GEOPROCESSING

Overlay/Proximity/Table Management/ Surface

creation/ Statistical/Extract Analysis

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 Types of Analysis
• Proximity analysis
– Identifying bgeographical features ased on their distance from
other features
• Overlay analysis
– Superimposing two or more layers to a common coordinate
system in order to show the relationships between features
• Extract analysis
– Spatially extracting features by locations between features
• Others

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 Overlay Analysis
• One of the most basic questions asked of a GIS
is "What's on top of what?" For example:
– What land use is on top of what soil type?
– What parcels are within the 100-year floodplain?
("Within" is just another way of saying "on top
of.")
– What roads are within what counties?
– What wells are within abandoned military bases?

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 Overlay Analysis
• An overlay operation is much more
than a simple merging of line work; all
the attributes of the features taking
part in the overlay are carried through,
as shown in the example below, where
parcels (polygons) and flood zones
(polygons) are overlaid (using
the Union tool) to create a new
polygon dataset.
• The parcels are split where they are
crossed by the flood zone boundary,
and new polygons created.
• The FID_flood value indicates whether
polygons are outside (-1) or inside the
flood zone, and all polygons retain
their original land-use category values.
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 Overlay Analysis
• In the illustration below, logging roads (lines) and vegetation types
(polygons) are overlaid to create a new line feature class. The lines
have been split where they were intersected by polygons, and each
line feature has been assigned the attributes of both original layers.
The lines are shown symbolized by the vegetation type associated
with each.

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 Overlay Method
• Feature overlay
– The key elements in feature overlay are the input layer, the overlay
layer, and the output layer.
– The overlay function splits features in the input layer where they are
overlapped by features in the overlay layer.
– New areas are created where polygons intersect. If the input layer
contains lines, the lines are split where polygons cross them.
– These new features are stored in the output layer—the original input
layer is not modified.
– The attributes of features in the overlay layer are assigned to the
appropriate new features in the output layer, along with the original
attributes from the input layer.

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 Point on Polygon

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 Line on Polygon

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 Polygon on Polygon

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 Overlay Method
• Raster overlay
– In raster overlay, each cell of each layer references the same
geographic location.
– That makes it well suited to combining characteristics for numerous
layers into a single layer.
– Usually, numeric values are assigned to each characteristic, allowing
you to mathematically combine the layers and assign a new value to
each cell in the output layer.

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 Overlay Analysis
• Erase
– Removing the portion of the input layer (A) which falls within the
erase layer (B)
– Attribute data from the input layer (A)
Wetlands New Development Saved wetlands
(A)

(B)

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 Overlay Analysis
• Identity
– Computing a geometric intersection of the input layer (A) and
identity layer (B)
– Attribute data from both layers

Subdivision boundary
(A)

(B)
Subdivision within and not
Market boundary within the market boundary
of a new store
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 Overlay Analysis
• Intersect
– Cutting out an input layer (A) with the feature from an overlay
layer (B) to produce an output layer
– Attribute data from both layers (A+B)

Farmland
(A)

(B) Farmland within a

new station area
Buffer of a new station
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 Overlay Analysis
• Spatial Join
– Joining tables of two layers based on the relative locations of the
features in the two layers
– No changes on geometries
– Attribute data from both layers (A+B)
(A) Parcel
PID LU
1 SF
2 AG
3 IND

(B) Census Block PID LU BID POP

BID POP
1 SF CA1010 100
CA1010 100
2 AG CA1010 150
CA1011 150
3 IND CA1011 80
CA1012 80
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 Overlay Analysis
• Symmetrical Difference
– Creating those portions of the input layer (A) and update layer
(B) which do not overlap
New development not in
– Attribute data from both layers wildlife habitat & Wildlife
habitat not within new
Wildlife development
(B) habitat
(A)

New
development

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 Overlay Analysis
• Union
– Combining features of an input layer (A) with the polygons from
an overlay layer (B) to produce an output layer that contains full
extent of both layers
– Attribute data from both layers (A+B)
Habitat of endangered species
(A)

(B)
Habitat of a newly identified New layer of habitat of
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 Overlay Analysis
• Update
– Updating the attribute and geometry of the input layer (A) by
the update layer (B)
– Attribute data from the input layer (A) and matched fields from
the update layer (B)
New Development
Phase 1, 2, & 3
Phase 1 & 2
(A)

(B)
Phase 3
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 Proximity Analysis
• How close is this well to a landfill?
• Do any roads pass within 1,000 meters of a stream?
• What is the distance between two locations?
• What is the nearest or farthest feature from
something?
• What is the distance between each feature in a layer
and the features in another layer?
• What is the shortest street network route from some
location to another?

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 Proximity Analysis
• Proximity tools can be divided into two categories depending on the type
of input the tool accepts: features or rasters.
• The feature-based tools vary in the types of output they produce.
• For example,
– the Buffer tool outputs polygon features, which can then be used as
input to overlay or spatial selection tools such as Select Layer By
Location.
– The Near tool adds a distance measurement attribute to the input
features.
• The raster-based Euclidean distance tools measure distances from the
center of source cells to the center of destination cells.
• The raster-based cost-distance tools accumulate the cost of each cell
traversed between sources and destinations.

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 Proximity Analysis
• Vector Distance tool

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 Proximity Analysis
• Vector Distance tool

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 Proximity Analysis
• Buffer
– Creating area features at a specified distance around the input
features
• Near
– Calculating the distance from each point in one feature class to
the nearest point or line feature in other feature class

Buffer Analysis Near Analysis

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 Proximity Analysis
• Point distance
– Calculating the distance from each point in one feature class to
all of the points within a given search radius in another feature
class
• Thiessen polygons
– Creating polygon features that divide the available space and
allocate it to the nearest point feature

Point Distance Thiessen Polygon

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Analysis Analysis
 Proximity Analysis
• Layer and Table View-
– Select Layer By
Location allows you to
change the set of selected
features in GIS by finding
features in one layer that
are within a given distance
of (or share one of several
other spatial relationships
with) features in another
feature class or layer.
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 Proximity Analysis
• Network distance tool- some distance
analyses require that the measurements be
constrained to a road, stream, or other linear
network.

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster Distance Tool

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster Distance Tool

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster Distance Tool

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster based distance tool
– Euclidean distance- Euclidean distance is straight-
line distance, or distance measured "as the crow
flies." For a given set of input features, the
minimum distance to a feature is calculated for
every cell.

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster based distance tool
– Euclidean allocation divides an area up and
allocates each cell to the nearest input feature.
This is analogous to creating Thiessen polygons
with vector data.

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster based distance tool
– Euclidean direction gives each cell a value that
indicates the direction of the nearest input
feature.

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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster based distance tool
– Cost distance - In contrast
with the Euclidean distance
tools, cost distance tools take
into account that distance
can also be measured in cost
(for example, energy
expenditure, difficulty, or
hazard) and that travel cost
can vary with terrain, ground
cover, or other factors
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 Proximity Analysis
• Raster based distance tool
– Path distance - The path
distance tools extend the cost
distance tools, allowing you to
use a cost raster but also take
into account the additional
distance traveled when moving
over hills, the cost of moving up
or down various slopes, and an
additional horizontal cost factor
in the analysis.

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 Table analysis and management
• Almost all GIS data is stored or represented as a simple
database table.
• For example,
– feature classes are tables with a shape attribute (an attribute in a
table is also termed a field or column), rasters can be viewed as tables
of attributes, and most GIS databases have stand-alone tables
containing attributes that can be related to other tables by a common
attribute.
• When constructing a database or performing analysis, much
of your time will be spent managing tables:
– adding and calculating new attributes, copying tables or their rows
from one location to another, converting tables containing text strings
of coordinate values into features, relating one table to another, or
calculating summary statistics.
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 Table analysis and management

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 Table analysis and management
• Analysis of tabular data
– Analyzing tabular data often involves finding how many of
something belong to a given category or looking at the
distribution of values for a set of things.
– Often the particular things that you are interested in are
surrounded by many others that are slightly (or very)
different.
– Finding features based on those differences often involves
combining data from different sources by joining tables or
by spatial joins and overlays, then selecting and calculating
values in fields

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 Table analysis and management
– This frequency table tells you that there are almost five
times as many residential parcels than office parcels and
that a small minority of the parcels belong to the utility or
institutional categories.

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 Table analysis and management
• Conversion- convert data to ARCGIS format

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 Table analysis and management
• Conversion- convert data to ARCGIS format

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 Table analysis and management
• Conversion- convert data to ARCGIS format

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 Table analysis and management
• Conversion- convert data to ARCGIS format

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 Table analysis and management
• Geocoding
– You can also create points by matching values in a table
against a reference feature class.
– One way of doing this is geocoding, where the table
contains address information and the reference feature
class contains street and area information.

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 Table analysis and management
• Linear referencing
– Match locations according to distance along a line,
called linear referencing.
– This method can be used to create point events at a given
distance along a line or line events that follow the line
from a given location to another location.

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 Surface creation and analysis
• What are surfaces?
– Surfaces represent phenomena that have values at every point
across their extent.
– These may be based on direct measurement, such as height
values for an elevation surface, or temperature values for a
temperature surface; between these measured locations, values
are assigned to the surface by interpolation.
– Surfaces can also be mathematically derived from other data,
such as slope and aspect surfaces derived from an elevation
surface, a surface of distance from bus stops in a city, or
surfaces showing concentration of criminal activity or
probability of lightning strikes.

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 Surface creation
• Creating surfaces
– Surfaces can be created from vector features or
from other surfaces.
– Interpolation is a common tool in creating surface
analysis
– Can derive features such as area, distance,
direction, and slope.

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 Surface creation
• Interpolation tools
– Interpolation tools
create a continuous
surface from discrete
samples with measured
values, such as elevation
or chemical
concentration.

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 Surface creation
• Surface interpolated from
point values using IDW
interpolation
• surface interpolated from
point values using Natural
Neighbors interpolation.
• Interpolated from point
values using Spline
interpolation.
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 Surface creation
• surface interpolated from
point values using Kriging

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 Surface creation
• Density surfaces interpolated
from point and line features
• Topo To Raster interpolation
from elevation points,
contour lines, stream lines,
and lake polygons
• TIN surface created from
point, line, and polygon
features
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 Surface Analysis
• Surface analysis involves several kinds of
processing, including extracting new surfaces from
existing surfaces, reclassifying surfaces, and
combining surfaces.
• Tools extract or derive information from a surface,
a combination of surfaces, or surfaces and vector
data.

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 Surface Analysis
• Terrain analysis tools
– primarily designed for the analysis of raster terrain
surfaces. These include Slope, Aspect, Hill shade,
and Curvature tools.
• The Slope tool calculates the maximum rate of change from a
cell to its neighbors, which is typically used to indicate the
steepness of terrain

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 Surface Analysis
• The Aspect tool calculates the direction in which the
plane fitted to the slope faces for each cell.

• Hillshade shows the intensity of lighting on a surface

given a light source at a particular location; it can
model which parts of a surface would be shadowed
by other parts.

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 Surface Analysis
• Curvature calculates the slope of the slope (the
second derivative of the surface), that is, whether a
given part of a surface is convex or concave.
• Convex parts of surfaces, like ridges, are generally
exposed and drain to other areas.
• Concave parts of surfaces, like channels, are
generally more sheltered and accept drainage from
other areas.

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 Surface Analysis
• Visibility tools
– The Line Of Sight tool identifies whether or not
one location is visible from another, and whether
or not the intervening locations along a line
between the two locations are visible.

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 Surface Analysis
• Visibility tools
– The Observer Points tool identifies which
observers, specified as a set of points, can see any
given cell of a raster surface.
– The Viewshed tool calculates, for each cell of a
raster surface and a set of input points (or the
vertices of input lines), how many observers can
see any given cell.

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 Surface Analysis
• Volume tools
– Used to calculate volumes from surface information.
– These tools calculate the difference in volume
between a raster or TIN surface and another surface.
– Depending on the tool, the other surface might be
specified by a horizontal plane at a given elevation or
by a second raster or TIN surface.
• Surface volume
• Cut and fill
• TIN difference
• TIN polygon volume

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 Surface Analysis
• Reclassification tools
– One way to convert surface data into more usable
information for an analysis is to reclassify the surface.
– Reclassifying a surface sets a range of values equal to a
single value.
– Reclassify a surface so that areas with cells above a given
value, or between two critical values, are given one code,
and other areas are given another; or, you might use
the Reclassify tool to divide a surface up into a given
number of classes as a means of aggregating and
generalizing detailed data.

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 Statistical Analysis
• Statistical analysis helps you extract additional
information from your GIS data that might not be
obvious simply by looking at a map—information
such as how attribute values are distributed,
whether there are spatial trends in the data, or
whether the features form spatial patterns.
• Unlike query functions—such as identify or selection,
which provide information about individual
features—statistical analysis reveals the
characteristics of a set of features as a whole.

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 Statistical Analysis
• Uses of statistical analysis
– Statistical analysis is often used to explore your data

– To summarize data

– To identify and confirm spatial patterns

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 Statistical Analysis
• Types of statistical analysis
– Table statistics

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 Statistical Analysis
• Types of statistical analysis
– Spatial Statistics

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 Statistical Analysis
• Types of statistical analysis
– Raster statistics

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