the observed
traits (Pp, PP, pp, etc.)
Hybrid – offspring produced from a cross of two
pure beeds
Gene – controls the appearance of a trait
Recessive Traits – factors that are prevented to
appear
Allele – factors that may be hidden or may
prevent the appearance
Dominant Allele – represented by a
capital letter (R, P, U)
Recessive Allele – represented by a
small letter (r, p, u)
Gamete – a pair of allele (PP, Pp, pp)
Heterozygous – in crossing traits, when
dissimilar alleles are produced
Homozygous – in crossing traits, when similar
alleles are produced
DIHYBRID CROSS – crossing of trait using two
pairs of alleles
Mendelian Principles
Reasons Why Peas Are Used for Mendel’s
Experiment:
 Had easily observable and variety of
contrasting traits (7 traits he could easily
manipulate)
 Grows through self-pollination
 Peas had been shown to be true-
breeding (all offspring will have the same
characteristic generation after
generation)
 Peas grow quickly and easily
 Do not require much space
Law of Heredity – studies of Mendel regarding
genetics
 The Principle of Dominance and
Recessiveness
- states that one factor in a pair may
mask the expression of the other
- allele that is expressed = dominant
allele
- allele that is masked but reappears in F2
generation = recessive allele
 The Law of Segregation
- states that a gene pair carries two
separate characteristics
- common example : egg cell, sperm cell
Insert pic
 The Law of Independent Assortment
- states that during the gamete
formation, the gene pair assorts
independently
- inheritance of one trait is not affected
by the inheritance of another trait
Non-Mendelian Patterns of Inheritance
 Incomplete Dominance
- states that the pattern of inheritance,
where an intermediate phenotype other
than the two parental phenotypes, is
observed
- in some cases, the dominant failed to
cover or hide the recessive allele
- no allele is completely dominant over
the other
 Codominance
- condition wherein both alleles are
expressed resulting in the formation of
the third phenotype/characteristics
- third phenotype ≠ blending of two
parental traits
 Multiple Alleles
- common example: blood
- there are three or more alleles that
may exist in the gene of a given
population
3 Common Alleles
a. IA
b. IB
 c. IO Nucleotide – building block of the DNA
- IA and IB are dominant over IO or i Parts of Nucleotide
Different Blood Groups 1. Four bases
Phenotype Genotypes Antigen on Plasma 2. Five-carbon sugar deoxyribose
RBC Antibodies 3. Phosphate group
A IA IA ; IA IO or IA i A Anti-B
B IB IB ; IB IO or IB i B Anti-A
AB II
A B
A and B None
O I I ;ii
O O
None Anti-A and
Anti-B

Genetic Engineering
The Genetic Material: DNA
Gene – capable of storing genetic information
- undergo mutation
- an important segment of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that
signifies a unique protein that controls a
specific function in the cell
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
- genetic material that contains all the genetic
information
- responsible in controlling all cellular activities
within living organisms
- found in the mitochondria (mtDNA) and
nucleus (nuclear DNA)
4 DNA Bases
a. Adenine (A) Watson and Crick Model
b. Guanine (G) - In 1953, James Watson and Francis Crick
c. Cytosine (C) developed the structure of DNA as “double
d. Thymine (T) helical structure”
Pairings - the structures contain two sugar phosphates,
Adenine (A) – Thymine (T) the DNA base pairs that are linked by hydrogen
bonds
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)
DNA Replication
Types of Bases
1. Replication Fork Formation
1. Purines – have double ring structures  The double stranded molecule must be
(Adenine and Guanine) “unzipped” into two single strands and it
2. Pyrimidines – contain a sintering is done by an enzyme called DNA
structure (Cytosine and Thymine) helicase
 DNA helicase disrupts the hydrogen
bonding between base pairs to separate
 the strands into a Y shape known as the
replication fork
 Replication fork is bi-directional:
- 3’ to 5’ direction = leading strand
- 5’ to 3’ direction = lagging strand
2. Primer Binding
 A short piece of RNA (primer) binds to
the 3’ end of the strand
 The primer always bind as the starting
point for replication
 Primers are generated by the enzyme
DNA primase
3. Elongation
 DNA polymerases are responsible in
creating the new strand by a process
called elongation
 DNA polymerase binds to the strand
during replication
 The lagging strand begins replication by
binding with multiple primers. Each
primer is only several bases apart
 DNA polymerase adds pieces of DNA
called Okazaki fragments
4. Termination
 Once both the continuous and
discontinuous strands are formed,
exonuclease removes all RNA primers
from the original strands.
 These primers are replaced with
appropriate bases
 DNA ligase joins Okazaki fragments
together forming a single unified strand
RNA (ribonucleic acid)
- contains a long strand made up of nucleotides
- has a single chain and does not form a double
helix structure
4 Bases:
a. Adenine (A)
b. Guanine (G)
c. Cytosine (C)
d. Uracil (U) – instead of Thymine
Pairings
Adenine (A) – Uracil (U)
Cytosine (C) – Guanine (G)
Comparison between DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose
Bases A,T,G,C A,U,G,C
Strands Double strands Single strand
helix Yes No
Genetic Engineering
Genetic Engineering – A process in which the
genes are being altered and the DNA is
transferred from one organism to another
Transgenic Organism – an organism’s genes are
altered for a specific purpose
Artificial Selection – a process in which humans
use animal breeding and plant breeding to
selectively develop particular phenotypic traits
by choosing which typically animal or plant
males and females will sexually reproduce and
have offspring together
Cloning – a method that scientists use to
produce a genetic copy of another individual
Restriction enzymes – used to cut DNA at
specific sequences
Uses of Genetic Engineering
1. Development of gene therapy, wherein a
genetic defect will be repaired
2. Enhancing an effect already natural to
that organism
3. Resistance against diseases or any other
external damages
4. Extraction of microorganism that
produces human insulin for diabetes, or
a sheep to produce human blood-clotting
protein in her milk; in both cases, a
transgenic method
5. Improvement in the ripening of fruits
without getting squashy
Process of Genetic Engineering
First step: Choose the gene of interest from a
source organism
Second step: Gene of interest is extracted and
isolated using restriction enzymes to cut DNA
into fragments
By gel electrophoresis – fragments separate by
length
Isolated fragment needs to be replicated; the
process is known as gene cloning
Third step: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is
used to replicate and amplify gene segment
The gene of interest is ready for insertion
A vector needs to be used in order to insert the
gene of interest to the recipient organism
(usually bacteria)
Fourth step: The transgene is inserted into the
bacteria, which then delivers it into cells of the
organism being engineered
Gene Gun Method – another technique of
transformation where it shoots microscopic
gold particles coated with copies of the
transgene into cells of the recipient organism
5 Steps of Cloning
1. Isolation of donor DNA fragment or gene
2. Selection of suitable vector
3. Incorporation of donor DNA fragment
into the vector
4. Transformation of recombinant vector
into a suitable host cell
5. Isolation of recombinant host cell
Gel Electrophoresis
- a technique used to separate DNA fragments
according to their size
Purpose
- visualize, identify and distinguish molecules
that have been processed by a previous method
Steps
1. Preparing the samples for running
- DNA is isolated and preprocessed and
made up in solution with some basic blue
dye to help visualize the movement of the
sample through the gel
2. An agarose gel solution is prepared
- The agarose percentage used id
determined by how big or small the DNA
is expected to be
3. Casting the gel
- The agarose solution is poured into a
casting tray that once the gel solution
has cooled down and solidified, creates a
gel slab with a row of wells at the top
4. Setting up the electrophoresis chamber
- The solid gel is placed into a chamber
filled with buffer. The gel is positioned so
that the chamber wells are closest to the
negative electrode of the chamber
5. Loading the Gel
- The gel chamber wells are loaded with
the DNA samples and usually, a DNA
ladder is also loaded as reference for
sizes
6. Electrophoresis
- The negative and positive leads are
connected to the chamber and to a power
supply where the voltage is set. Turning
on the power supply sets up the electric
field and the negatively charged DNA
samples will start to migrate through the
gel and away from the negative electrode
towards the positive
7. Stopping Electrophoresis and Visualizing
the DNA
- Once the power supply is turned off and
the gel is removed, place it into an
ethidium bromide solution. Ethidium
bromide intercalates between DNA and
is visible in UV light. DNA bands are
visualized in from each lane
corresponding to a chamber well
Dolly’s Background
 1997, the first cloned animal is
produced, as seven-month-old
sheep
 Dolly was a clone of her mother
 Dolly had three mothers:
a. One mother gave Dolly her
DNA
b. Second mother supplied an
egg
c. Third mother, her surrogate
mother, gave birth to her
 Dolly was an identical twin of the
mother who gave her DNA
 Dolly and her mothers were not
identical in every way, thus having
different personalities
 In 2003, Dolly died after more or
less 7 years if survival
 Dolly’s sisters (Debbie, Denise,
Diana, and Daisy) are reported
still alive until the age of 9 (70
human years)
 Dolly’s clone sisters are derived
from the mammary gland cell line
and foetal skin cells
Inorganic Compounds
Element - substance that cannot be broken
down to other substance by ordinary chemical
reaction
Compounds – an atom of element bonds with
another atom of another element
Organic compounds – contains carbon
Inorganic compounds – does not contain carbon
Water: The Universal Solvent
 Solution is composed of a solvent
(dissolving agent) and a solute
(substance dissolved)
 Water’s versatility as solvent results
from the polarity of molecule
Characteristics and Functions of Water
1. Biological Solvent – ability to dissolve
many substances including essential
molecules in the body
2. High Heat Capacity – a large amount of
heat is needed to increase in
temperature; thus, it helps in maintaining
a constant body temperature
3. High Heat of Vaporization – helps in
preventing dehydration in an organism
4. High Heat of Fusion – helps organism
from freezing at low temperature
5. Medium for Chemical and Physical
Processes – can serve as a place for
exchanging gases and nutrients and
elimination of wastes
6. Means of Transport – can serve as a
transporter/vehicle in the distribution of
nutrients, gases, and collection of waste
products all over the body
Acids
 Inorganic compounds that taste sour
 Change color of certain indicators (turn
litmus paper into red)
 React with some metals and bases
 Promote chemical reactions (acid
catalysts) in a water solution
COMMON ACIDS:
o Acetic acid (vinegar)
o Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)
o Citric acid (citrus fruits)
o Carbonic acid (soft drinks)
o Hydrochloric acid (found in stomach)
Bases
 Type of inorganic compounds that
accepts hydrogen ions
 Has a bitter taste
 Is slippery
 Turns red litmus paper into blue
COMMON BASES:
o Sodium hydroxide (found in soap)
o Potassium hydroxide
o Ammonium hydroxide
o Antacids
pH Scale – describe the acidity and basicity of a Seven Major Elements and Their Functions
solution Symbol Name Function
- The scale ranges from 0 (most acidic) to 14  Makes u 18% of the mass of
(most basic) the human body
 Helps in cellular respiration
C Carbon by which the body releases
energy stored in glucose
Characteristic Acid Base Neutral  Main components of
organic compounds
Taste Sour Bitter Salty
 Accounts 10% of the mass of
pH Level has a pH has a pH pH is equal to
the human body
lesser than greater than 7
 Essential in energy
7 7
production
H Hydrogen
Litmus paper Blue to red Red to blue No reaction  H= ion can be used as a
test proton pump to produce
ATP to regulate numerous
Reaction to Colorless Reddish No reaction chemical reactions
phenolphthalein pink/pink
 The most abundant element
Reaction with Reacts with Reacts with Reacts with in the body
metals metals grease/oil acid and O Oxygen  Makes up 61-65% of the
base mass of the human body
Examples Lemon juice, Baking soda, Iodized salt,  Use for cellular respiration
vinegar, cuticle magnesium  Approximately makes up
milk remover, chloride 3% of the mass of the
aspirin, N Nitrogen
human body
detergent  Key elements for proteins,
 nucleic acids, and other
organic molecules
 About 1.2% to 1.5% of the
mass of the human body
 Important for bone
structure
P Phosphorus
 Primary energy molecule in
the body
 Major components of
nucleic acids
 About 0.20% to 0.25% of
human body weight
S Sulfur  Important component of
amino acids and proteins
 Allows cells to use oxygen
 Accounts for 1.5% of human
body weight
 Gives skeletal system its
Ca Calcium rigidity and strength
 Found in bones and teeth
 Important for muscle
functions