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Sedimentological evolution of Sele Formation deep-marine

depositional systems of the Central North Sea
JAMES ELDRETT1,2, EFTHYMIOS TRIPSANAS2*, CHRISTOPHER DAVIS2,
TOM MCKIE2, MANUEL VIEIRA2, PETER OSTERLOFF2 &
TOM SANDISON2
1
Shell International Exploration and Production Inc., Shell Technology
Center Houston, 3333 Highway 6 South, Houston, TX 77082, USA
2
Shell UK Ltd, Altens Farm Road, Nigg, Aberdeen AB12 3FY, UK
*Corresponding author (e-mail: efthymios.tripsanas@shell.com)

Abstract: The Paleocene –Eocene-aged Sele Formation is developed across the basinal region of
the Central North Sea. The section comprises a number of deep-marine fan systems that expanded
and contracted across the basin floor in response to relative sea-level changes on the basin margin
and fluctuating sediment yield off the Scottish landmass modulated by climate and hinterland
uplift. Persistent sediment entry points to the basin resulted in the development of discrete axial
and transverse fan fairways with a geometry dictated by an irregular bathymetry sculpted by differ-
ential compaction across Mesozoic faults, halokinesis and antecedent fan systems. A high-resol-
ution biostratigraphic framework has allowed the evolution of fan-dispersal systems in response
to these effects to be tracked across the basin within four genetic sequences. The proximal parts
of the fans comprised channel complexes of low sinuosity, high lateral offset, and low aggradation.
The development of these systems in a bathymetrically confined corridor of the Central Graben (c.
65 km wide), combined with high sediment supply, resulted in the eventual burial of any under-
lying relief. The behaviour of sand-rich reservoirs in this region is dominated by the permeability
contrast between high-quality channel fairways and more heterolithic overbank regions, with the
potential for early water breakthrough and aquifer coning in the channel fairways, and unswept
volumes in overbank locations. Compartmentalization of compensationally stacked channel
bodies occurs locally, with stratigraphic trapping caused by lateral channel pinch-outs, channel-
base debrites, mud-rich drapes and abandonment fines. Towards the southern part of Quadrant
22, approximately 150 km down-palaeoflow, the systems became less confined and in this
region are dominated by channel–lobe complexes, which continued to interact with an irregular
bathymetry controlled by antecedent fans, mass-transport complexes and halokinesis in the form
of rising salt diapirs. Reservoirs in this region are inherently stratigraphically compartmentalized
by their heterolithic lithology and compensational stacking of lobes, and further complicated by
structuration and instability induced by the diapiric or basement structures needed to generate a
trapping structure in these settings.

The Sele Formation, spanning the Thanetian (c.
56.8 Ma) through to the Ypresian (c. 55 Ma), com-
prises a series of deep-water turbidite systems
located within the Central North Sea region (Fig.
1) and contains some of the most prolific hydro-
carbon reservoirs in the basin (Deegan & Scull
1977; Isaksen & Tonstad 1989; Mudge & Copestake
1992a, b; Vining et al. 1993; Bowman 1998). Four
distinct sandstone members are identified within
the Sele Formation (cf. Hempton et al. 2005): the
Forties, Bittern, Cromarty and Gannet Sandstone
members (Fig. 2), which broadly correspond to dis-
crete fan systems or phases of fan activity across the
basin. These sandstone members are bracketed by
regionally extensive seismic reflectors (top Ekofisk
Formation at mid-/late Danian, c. 63 Ma, and
top Balder Formation at mid-Ypresian, c. 53.6 Ma)
that are recognized across the basin (Ahmadi et al.
2003). This sand-prone interval forms a regional
hydrocarbon migration pathway, as well as assisting
in regulating the pressure regimes in the deeper
Central Graben formations (Ahmadi et al. 2003;
Robertson et al. 2013).
The Sele Formation was deposited as part of
the post-rift fill of the North Sea following a suc-
cession of Jurassic extensional events (Stewart
1987; Morton et al. 1993; Fraser et al. 2003), and
the main depositional centres located in the Central
Graben during the Paleocene were largely a product
of thermal subsidence and differential compaction

From: McKie, T., Rose, P. T. S., Hartley, A. J., Jones, D. W. & Armstrong, T. L. (eds) 2015.
Tertiary Deep-Marine Reservoirs of the North Sea Region. Geological Society, London,
Special Publications, 403, 63– 98. First published online April 16, 2015, http://dx.doi.org/10.1144/SP403.9
# 2015 The Author(s). Published by The Geological Society of London. All rights reserved.
For permissions: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/permissions. Publishing disclaimer: www.geolsoc.org.uk/pub_ethics
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at Shell Global Solutions International BV on April 14,
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64 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 1. Maps showing the depositional extent of the Sele Formation in the Central North Sea. (a) Gross depositional
setting of the Paleocene in the North Sea region (modified from Ahmadi et al. 2003). (b) Schematic summary map
(modified from Hempton et al. 2005) illustrating the gross distribution of various fans that comprise the Sele Formation.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
of the Jurassic rift-fill (Morton et al. 1993; Jones &
Milton 1994; Bowman 1998; Jones et al. 1999;
Koša 2007). The location of a hotspot under East
Greenland during the Danian–Thanetian (c. 65.5 –
55.8 Ma) resulted in thermal doming, and the
uplift of the Scottish landmass and East Shetland
Platform by more than 2 km (Den Hartog Jager
et al. 1993). This doming (White & Lovell 1997),
together with Atlantic rift margin uplift (Doré
et al. 1999; Mudge & Jones 2004), tilted these plat-
forms towards the east, creating the main source of
high sediment yields that entered the Central North
Sea via the Outer Moray Firth and along conduits
sourced off eastern Scotland (Fig. 1a) (Jennette
et al. 2000).
The doming resulted in the oceanographical
restriction of the Central North Sea, and anoxic con-
ditions prevailed in the basin during the deposition
of the Sele Formation (Bowman 1998). Uplift also
induced local reactivation of Palaeozoic and Meso-
zoic faults, and differential subsidence along the
flanks of the intrabasinal highs that defined the
underlying Central Graben rift system (e.g. Jaeren
and Forties–Montrose highs: Fig. 3), prior to the
deposition of the Sele Formation (Thompson &
Butcher 1991; Galloway et al. 1993; Den Hartog
Jager et al. 1993; Koša 2007). Halokinesis in the
basin was marked by the ascent of diapirs of Zech-
stein halite (Fig. 3), initiated in the Triassic and
ongoing until the Miocene (Davison et al. 2000),
with many diapirs occurring adjacent to, or directly
above, large Mesozoic normal faults. In many situ-
ations, local-scale bathymetric relief at diapir crests
influenced the deposition of these turbidite sand-
stones, which locally thin towards the diapir crests
(Davison et al. 2000; Hempton et al. 2005). In addi-
tion to bathymetry controlled by ascending diapirs
and reactivated faults, relief associated with earlier
Danian–Selendian-aged Maureen and Lista For-
mation mass-transport deposits and fans (cf.
Mudge 2014) also controlled the distribution of
the Sele Formation gravity flows. However, as depo-
sition of the Sele Formation continued, this relief
was progressively infilled and the fan systems
were less confined (Johnson & Fisher 1998).
Whilst the broad distribution of the sand-prone
Sele systems has been identified (Ahmadi et al.
2003; Hempton et al. 2005), and the location of
channel- and lobe-prone fairways has been deli-
neated, the details of the sedimentological evolution
of these systems has been less well understood. This
paper uses a UK-based industry dataset of well and
seismic-reflection data in order to present: (1) a new
division of the Sele Formation based on the identifi-
cation of maximum flooding surfaces (MFSs); and
(2) a series of facies-distribution maps of the Paleo-
cene gravity-flow systems bounded by these flood-
ing surfaces, illustrating their evolution through
65
time. Based on these maps, a range of channel fair-
ways and depositional lobes are identified through-
out the Central North Sea, providing greater
insight into the sedimentary processes that occurred
during their deposition and their interaction with
basin-floor relief. This regional overview provides
the context for an examination of field-scale archi-
tectural styles in order to illustrate the impact of
these regional processes on reservoir behaviour.
Lithostratigraphy
The Sele Formation, together with the Balder,
Beauly and Dornoch formations (Fig. 2), form the
Moray Group of the Central North Sea (Bowman
1998). Biostratigraphic analysis of the Sele For-
mation has been complicated by deposition in a
setting characterized by high sedimentation rates
and basin restriction, which induced a bottom-water
oxidation crisis that marks the boundary between
the bioturbated Lista and laminated Sele formations
(Mudge & Copestake 1992a). The anoxia limited
faunal abundance and diversity, a condition that per-
sisted until the Early Eocene (Bowman 1998). It
could be said that unit delineation is thus more
readily achievable using palynology, referencing
marine dinoflagellates and terrestrial pollen and
spores. The Sele Formation is present throughout
the central part of the North Sea Basin, passing
westwards and northwards in the UK sector into
the siltstones and sandstones of the more marginal,
deltaic Dornoch Formation. The transition from
finer-grained and basinal, to coarser-grained and
deltaic facies is rapid and corresponds to the basin-
wards limit of clinoform progradation seen on
seismic profiles. Where basinal mudstone facies
are dominant in the Sele Formation, sediment thick-
nesses are typically in the range 30–50 m, but
increase to over 200 m where the Forties Sandstone
Member (Fig. 2) is fully developed.
Using gamma-ray (GR) motifs, Knox & Hollo-
way (1992) recognized that it was possible to ident-
ify three informal subdivisions of the Sele
Formation (Figs 2 & 4) designated from oldest to
youngest as Sele S1, Sele S2 and Sele S3, with
further subdivision of unit S2 into ‘a’ and ‘b’ sub-
units. Each of these units is also locally associated
with a sandstone member.
Sele S1 Unit: Forties Sandstone Member
(c. 56.8– 55.7 Ma)
The Sele S1 Unit contains the most areally extensive
and thickest deep-water sandstone member of the
Sele Formation, namely the Forties Sandstone Mem-
ber (FSM). The FSM is restricted to the Central
Graben, is over 200 m thick along reaches of the
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66 J. ELDRETT ET AL.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 67

Fig. 3. (a) General map of the North Sea showing the location of the study area (black square) and (b) structural
configuration of the Central North Sea showing the location of Jurassic faults and basins, salt diapirs, and composite
outline of all Sele Formation sandstones (after Fraser et al. 2003; Koša 2007). WP, Western Platform; FMH, Forties–
Montrose High; JaH, Jaeren High; JoH, Josephine High.

NW–SE axis of the fan (Knox & Cordey 1992) and
is around 260 × 80 km in areal extent (Fig. 1) (fig.
10 in Mudge 2014). The FSM comprises fine- to
coarse-grained, moderately to poorly sorted sand-
stones, interbedded with dark grey siltstones and
mudstones (Knox & Cordey 1992). Where the
underlying Lista Formation is dominated by mud-
stones, the lowermost boundary of the FSM is nor-
mally taken at the first occurrence of sandstone.
If, however, the section overlies the intra-Lista,
Mey Sandstone Member, the boundary is based
on the first downhole occurrence of both the Bathy-
siphon acme and Spiroplectammina spectabilis
acme biozones (Knox & Cordey 1992). Green and
red mudstones of Lista age are commonly found
in the lowermost parts of the FSM in parts of the
southern Central Graben, and their presence is
ascribed to sediment reworking. Laterally, the FSM
pinches-out against the deltaic Dornoch Forma-
tion in the west and the basinal mudstones of the
Sele Formation in the east that drape the intraba-
sinal highs.
Sele S2 Unit: Cromarty and Bittern Sandstone
members (c. 55.7– 55 Ma)
As noted above, it is possible to subdivide the Sele
S2 into S2a and S2b subunits:
† Sele S2a Subunit (c. 55.7–55.2 Ma): this subunit
tends to comprise dark grey, well-laminated,
high-gamma mudstones that separate the more
sand-prone, low-gamma S1 and S2b units (Figs
2 & 4). The base of subunit S2a is commonly
expressed by a gamma-ray maximum, which
corresponds to the marine flooding event that
followed the deposition of the FSM (Neal
1996; Jennette et al. 2000). An associated sand-
prone fairway within the S2a subunit is found in
the area around the Bitten Field (Bittern Sand-
stone Member, UK Blocks 29/1a and 29/1b:
Hempton et al. 2005). These sandstones have
previously been attributed to the Cromarty Sand-
stone Member (cf. Ahmadi et al. 2003). Where
developed, the sandstones tend to display a

Fig. 2. Comparative sequence stratigraphy for the Paleocene of the Central North Sea. (a) Examples of the various
published sequence stratigraphy charts used to define the Paleocene interval (Top Ekofisk to Top Balder) in the Central
North Sea (after Ahmadi et al. 2003) (Vining et al. 1993; Dixon & Pearce 1995; Ahmadi et al. 2003; Gradstein et al.
2012). (b) Chronostratigraphic chart for the Sele Formation defining the basin-wide genetic sequences used to delineate
the various sandstone members found within the Sele Formation. The sea-level curve is modified from Neal (1996).
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68 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 4. Gamma-ray, neutron density and neutron porosity wireline logs from wells 29/3a-5 and 29/3b-4, located near
the Starling Field (Fig. 1), showing the Paleocene– Eocene lithostratigraphy and the character of the biostratigraphically
constrained T-sequences. Scale in ft.

blocky gamma-ray motif (e.g. well 29/3a-5
in Fig. 4), resulting from the partial confinement
and amalgamation of sand-rich channel –lobe
deposits.
† Sele S2b Subunit (c. 55.2 –55 Ma): this subunit
comprises grey, variably siliceous, low-gamma
mudstones with thin, sporadic tuff layers in the
basal part of the unit (Fig. 4). Thick sandstones
are locally developed within subunit S2b (Cro-
marty, Hermod and Flugga Sandstone members).
The Hermod and Flugga Sandstone members
are located in the South Viking Graben and are
not discussed in detail here. The Cromarty Sand-
stone Member (Knox & Holloway 1992; Mudge
& Copestake 1992a) has been mapped predomi-
nantly in UK Quadrant 21, although thinner,
time-equivalent sandstones occur in the SE part
of Quadrant 22 (Knox & Holloway 1992).
These thinner sandstones could be sourced
from the west, but are more likely to correspond
to the distal part of the main Cromarty fan
system, extending down from the NW (Fig. 1).
Sele S3 Unit: Gannet Sandstone Member
(c. 55– 54.9 Ma)
Knox & Holloway (1992) describe this unit as being
characterized by high gamma-ray values, and
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
consisting of laminated mudstones with sporadic
tuff layers that increase upwards in abundance and
thickness. The top of the unit is identified by a
marked downhole increase in gamma-ray API
(American Petroleum Institute) values and decrease
in sonic velocity. The base is marked by a rapid
upwards increase in gamma-ray values (Fig. 4). In
the southern parts of the Central North Sea (e.g.
well 29/9a-1), a thin sandstone unit occurs (Knox
& Holloway 1992), informally termed the ‘Gannet
Sandstone Member’ (Fig. 2), taking the name from
the Gannet D Field, where it is best developed.
Genetic sequences
The Paleocene –Eocene sedimentary interval in the
North Sea has long been regarded as having been
deposited during a period of low-order relative
sea-level fall (Haq et al. 1987; Mudge & Copes-
take 1992a, b; Dixon & Pearce 1995; Neal 1996)
in response to the thermal uplift of Scotland and
the East Shetland platform (White & Lovell 1997;
Bowman 1998; Ahmadi et al. 2003; Mudge & Jones
2004). Enhanced sediment supply to the basin floor
probably occurred during higher-frequency low-
stands embedded within falling stage, lowstand and
early transgressive sequence sets. More recently, the
Paleocene –Eocene interval has been interpreted
globally as being deposited during a relative sea-
level rise (Sluijs et al. 2008; Kender et al. 2012),
underscoring the profound impact that uplift of the
basin margin had on long-term accommodation
trends of the North Sea Basin.
In order to constrain the Central North Sea
stratigraphic architecture and enable more precise
mapping of gross depositional environments, a
new genetic sequence stratigraphic interpretation
of basin-wide MFSs has been defined, combin-
ing sedimentological, wireline and palynological
data (e.g. Eldrett et al. 2014). Genetic sequences
based on flooding surfaces are considered to have
greater utility and applicability in this basin-floor
setting. Within the Sele–Dornoch formations, five
main genetic sequences are identified, with a
sixth sequence attributed to the Balder–Beauly
formations.
T60 Sequence (uppermost Lista Formation)
Although this interval is stratigraphically older than
the Sele Formation (Fig. 2) and is not explored
further here, it is important in that it defines the
basin character prior to Sele deposition (Koša
2007). The section is composed of green, lightly
bioturbated claystones containing a Chondrites–
Zoophycos ichnofacies, with abundant deep-
water agglutinated foraminifera characterized by
69
abundant Spiroplectamina spectabilis –Rhabdam-
mina spp. These assemblages are indicative of
pelagic deposition in an oxygenated, quiescent, rela-
tively deep-marine environment. Moreover, the
dinocyst assemblage of the uppermost Lista For-
mation is comprised of common to abundant Areo-
ligera gippingensis, which, unlike other species of
the genus, is interpreted to represent offshore
pelagic deposition (Heilmann-Clausen 1985, 1994,
2007). In addition, despite the abundance of A.
gippingensis, the gonyaulacoid fraction of the dino-
cyst assemblage is dominated by the outer neritic
dinocyst genera Spiniferites spp., as reflected by
the high S/A index (Spiniferites/(Spiniferites +
Areoligera)), which is generally indicative of a
transgressive environment (Sluijs et al. 2008).
These sediments record a low-order transgressive
and highstand systems tract (a MFS is picked which
coincides with a gamma-ray peak and, where data
are available, the peak in S/A index within the
pelagic shale interval), marking the precursor to
subsequent lowstand conditions of the Sele For-
mation fan-system deposition.
T65 Sequence (Sele S1 (partim)/
Dornoch Formation)
The T65 Sequence is marked by a significant de-
crease in the S/A index, an onset of inner neritic
dinocysts and an influx of the freshwater algae
Pediastrum spp. with abundant bisaccate pollen,
characterizing a transition from pelagic shales of
the Lista Formation to either heterolithic depos-
its or channelized sands of the Forties Sandstone
Member. A low-order sequence boundary is infer-
red near the base of this section, marked by basin
restriction and influx of voluminous sediment
gravity flows. During lowstand, the majority of the
Western Platform was apparently exposed and was
either eroded or bypassed during this time. On the
shelf, this sequence boundary is locally marked by
incision of the marginal deltaic systems of the
Lista Formation. The incised material was trans-
ported basinwards and deposited as mass-transport
deposits in the basal part of the main Forties Sand-
stone fairway. The interval is characterized in the
Nelson Field by abundant reworking of older Lista
Formation palynomorphs and associated organic
material (Jennette et al. 2000; Kunka et al. 2003).
T70 Sequence (Sele S1 (partim)/Dornoch
Formation)
The T70 Sequence is defined at its base by a high
gamma shale where present (T70 MFS), and its
top by the T75 MFS. The T70 Sequence may have
a sharply based, locally sand-prone log motif,
reflecting erosion into the underlying shales. The
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70 J. ELDRETT ET AL.
sequence is characterized by a dominance of Apec-
todinium paniculatum –parvum dinocyst types,
and the abundance of terrestrial derived spores (Del-
toidospora, Crassoretriletes, Polypodiaceiospor-
ites) and pollen (Interpollis, Bombacaceae). The
sequence is recognized from most wells in the
Central North Sea, although it can be highly con-
densed or partially absent in some due to erosion
by the subsequent T75 Sequence sands.
T75 Sequence (Sele S1 (partim)/Dornoch
Formation)
The early rise of relative sea-level during the latter
part of the low-order Sele T75 lowstand marked
the re-establishment of sediment accumulation on
the Western Platform, with continued fan sedimen-
tation within the basin. The onset of low-order trans-
gression is identified by the increase in the outer
neritic dinocyst Spiniferites spp. and an increase in
the S/A index. An associated gamma-ray peak can
be identified within the Forties Sandstone Member
from numerous wells across the Central North Sea
area, although in many cases this T75 MFS shale
is also eroded (Fig. 2).
The T75 is characterized by the consistent
occurrence of more brackish marine taxa such as
Pterospermella spp., and the more fully marine
Apectodinium assemblage dominated by the spe-
cies Apectodinium homomorphum. The dominance
of A. homomorphum is a good regional correla-
tion event and is associated with a global sea-level
rise (Sluijs et al. 2008; Kender et al. 2012). In the
Bressay area of the East Shetland Platform, it is
these transgressive systems tract sands (Teal Sand-
stone Member), dominated by Apectodinium homo-
morphum, which initially infilled previously incised
canyons. In addition, the dominance of the regional
marker Apectodinium homomorphum (90% of total
assemblages recovered) in the transgressive depos-
its of the Doel borehole (Dutch sector North Sea:
Steurbaut et al. 2003) also enables correlation with
equivalent transgressive deposits identified beyond
the Central North Sea. This low-order transgressive
sequence is bounded at its base by the T75 MFS and
at the top by the T80 MFS, which flooded the North
Sea Basin and resulted in the cessation of fan
deposition.
T80 Sequence (Sele S2– Sele S3/Upper
Dornoch Formation)
The T80 low-order highstand sequence comprises
the upper part of the Sele Formation (Sele S2 and
S3 units) and the shelfal equivalent upper Dornoch
Formation. Within this highstand, high-frequency
fluctuations in relative sea level resulted in the
deposition of basin-floor fans including the Bittern
Sandstone Member (Sele S2a Unit), the Cromarty
Sandstone Member (Sele S2b Unit) and the
Gannet Sandstone Member (Sele S3 Unit). The suc-
cession is very well defined biostratigraphically,
with the T80 MFS characterized by abundant Pter-
ospermella spp. and large Leiospheres. The T80
maximum flooding surface is identifiable by the
highest gamma-ray API values within the high-
gamma shale of the Sele S2a Unit. This section is
expanded on the Jaeren High, comprising solely of
mudstones. The top of this sequence is marked by
the high-gamma shales of the T90 MFS.
Sele Formation sedimentology
To refine the understanding of the sedimentological
evolution of the Sele Formation and associated
reservoir properties across the North Sea Basin,
the core sedimentology was characterized in a man-
ner that can be upscaled to interpret wireline log
data and regional seismic profiles. The successions
are described here in terms of basic lithological
groupings (lithofacies), assembled into bed-scale
groupings of depositional processes (facies) and
into large-scale genetic elements (facies associa-
tions). These genetic elements then form the basis
for mapping the gross depositional environment
within the genetic sequence framework.
Lithofacies
The Sele Formation comprises intercalations of six
principal lithofacies: ‘clean’ sandstones (Sm, Sl);
argillaceous sandstones (AS, AM); thinly bedded
(,0.03 m thick), mud-prone, heterolithic deposits
(Ml); and mudstones (M). These lithofacies are the
principal groupings that can be identified from wire-
line log data, and form the basic building blocks for
bed-scale depositional process interpretation.
‘Clean’ sandstones. These are 0.2 m to several
metres thick, and comprise pale yellow to beige-
coloured sandstones with an arkosic framework
mineralogy consisting of quartz, lithic fragments
(.5%) and feldspar (between 5 and 15%) (Fig.
5a, c). Grain sizes can vary from very-fine- to
coarse-grained sandstone, with modal values in the
fine-lower to fine-upper range, and matrix clay
content of ,25% (Davis et al. 2009). Massive clean
sandstones (Sm) are typically structureless (Fig. 5a)
or have horizontal/low-angle, clay-rich dish struc-
tures that occasionally oversteepen or are disrupted
and cross-cut by vertical dewatering pipes (Fig. 5c).
Centimetre- to several decametre-thick intervals
of pebbly sandstone lags, ranging to clast-rich
sandstone, are commonly observed at the base of
thick (.1 m) clean sandstone beds. The clast-rich
sandstone is characterized by the presence of
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 71

Fig. 5. Examples of the descriptive Sele Formation lithofacies from: (a) structureless sandstone (Sm); (b) laminated
sandstone (Sl); (c) dewatered sandstone with pipe and indistinct dish structures; (d) sand-prone, argillaceous sandstone
(AS); (e) mud-prone argillaceous sandstone (AM); (f) mudstone (M); and (g) sand/silt laminated mudstone (Ml).
Scale bars 0.05 cm long.

floating, coarse-grained sand, granules and mud-
stone/carbonaceous clasts (0.02 m to more than
0.1 m long). Laminated, clean sandstones (Sl)
are defined as thinner sandstone beds (up to
0.5 m), exhibiting indistinct, horizontal to low-
angle lamination and/or climbing current-ripple
cross-lamination (Fig. 5b). Small-scale trough and/
or planar cross-bedding are rare. Such beds occur
either at the tops of sandstone (Sm, AS, AM) beds
or interbedded in mudstone lithofacies.
Argillaceous sandstones. These are common
throughout the Sele Formation (Fig. 5d, e). These
sandstones are similar in framework mineralogy to
the Sm and Sl lithofacies described above, with
grains tending to be moderately to poorly sorted
and subangular. Thin-section analysis shows that
these lithofacies have a significantly higher percen-
tage of clay-sized material dispersed within the
matrix, accounting for a darker colour in the drill-
core (Davis 2012). Based on the proportion of
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72 J. ELDRETT ET AL.
clay-sized content, it is possible to subdivide the
argillaceous sandstone into: (1) sand-prone, argilla-
ceous sandstone (AS) characterized by a clay-sized
content of 25–35% (Fig. 5d); and (2) mud-prone
argillaceous sandstone (AM) with a clay-sized
content of more than 35% (Fig. 5e) (Davis et al.
2009). While the AS lithofacies is more argillace-
ous than the Sm examples, it often has patches or
pods of Sm sand interspersed throughout its thick-
ness. The AM lithofacies is dark grey in colour,
superficially resembling a mudstone. However, on
closer inspection, the presence of outsized grains
give these deposits a gritty feel to the touch and a
‘starry night’ texture is apparent. The argillaceous
sandstone lithofacies can be structureless, banded,
or contain sandstone and mudstone clasts (0.02–
0.1 m long or larger in some thick units) dispersed
throughout the beds (cf. Haughton et al. 2003;
Davis et al. 2009). Towards the top of the beds,
mudstone clasts are commonly supplemented with
organic fragments (a few millimetres to several
centimetres long).
Mudstones. Mustones (M) are typified by sporadic
packages of dark grey to black, flat laminated mud-
stone ,30 cm thick (Fig. 5f). Locally, some of the
mudstones that occur at the top of a thicker ‘clean’
or argillaceous sand bed can appear massive and
contain silt grains. Trace fossils are rare to absent,
and thin limestone beds are locally common. In
some intervals (decimetres to several metres thick),
mudstones are interbedded with closely spaced,
thin sand/silt beds (,2 cm) forming a thinly
bedded, heterolithic lithology (Ml) (Fig. 5g). The
sand–silt beds/laminae are commonly organized
into systematically thinning- and fining-upwards
intervals (cf. Stow & Shanmugam 1980). These
lithofacies occur either isolated within mudstones
or on top of sandstone (Sm, AS, AM) beds.
Sele Formation facies
The lithofacies described above can be rationalized
into a series of recurring facies, which can be ident-
ified in core and have sufficiently distinctive wire-
line log motifs to enable their identification in the
absence of core.
Amalgamated sandstones (ASF). This facies associ-
ation is dominated by ‘clean’ sandstone lithologies
(Sm and Sl), forming packages of amalgamated
sandstone ranging from tens of metres thick in the
proximal parts of fan systems (e.g. 100 –150 m
thick in the Nelson and Forties fields), to 1–10 m
thick in the more distal parts of the fan (e.g. the
Fram, Starling and Pierce fields: Fig. 6). The basal
contacts of the units are typically sharp to erosive,
and can locally show foundering and loading into
the underlying, mudstone and argillaceous units.
Thin beds (,0.2 m) of argillaceous sandstone are
locally present, but these represent a very minor pro-
portion of the overall association.
On wireline logs, amalgamated sandstones form
equally monotonous, blocky, low-gamma intervals
up to 150 m thick with few breaks in log motif.
Higher gamma-radiation spikes mark the location
of mudclast concentrations and argillaceous sand-
stone units, which locally punctuate these intervals,
and the position of rare shale drapes.
ASF is interpreted to consist of successions of
top-cut-out Bouma sequences (Bouma 1962), repre-
senting sand deposition from high-density turbidity
currents in a setting conducive to the generation
of sand-on-sand amalgamation, and the bypass or
removal of finer-grained and argillaceous gravity-
flow deposits and hemipelagic material. Areas
of ‘channelization’ or axial flow within a proximal
channel –lobe setting (Fig. 7) would be sites where
such processes would operate (Prélat et al. 2009;
Grundvåg et al. 2014). Abrupt increases in either
grain size or the abundance in floating clasts are
interpreted to represent amalgamation surfaces
between discrete sediment gravity-flow events,
and can mark the boundaries to large-scale architec-
tural units (e.g. channel-fills, recording the removal
of former shale drapes and the erosion of the mud-
prone overbank material). Locally, such monoto-
nous successions also occur in laterally constrained
or ponded areas, where sand-bed amalgamation and
stripping of fines can occur (e.g. Bittern Field).
Heterolithic deposits (HSF). This facies forms units
up to 20 m thick, and consists of clean sandstone
(Sm & Sl) and argillaceous sandstone (AS, and
AM) beds interbedded with mud-prone lithofacies
M and Ml (Fig. 8). Sm beds are 0.1–0.5 m thick,
are commonly characterized by sharp and planar
bases, and, in some cases, can form amalgamated
packages up to 1 m thick. The basal contact of the
Sm beds is typically planar, with mudclasts locally
concentrated at their base or dispersed in thicker
amalgamated packages. These mudclasts are com-
monly associated with an increase in grain size
and abundance of finely comminuted carbonaceous
fragments. Stratified sandstones (Sl) occur either as
discrete sandstone beds interbedded with mud-
stone lithofacies, or as a cap to thicker, ‘clean’ and
argillaceous sandstone units. The stratification com-
prises planar horizontal, low-angle and/or climbing
current-ripple cross-lamination. Small-scale trough
and/or planar cross-bedding is rare. Argillaceous
sandstone packages range from 0.05–1.5 m in
thickness and are commonly associated with an
underlying Sm bed. The transition between the Sm
and AS or AM lithofacies can be either sharp,
loaded, gradational or, in some cases, marked by
banded fabrics that straddle the transition (Davis
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 73

Fig. 6. Illustrative graphic log and example core photographs of the amalgamated ‘clean’ sandstone facies (ASF).
Scale in ft.

Fig. 7. Conceptual depositional model for the distribution of facies within the Forties Sandstone Member based on the
region around the Everest Field area, where the distribution of the lobe complexes was controlled by regional
bathymetry, mass-transport complexes and local diapirism, which resulted in the divergence of the fan and formation of
splay-like lobe complexes around the diapir. MTC, mass-transport complex; ASF, amalgamated sandstone facies; HSF,
heterolithic deposits; HMF, hemipelagic mudstone facies.
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74 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 8. Illustrative graphic log and example core photographs of the heterolithic sandstone facies (HSF). Scale in ft.

et al. 2009). It should also be noted that at the tran-
sition between the Sm and argillaceous sandstone
lithofacies, mudstone is typically absent, suggesting
that both ‘clean’ and argillaceous sandstone are
genetically linked. The top of these packages are
defined by intervals of massive mudstone (M) or
planar horizontally laminated mudstones and silt-
stones (Ml) usually ,0.2 m thick (Fig. 8).
These intervals are typically trendless, or can
locally show subtle upward increases or decreases
in the sand/shale ratio (1– 10 m thick), which on
logs is represented by a serrate log response with
local cleaning- and muddying-upwards motifs.
The laminated mudstone intervals interspersed
with discrete sand-prone beds in this facies sug-
gest that sedimentation was intermittent, with epi-
sodes of hemipelagic sedimentation punctuated
by deposition of event beds (base-cut-out Bouma
sequences) of lower energy and commonly more
dilute flows than the amalgamated sandstone facies.
Deposition probably occurred in a less frequently
disturbed, more distal environment (Fig. 7) such as
would occur on lobe fringes or the outer portions
of levees, channel wings and interchannel areas
(Stow & Piper 1984; Prélat et al. 2009).
In contrast to the ‘clean’ sandstone lithofacies,
the high clay content (.25%) in the argillaceous
sandstone beds indicates that turbulence in the
depositing flow had been significantly hindered,
suggesting deposition from a cohesive laminar
flow (Lowe & Guy 2000; Talling 2013). Markov
chain analysis shows that the argillaceous sandstone
lithofacies most commonly occurs on top of massive
‘clean’ sandstones without an intervening mudstone
facies, suggesting a genetic link between them
(Davis et al. 2009; Davis 2012). Such depositional
successions are similar to the ‘linked’ debrites
described by Haughton et al. (2003), and they are
interpreted to be the product of single hybrid or mul-
tiphase gravity-flow events, consisting of turbulent
and laminar-flow components (Haughton et al.
2003, 2009; Talling et al. 2013).
Hemipelagic mudstone facies (HMF). This facies
ranges in thickness from 0.5 to 3 m, and consists
exclusively of M and Ml lithofacies. More hetero-
lithic intervals are commonly expressed by siltstone
beds 0.003–0.03 m thick, and, less commonly, by
very-fine-grained sandstones and isolated intra-
clastic, mud-prone sandstone beds ,0.3 m thick
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 75

(Fig. 9a). Carbonaceous fragments are commonly
found along mudstone bedding planes.
These deposits represent episodes of minimal
gravity-flow sedimentation, which allowed signifi-
cant deposition of anoxic, hemipelagic mudstones.
The thin siltstones and sandstones represent the
most distal expression of dilute turbidites. Such
deposition could occur at locations remote from
active fan deposition or during episodes of minimal
fan activity (Stow & Piper 1984; Prélat et al. 2009).
et al. 1999). Large-scale (.10 m thick) DF pack-
ages can be identified and mapped on seismic-
reflection data as mounded units consisting of
chaotic internal seismic reflections.
Similar facies have been discussed by Tripsanas
et al. (2008), and are interpreted to represent land-
slide and debris-flow deposits. Packages of DF com-
monly occur within the Sele Formation, and are
most commonly adjacent to areas where halokinesis
was active during deposition.

Deformed facies (DF). Packages of deformed facies
consist of blocks of contorted, folded and deformed
M, Ml, AS, AM and Sm facies, with evidence of
liquefaction and auto-brecciation, forming intervals
up to 40 m thick (Fig. 9b). The blocks are either in
contact with each other or floating in a structureless
mudstone to mud-prone, sandstone matrix. Such
packages of deformed facies are characterized by
sharp and truncational bases and sharp contacts.
Core-based identification of this facies is rela-
tively straightforward but, in the absence of core,
this facies can show similar log motifs to the hetero-
lithic association (Fig. 10). Dipmeter or borehole
image logs, however, may reveal the chaotic
nature of the bedding in these intervals (cf. Rider
Injected Sandstones (ISF). These represent a remo-
bilized modification of a channel (or lobe) parent
sandbody and, as such, do not constitute a deposi-
tional facies per se but are briefly mentioned here
as a locally important characteristic of the Sele
Formation in core and seismic. More detailed
descriptions of these features in the Sele Formation
are documented by Morton et al. (2014). In core,
they comprise clean to mud-rich, structureless to
undulating, laminated sandstones cross-cutting stra-
tigraphy with evidence of fluidization. Angular to
elongated, sheared mud clasts of similar lithology
to that of the host mudstone are commonly incor-
porated. The contacts of such beds range from
low angle to highly inclined relative to the host

Fig. 9. Illustrative graphic log and example core photographs of: (a) hemipelagic mudstone facies (HMF); and
(b) deformed facies (DF). Scale bars on the side of the photographs are 1 ft long.
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76 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 10. Wireline log and core photographs of a deformed facies zone from a hydrocarbon field located in the proximal
part of the T70 Sele Formation. The black box on the log shows the extent of the slumped interval, and the red box
denotes the interval from where the core photographs are taken. The well intersects at a high angle to bedding (c. 608),
and therefore shows the irregular and contorted nature of the bedding. While the logs apparently show the interval to be
shale-prone, the photographs indicate that the interval has a significant proportion of sandstone present.

bedding, and they can be sharp, crenulated or
indented. Geometrically, sand injectites occur in
the form of dykes and pillars (aperture of the order
of a few mm to more than 10 m), sills (a few centi-
metres to decametres thick and a few decametres to
more than 100 m wide), and extrusions (0.1–0.75 m
thick and 0.3–3 m wide, and, in rare cases, can be
up to 3 m thick and hundreds of metres wide).
In a similar manner to the DF facies, injected
sandstone facies can be distinct in cores, but their
identification in well logs is challenging as they
display similar log motifs to in situ heterolithic
deposits. Large examples may be seismically resol-
vable (e.g. Huuse et al. 2004), displaying saucer
and conical geometries cross-cutting stratigraphy
in section, and lacking clear depositional geometries
in plan view (Szarawarska et al. 2010). Their gener-
ation implies significant overpressure within the
sandbody, possibly via a regional aquifer, and
sealing by enclosing mudstones, with hydrofractur-
ing potentially triggered by seismicity, and leading
to fluidization and injection (Huuse et al. 2005;
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 77

Hurst et al. 2005, 2011). These features, where net
rock volume is large enough, can form viable reser-
voirs (Schwab et al. 2014).
Facies associations and genetic elements
Whilst core is invaluable in understanding bed-
scale depositional processes, the gross depositional
mapping of the Sele Formation systems requires
a simplified approach using log-based facies
motifs, which can be consistently recognized across
the basin (Fig. 11). The lithology-based sand-rich
(ASF), heterolithic (HSF) and mud-dominated
(HMF) facies described above translate readily
into distinctive log motifs, although complications
arise in the identification of subseismic, allochtho-
nous, mud-rich, deformed facies (DF) and injection
features (ISF) in the absence of information from
dipmeter or borehole image logs. In the following
sections, the criteria used for the identification of
channel fairways and lobe settings within the sand-
stone members of the Sele Formation are described.
Channel fairways
Channel fairways are characterized by a domi-
nance of thick packages (up to 150 m) of amalgam-
ated sandstone facies (ASF), locally punctuated
vertically by heterolithic deposits defining abandon-
ment-fills (HSF and HMF). When such packages are
constrained by biostratigraphic data, they tend to
show the convergence of markers, indicating the
rapid lateral pinch-out (within decameters to a few
hundred metres) into adjacent thinly bedded hetero-
lithics (Fig. 11a, c). High-resolution biostratigraphic
data also indicate that amalgamated channel sand-
stone packages can be floored by a hiatus record-
ing both erosion and sediment by-pass. The log
motif of these channel fills is commonly charac-
terized by a clean, blocky to muddying-upwards

Fig. 11. Schematic cross-sections illustrating the nature and distribution of sedimentary packages within the Sele
Formation: (a) distribution of Palaeogene fans and mass-transport complexes; (b) gamma-log correlations of the
transition from the channelized proximal Sele Formation to the lobe-dominated distal region; and (c) & (d) architectural
elements from the proximal channelized (e.g. Nelson Field) and the distal, weakly channelized lobe (e.g. west of
Scooter Field) areas. In (d) dark grey shading indicates heterolithic facies, light grey shading represents
amalgamated sandstones.
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78 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

motif due to a typical succession comprising pebbly
sandstones passing upwards into clean sandstones
and, ultimately, laminated mudstones and fine-scale
heterolithics towards their variably preserved aban-
donment top.
The architecture of thicker channel bodies
(.5 m thick) within these fairways can be resolved
in seismic data as distinct (sand-filled from well
data) erosional features, the boundaries of which
are characterized by thinning into channel wings
or ill-developed levees (Fig. 12) (fig. 9 in Thomas
& Hartley 2014). Internal reflections within the
thickest (.30 m) channel bodies are common, and
represent the contacts of subsidiary channels (cf.
fig. 12 in Rose & Pyle 2014). In plan view, attribute
maps show the lateral trace of such channels, typi-
cally indicating low-sinuosity bodies, with widths
ranging from several hundred metres to several kilo-
metres, that form a dense cross-cutting network of
ribbons with limited evidence of lateral accretion
(Fig. 13) (cf. fig. 27 in Kunka et al. 2003; fig. 8 in
Rose & Pyle 2014; figs 7 & 9 in Thomas &
Hartley 2014). Heterolithic fairways separating the
channel bodies are locally present, and these are
interpreted as the remnants of levees or, more prob-
ably, interchannel sheet deposits.
Channel fairways were assembled in three
stages: erosion and transmission; backfilling; and

Fig. 12. Example from the channel-dominated Pierce Field, showing: (a) the Forties Sandstone Member isochrones on
a 3D representation of the T65 MFS (modified from Scott et al. 2010): and (b) seismic-reflection profile to the north of
the diapirs in (a) flattened to the Top Forties (T80 MFS) with interpretation of the depositional architecture below.
Numbers 1– 4 indicate the migration of the channel forms within a channel fairway.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 79

Fig. 13. Rendering of combined horizon slices of a high-definition spectral decomposition volume from the Nelson
Field area extracted at 24, 33 and 39 ms below the top Forties (T80 MFS), showing the anastamosed, multilateral
planform pattern of multiple channels.

abandonment (cf. Clark & Pickering 1996; Gardner
et al. 2003). Gravel, sandy gravel and debris-flow
deposits, together with local-scale landslides (het-
erolithic and deformed facies), characterize the
minor deposition and preservation that occurred
during the initial, largely erosional stage of a chan-
nel complex. Thick, amalgamated, largely structure-
less sands (ASF) were deposited in the backfilling
stage, and hemipelagic mud, dilute turbidites and
muddy debris-flow deposits dominated in the final
abandonment stage. At a smaller scale, the infilling
of the channel fairways was not a monotonous
and uniform process, but took place through the
cutting and plugging of multiple subsidiary chan-
nels (‘channel forms’: Deptuck et al. 2007).
Lobe complexes
Lobe complexes are characterized by a variably het-
erolithic lithology, forming intervals of up to 200 m
thick. Several metre thick (up to 10 m) amalgam-
ated sandstones (ASF), bounded by thin-bedded,
metre-scale heterolithics (HSF) and/or hemipelagic
mudstone facies (HMF), characterize the more
sand-prone intervals. Heterolithic facies (HSF and
HMF) dominate in more mud-prone settings. Verti-
cal trends in the sand/shale ratio, bed thickness and
grain size define the coarsening/thickening- and
fining/thinning-upwards packages a few metres to
tens of metres thick. The lateral transition from
sand-prone to mud-prone facies is typically grada-
tional, and biostratigraphically constrained pack-
ages that demonstrate these trends can commonly
be traced over several kilometres (Fig. 11d). Ero-
sional hiatal surfaces are relatively uncommon at
the base of amalgamated sandstones in these set-
tings, in contrast to the sand-rich channel fairways.
The heterolithic lithology of these intervals
induces a characteristically serrate log response
lacking the thick, blocky motifs seen in more chan-
nelized successions. In seismic-reflection data, lobe
complexes are recognized as lenticular seismic
packets (10–40 km long, 5– 30 km wide, up to
40 m thick), consisting of discontinuous to wavy,
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80 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

semi-parallel reflections of low to high amplitude
(Fig. 14a). Onlapping and downlapping configur-
ations are typically observed. Although lobe com-
plexes are ideally fan shaped, where confined,
their geometry will have been shaped by any pre-
existing bathymetry (Fig. 7).
These weakly confined deposits record depo-
sition of sheet-like beds in a setting characterized
by stacked terminal lobes, forming lobe complexes.
The lobes were compensationally stacked, and their
distribution and shape constrained by pre-existing
morphology, locally resulting in thick accumu-
lations (Fig. 11d). Vertical trends indicate lateral
lobe migration, expansion or contraction (cf.
Prélat & Hodgson 2013), controlled by channel
avulsion, bathymetric constraints and sediment
supply. Sand-prone intervals were probably depos-
ited in more axial locations, with minor scouring

Fig. 14. Seismic-reflection profile and interpretation from the distal Sele Formation (a) north of the Starling diapir and
(b) across the Starling diapir, showing the deformation of the succession by salt diapirism. Note that the Forties
Sandstone Member preserves a near-constant thickness across the diapir, and mass-transport deposits (MTDs) of the
Maureen Formation and the confined May (Lista Formation) fan system extend across the diapir with only minor
thinning, indicating that the major uplift of the diapir occurred after the deposition of these intervals. MTC, mass
transport complex.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 81

and channelization. Mud-prone examples record
deposition in more marginal and distal locations.
Mass-transport deposits
Mass-transport deposits (MTDs) consist of a large
variety of deformed lithologies, with great variabil-
ity in their vertical and areal distribution (cf. Tripsa-
nas et al. 2008). Although the dimensions of MTDs
vary significantly (a few hundred metres to hun-
dreds of kilometres in length and a few to several
hundred metres thick: Canals et al. 2004; Twichell
et al. 2009), the sediment failures recorded within
the Sele Formation are, in general, of small size
(several hundred metres to a few kilometres wide
and up to a few decametres thick), and commonly
occur either in channel fairways (e.g. around the
Nelson and Forties fields: Hempton et al. 2005;
Rose & Pyle 2014) or adjacent to diapirs (Hempton
et al. 2005). Sediment failure on the channel
walls and on channel –levee systems is a commonly
observed process in many modern systems, caused
by overloading due to high sedimentation rates and
oversteepened channel walls (Piper et al. 1997;
Deptuck et al. 2007). In a similar manner, uplifted
diapirs also resulted in oversteepened slopes,
which were commonly affected by sediment failures
(e.g. Fig. 15) (Tripsanas et al. 2004). Erosion at the
base of MTDs is common and ranges from a few
centimetres to several metres of excavation into
the underlying formations (Tripsanas et al. 2008).
The log motifs of MTDs resemble those of
heterolithic sandstone packages and therefore
additional criteria need to be employed in their
differentiation in the absence of core data. Chaotic
or disorganized dips in image logs or dipmeter,
sequence duplication and sudden cut-offs, abrupt
facies changes and a lack of organized sequences
in the log data (e.g. gamma ray) of multiple adjacent
wells, combined with the assessment of the seafloor
palaeotopography during the time of deposition
(e.g. proximity to a steep slope or diapir), are criteria
that can be used for their determination (cf. Barker
et al. 2008).
In seismic-reflection profiles, MTDs are rep-
resented by lenticular packages of low- to high-
amplitude, incoherent reflections, with concordant
to erosional bases. Such lenticular packages are com-
monly linked to upslope evacuation zones, which
represent the origin of the sediment failures. Flow
and concentric lines, thrusted faults, rafted blocks,
and basal erosional striations and grooves are com-
monly observed features in attribute maps (e.g.
amplitude, coherency and spectral decomposition:
cf. Posamentier & Kolla 2003).
Sele Formation fan distribution and
evolution
Since the large-scale distribution maps of the
Sele Formation in the pioneering publications of
Rochow (1981), Reynolds (1994), Ahmadi et al.
(2003) and Hempton et al. (2005), there have been
few attempts to depict in detail the areal dis-
tribution of the sedimentary facies within the Sele

Fig. 15. (a) Semblance map 20 ms above the Top Chalk surface showing the development of multiple head scarps and
mass-transport complexes (MTCs) on the flanks and foot of a diapir in block 29/3. (b) Seismic reflection profile
(location indicated in (a)), and interpretation showing MTCs in the Maureen and Sele formations. MTC, mass
transport complex.
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82 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 16. Summary maps of gross depositional setting showing the distribution of Sele Formation T65 –T80 fan systems
(cf. Fig. 2b) within the UK Sector of the Central North Sea: (a) T65, (b) T70, (c) T75 and (d) T80 intervals. NWP,
Northwest Platform; N, Nelson Field; F, Forties Field; E, Everest Field; A, Arbroath Field; Me, Merganser Field; Ma,
Machar Field S, Scooter Field; St, Starling Field; G, Gannet Field; B, Bittern Field; Pu, Puffin Field; P, Pierce Field;
K, Kyle Field; Fr, Fram Field; Hu, Huntington Field; Ar, Arran Field.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 83

Fig. 16. Continued.

Formation and their evolution through time.
Through a detailed analysis of the biostratigra-
phy and gross-facies composition in 743 released
wells in the UK sector of the Central North Sea,
higher-precision maps are presented here that
build on these earlier publications. The well data
were integrated with a regional three-dimensional
(3D) seismic volume to generate a series of gross
depositional environment maps for the main Sele
genetic sequences (Fig. 16), defined by the
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84 J. ELDRETT ET AL.
biostratigraphically constrained MFS framework
illustrated in Figure 2.
For all genetic sequences (Fig. 16a, d), the Sele
Formation systems appear to show six consis-
tent depositional fairways aligned with tempo-
rally persistent sediment entry points. Although
the boundaries, extent and facies composition of
these fairways vary from sequence to sequence,
their linkage to constant sediment sources through-
out the deposition of the Sele Formation allows
each fairway to be referred to in a consistent man-
ner throughout the subsequent discussion, enabl-
ing comparison between fairways and sequences.
Three fairways are identified as having been
sourced from the north and ran axially along the
basin, trending to the SE: two fairways sourced
from the Shetland Platform (‘Western’ and ‘East-
ern’ axial fairways), and a ‘Northern West Platform’
(NWP) fairway, which broadly tracked the western
margin of the former west Central Graben. The
remaining three fairways were transverse in orien-
tation and sourced from the Western Platform
Shelf, trending from west to east. These ‘side-fans’
(cf. Hempton et al. 2005) are named after fields that
they cross-cut: the T (Teal), G (Gannet) and B
(Bittern) fairways.
T65 Sequence (Sele S1/Dornoch Formation)
The areal distribution of the T65 system comprises
four sand fairways (Fig. 16a) originating from the
NW shelf and trending to the SE (axial fairways),
and one ‘side-fan’ fairway originating from the
Western Platform trending to the SE.
The NWP fairway, which occurs along the West-
ern Platform margin (21/7 area), is a channel –lobe
complex characterized by thick channelized sands
in more proximal regions, which are interpreted to
be the feeder system to more mud-prone, hetero-
lithic lobe sands seen in blocks 21/13, 21/14 and
21/19.
The channel-dominated western axial fairway
bifurcates into two discrete channel complexes in
the vicinity of the Forties Field:
† The western complex runs across the Forties
Field and to the west of the Nelson Field.
These channels are interpreted as having fed
restricted lobe complexes in blocks 21/15 and
21/20. The main feature of this fairway is the
effect of the remnant Lista Formation palaeo-
bathymetry in Block 22/16, which apparently
constrained and funnelled flow through this
region, resulting in further channelization/
slumping and erosion of the underlying Lista/
Mey sandstones. The development of a widely
dispersed lobe complex in blocks 22/21c, 22/
22b and 22/22d (although well control in these
blocks is limited) suggests that flows became
unconfined at this location.
† The eastern channel complex is located within
and to the east of the Nelson Field. This com-
plex is interpreted as having fed sand to widely
dispersed and thinner lobes to the east of the
Arbroath Field in blocks 22/18, 22/19, 22/23
and 22/24. Possible fill and spill of this lobe
complex occurred into blocks 22/24 and 22/
30, across to Merganser –Scoter and SE into
Quadrant 30. The Machar salt diapir and part
of the Josephine High (Figs 3 & 16a) appear
to have constrained the eastwards extent of this
lobe system, although the lack of preserva-
tion may also be a reflection of subsequent ero-
sion of these T65 sediments from the Josephine
High.
The fourth, east axial fairway is constrained by the
Forties–Montrose and Jaeren highs. The main
fairway apparently did not flow directly into the
depocentre of the eastern Central Graben, although
this may be an artefact of limited well penetrations
to demonstrate the full extent of this interval. Two
lobe storeys in this fairway occur across the
Everest Field, while channelized deposits are
located near Huntington, through Arran and feed a
lobe complex that extends down to the Pierce area,
covering blocks 22/20, 22/25, 23/16, 23/21 and
23/22.
The fifth sand fairway originates from the
Gannet–Guillemot cluster (G fairway) and fed a
side-fan. The main T65 fairway seems to be
present through the central part of the Guillemot
Field, and a second feeder channel with relatively
thick T65 sands is also interpreted to be present to
the south on the Gannet Field. The associated lobe
complex trends to the north and west of the Starling
salt diapir. To the south, all coeval shales
are condensed.
T70 Sequence (Sele S1/Dornoch
Formation)
Six fairways are interpreted to source the more
areally extensive T70 fan system (Fig. 16b). The
distribution of the NWP axial fairway is similar to
that of the T65 Sequence, consisting of thick
channelized sands that fed lobe deposits in blocks
21/13, 21/14 and 21/19. A single, major channel
complex defines the west axial fairway, which
extends to the SSE through the Nelson Field down
to the Montrose and Arbroath fields, where there is
a transition from channel- to lobe-dominated facies.
These channels fed an extensive lobe complex to the
SE of Quadrant 22, towards the Merganser and
Scoter areas. The lobe sands extend to Machar and
onlap onto the Josephine High.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
Side-fans are interpreted in blocks 21/28 and
21/29 (Gannet – Guillemot), 28/4 (Bittern), and
21/23, 21/24 and 21/25 (Teal):
† The G side-fan is interpreted to trend to the SE of
Banff, being partly deflected by the mounding
along the west axial fairway, and forms lobes
across the Starling structure to pinch out at the
northernmost extent of the Fram Field.
† The B side-fan trends eastward towards the main
Bittern Field and then into the basin, forming
lobes pinching out onto the Kyle salt diapir.
There are only a small number of well pen-
etrations of the T70 fan into the Bittern area
because of the subsequent erosion by the later
T80 Bittern Sandstone Member. The lower-
most Bittern Sandstone Member contains evi-
dence of extensive reworking of T70 (and T75)
palynomorphs.
† The extent of the T side-fan is poorly constrained
by few well penetrations, but appears to be a
smaller system.
A major east axial fairway is also identified between
the Forties–Montrose and Jaeren highs (Huntington
trend). Numerous T70 channels are identified in the
southern part of the Everest Field, across Hunting-
ton and through the Arran and Lomond fields.
These channels are amalgamated and eroded into
the underlying and adjacent lobes. Towards Pierce,
T70 channels were funnelled through remnant Lista
(T60) palaeotopography and active salt diapirs,
resulting in the rechannelization of parts of the
T70 lobe system (cf. Scott et al. 2010). Later canni-
balization of the lobe complex is noticeable towards
Quadrant 30, with additional feeder channels ident-
ified. The T70 sands pinch out onto the Josephine
Ridge to the south.
T75 Sequence (Sele S1/Dornoch Formation)
The subsequent T75 succession was deposited as
relatively coarser-grained, glauconite-rich sands
within the basin (Jennette et al. 2000), whilst the
shelfal region of the Western Platform ceased to
be an area of net erosion and shows the onset of pres-
ervation of shallow-marine deposits of the Dornoch
Formation deltaics. The distribution map of the fan
complex shows that it is composed of six main fair-
ways (Fig. 16c).
The distribution of the NWP axial fairway is,
again, similar to that of the T65 Sequence, consist-
ing of thick channelized sands that fed lobe sands
in blocks 21/13, 21/14 and 21/19. The west and
east axial fairways were the most prevalent fea-
tures in the Central North Sea during this time.
Both were characterized by a NW –SE orientation
and extended laterally from the Western Platform
85
fairway to the Jaeren High, with thinning over the
Forties– Montrose High. The west axial fairway,
extending southwards through the Nelson Field
towards the Starling area (broadly tracking the
west Central Graben), consists of amalgamated
channels that eroded and cannibalized the older
T70 sands and shales. These channels supplied sedi-
ment to lobe complexes across Quadrant 29 (e.g.
Fram and Puffin). The east axial fairway (through
the eastern Central Graben) consists of both
channel and lobe deposits from Everest through to
Pierce (Scott et al. 2010), which eventually pinch
out in Quadrant 30. These sands also extend further
south and east into the Norwegian sector.
Again, three main side-fans are recognized:
† The G fairway corresponds to the side-fan sys-
tem near the Gannet and Guillemot clusters.
This system is extensive and merges with the
main NW–SE axial fairway, becoming part of
an amalgamated channel –lobe system.
† The B fairway originates in Block 28/4 and
trends to the east into the basin, forming lobes
pinching out onto the Kyle salt diapir. The main
fairway is eroded by the subsequent Bittern
Sandstone Member, which contains evidence
of extensive reworking of T70 (and T75)
palynomorphs.
† The T fairway forms a poorly constrained T75
side-fan, and is interpreted in the same location
as the T70 side-fan, covering the Teal Field
area and pinching out towards Gannet D.
T80 Sequence (Sele S2: Sele S3/Upper
Dornoch Formation)
West of the Forties and Nelson fields there are ex-
tensive T80 channels (Fig. 16d), originating from
the western shelf (NWP axial fairway). These chan-
nels trend NW –SE and fed an extensive lobe com-
plex. The lobe complex becomes apparent east of
the Gannet Cluster, being widely dispersed with
thinner sheet-like sands to the SE corner of Quad-
rant 22, and being constrained to the east of Banff –
Starling –Fram by the basin palaeobathymetry.
The B side-fan represented the main west–east
system during T80 times and, as mentioned above,
substantially erodes into the underlying Forties
sandstone. The main fan extends east towards the
Kyle salt diapir. However, further channel-like fea-
tures extend to the east and potentially fed lobe
sands identified in and around the area of the
Puffin Field. In this interval, the high abundance
and thickness of planar-stratified and current-ripple-
laminated sandstones, together with evidence of
fluctuating flows in the form of alternating ero-
sion and deposition or fluctuating bedform types,
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86 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

may be consistent with hyperpycnal flows originat-
ing from the adjacent Dornoch delta (cf. Mulder
et al. 2003).
Originating from the Western Platform, the T80
G Fairway comprises the Bittern –Cromarty and
Gannet sandstones, the latter primarily restricted to
the north of Gannet C and across Gannet B. This
sand fairway is deviated around the Gannet A
Field diapir.
Bathymetric control in the distribution
of Sele Sandstone members
A depth map taken at the top of the chalk (as a crude
proxy for initial basin configuration) shows that the
thermal subsidence of the Central North Sea and
differential compaction of the underlying Mesozoic
sedimentary pile acted to define a broadly elliptical-
shaped depocentre, with dimensions ranging from
approximately 65 km wide in the northern, channel-
dominated region to 120 km in the southern, more
lobe-dominated region (Fig. 17). In addition to this
large-scale, asymmetrical basin configuration, the
Sele Formation gravity flows encountered a num-
ber of bathymetric features that controlled the devel-
opment of sandstones across the basin floor.
In the more proximal regions, differential com-
paction and minor fault movement across the
Forties–Montrose and Jaeren highs, in combination
with remnant Lista Formation bathymetry, resulted
in the segregation of gravity flows originating
from the East Shetland Platform into distinct and
persistent, NW–SE orientated, axial fairways.
This is most apparent in the distribution of the
highly elongate character of the axial T65 sandstone
fairways, indicating flow confinement within
restricted topographical lows (Fig. 16a). In the
distal regions, the Merganser – Scoter–Machar salt
diapirs and part of the Josephine High divide two
NW– SE-orientated depocentres, which represent
the southward extension of the west and east axial
sandstone fairways (Fig. 16a, d). The absence of
T65 sandstones on and to the east of the Machar
salt diapir and part of the Josephine High supports
the notion that the west sandstone fairway was con-
strained to the east by bathymetry (Fig. 16a). The
development of significant T70 and T75 lobe com-
plexes in these areas suggests that T70 and T75
flows were mostly depositional in nature, and thus
erosion of the T65 sediments by subsequent flows
events is considered unlikely.
The east axial fairway preserves an almost con-
stant width of 15–25 km throughout its length in
all sequences, and the extent of the channel com-
plexes in this fairway is attributed to its confined
nature between the remnant topography of two
large-scale Mesozoic structures (cf. Fraser et al.
2003). In contrast, the west axial fairway is 20 –
30 km wide at its northern part and, to the south of
the Arboath Field, it expands to a width of about
45 km. The development of channel –lobe com-
plexes in sequences T65–T75 at the point of widen-
ing in the west axial fairway suggests that here the
system reached a critical threshold (slope v. lateral

Fig. 17. Isobath map from the top Chalk Group, showing the location of early Tertiary salt diapirs (black shaded areas),
topographical highs and major faults in the Central North Sea (CNS). FMH, Forties– Montrose High; JaH, Jaeren
High; JoH, Josephine High; MaH, Mandal High.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 87

Fig. 18. Attribute maps from the distal region of the Sele Formation showing: (a) a semblance map displaying the
distribution of the Maureen Fan and a massive mass-transport complex to the SW; and (b) a minimum-amplitude map
showing the overlying Sele Formation depositional systems that have been subtly steered by the relief on the underlying
Maureen Fan and mass-transport complex (MTC) features.

migration space v. sediment supply), where chan-
nels were released to acquire a distributary charac-
ter. Channel–lobe complexes in the west axial
T65–T75 sequences display a distinct bifurcation
to the south of the Scoter and Starling diapirs
(Fig. 16a, c). This bifurcation is attributed to the
remnant bathymetric expression of the underlying
Maureen Fan (Figs 18 & 19), confirming the obser-
vation of Kilhams et al. (2014a) that inherited sea-
floor morphology of the Maureen and Lista fans
and MTCs had an impact on the distribution of the
Forties Fan.
It is observed that the NWP axial fan lies on top
of the Maureen Fan in the area between the Mergan-
ser –Scoter and Starling diapirs (Fig. 16d). This is
attributed to the aggradation of the thick T70 and
T75 west axial fan systems around the remnant
Maureen Fan (Figs 18 & 19), leaving this region
as a subsequent low to be infilled. The impact of
the inherited Forties Fan topography on the distri-
bution of the T80 fan systems is also apparent
in the positioning of the T80 channels in Quadrant
21 towards the western part of the basin, offset to
the axial T65–T75 systems. The topography of
these earlier fans may also have provided some con-
finement to flows from the B and G side-fans, which
were apparently deflected into an axial orientation.
Impact of sea-level changes and sediment
supply in the distribution of Sele
Sandstone members
The overall architecture of the Sele and Dornoch
formations is consistent with deposition during a
low-order falling stage, lowstand and early trans-
gressive cycle of relative sea-level change, with
individual fans likely to have been driven by higher-
frequency fluctuations in relative sea-level (Jennette
et al. 2000) and climate-enhanced sediment supply
(Kender et al. 2012; Eldrett et al. 2014). The distri-
bution maps of the Sele Formation systems indi-
cate progressively larger deep-sea fan complexes,
with sediment supply inferred to be highest dur-
ing the lowstand T70 and early transgressive T75
sequences.
Deposition of the initial, T65-aged sandstones
(Fig. 16a) occurred during falling sea stage, as the
basin became restricted. The formation of elongated
channel and channel –lobe complexes is attributed
to a sediment supply that was unable to infill
the irregularities on the basin seafloor, resulting in
a bathymetrically controlled confinement of the
flows. The deposition of the T70 sequence occurred
under low-order lowstand conditions and wide-
spread basin-margin exposure, possibly enhanced
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88 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 19. Interpreted and uninterpreted seismic-reflection profile showing the distal Sele Formation thickening to the east
and west of the underlying Maureen Fan. MTCs, mass-transport complexes.

by a high-frequency fluctuation in relative sea level
and/or increased sediment supply (due to enhanced
weathering and erosion of the exposed Scottish–
Shetland hinterland: Kender et al. 2012; Eldrett
et al. 2014). This increased sediment supply,
together with partial bathymetric infill by the pre-
ceding T65 fans, allowed the lateral mobility and
amalgamation of the T70 channels and overall
expansion of the fan systems. These channels incised
and eroded into the underlying T65 and T60 (Lista
Formation) sequences, resulting in local Forties–
Mey sand juxtaposition and the reworking of Lista
palynomorphs into younger Forties sandstones.
Sediment supply in the T, G and B side-fans from
the Western Platform continued due to ongoing
shelfal erosion and bypass.
The T75 Sequence is interpreted to reflect a high-
frequency fluctuation around a low-order transgres-
sion, supporting the interpretation of Jennette et al.
(2000), who suggested shelfal sand instability
during initial sea-level rise as the mechanism for
the extensive deposition of glauconitic turbidites.
Within the Forties Sequence, the T75 is the most
geographically extensive, reflecting an increased
sand supply, potentially from more dispersed, mul-
tiple catchments during this time.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
The glauconitic nature of the T75 section, and the
volume of sand deposited, presents a paradox. The
section might be predicted to be smaller than the
T70 section, transitional in scale to the T80 as it
was probably deposited during a low-order trans-
gression where reduced sediment supply might be
predicted. The glauconitic sands would imply a
source area of relatively condensed, shallow-marine
sands. Glauconite would be unlikely to form under
conditions of high sedimentation rates as it requires
slightly reducing conditions in a substrate exposed
to prolonged access to marine porewaters (i.e. low
sediment aggradation) (Odin & Matter 1981).
Given the volume of sand shed into the basin, and
the requirement for this to have been sourced from
a thin shelfal veneer, it follows that the sediment
source must have occupied a large area. A shallow-
marine shelf composed of transgressive sands must
therefore have covered large areas of the Western
and Shetland platforms during high-order transgres-
sive and highstand conditions, which was largely
reworked during the lowstand. The biostratigraphic
data also suggest a more oceanographically open
basin, possibly exposed to tidal circulation, and
stands in marked contrast to the terrigenous-rich,
fluvial deltaic material that supplied the earlier
sequences.
The T80 systems were deposited during the
rising limb of the low-order sea-level cycle and
show a marked reduction in size relative to the
older fans, consistent with a sediment-starved,
broadly transgressive setting where sediment was
increasingly trapped in shelfal settings (Dornoch
Formation).
Basinwards extent of the side-fans
From the maps shown in Figure 16, it can be seen
that the side-fans sourced by the Bittern, Gannet
and Teal fairways were generally active throughout
the deposition of the Sele Formation. Despite the
fact that there is a general assumption that these
fans extend significant distances into the Central
Graben, as far as the Scoter Field (Fig. 1b), their
actual extent has never been fully understood.
Work by Morton (1979) and Morton et al. (2004)
has shown that the chemical composition of garnets
differs between the lateral (Gannet and Bittern)
and axial (Forties and Cromarty) fans of the Sele
Formation, allowing them to be distinguished from
each other. Based on the geochemical analyses of
several cores and cuttings from wells to the east of
Scoter Field, Borella (2011) and Kilhams et al.
(2014b) showed that garnets in the sandstones had
a composition similar to that of the axial fan sys-
tem, suggesting that the outer boundary of the side-
fans was located further towards the west (Fig. 16).
Borella (2011) does cite one garnet sample that has a
89
geochemical signature matching that of the side-fan
systems trend. However, this is identified as a sand-
stone contained within a remobilized package of
Lista-aged sediment (i.e. T60 pre-Sele Formation).
This indicates that Lista fan systems sourced by
the Western Platform Margin could have extended
significant distances into the Central Graben. It is
possible that, in addition to the mounded topography
by the axial Sele Formation fan systems, inherited
bathymetry from Lista-aged side-fans also resulted
in the limited eastwards extent of the subsequent
side-fans into the Central Graben.
Sele reservoirs
The early Cenozoic deep-marine reservoirs in
the Central North Sea show three main trapping
mechanisms: tectonic/compaction-induced anticli-
nal traps; salt-induced anticlinal or pierced traps;
and stratigraphic traps (Ahmadi et al. 2003; Under-
hill 2003; Hempton et al. 2005). However, many
reservoirs show a combination of factors, with inter-
nal stratigraphic trapping being particularly com-
mon. The reservoir sections can be rationalized
into three end-member architectural types that define
the first-order controls on sandbody geometry, con-
nectivity and quality: channel- and lobe-dominated,
which are palaeogeographically constrained; and
remobilized and injected, where depositional archi-
tecture and heterogeneity are to varying degrees
reconfigured by post-depositional processes. This
discussion will focus on the former two, which are
directly linked to the gross depositional settings
described above, and the local impact of syndeposi-
tional halokinesis.
Channel-dominated settings
The Nelson (Whyat et al. 1992; Kunka et al. 2003),
Forties (Wills 1991; Rose & Pyle 2014), Montrose,
Arbroath and Arkwright (Hogg 2003) fields are
examples of channel-dominated reservoirs located
along the west axial fairway. No large faults are
observed in these fields, which have an anticli-
nal closure with a relief of up to 200 m resulting
from the differential compaction of the underly-
ing Jurassic claystone formations (Hill & Wood
1980). Gannet C and E diapir-associated fields (cf.
Hempton et al. 2005), located in the G sandstone
fairway, are representative of ‘side-fan’ channel-
dominated reservoirs (Fig. 16).
The high sand/shale ratio seen in these settings
might initially suggest good connectivity between
the sandbodies of different channel systems (Fig.
20a), and commonly this initially appears to be the
case, with an apparently well-connected architec-
ture resulting in high flow rates and an efficient
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90 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

Fig. 20. Geoseismic schematic diagrams illustrating conceptual models of sandbody architecture in four end-member
reservoir types from (a) channel-dominated, (b) lobe-dominated, (c) diapir-modified and channel-dominated, and
(d) diapir-modified, lobe-dominated settings.

sweep of the channel axes, albeit with the potential
for aquifer ingress edgewise along these higher-
permeability axes or coning vertically through
erosionally amalgamated stacks (Hogg 2003). How-
ever, the permeability contrast (typically several
orders of magnitude) between the high-quality
sands of the main channel axes and the poorer-
quality, heterolithic channel wing, overbank and
levee facies generally tends to leave bypassed and
unswept hydrocarbons in these overbank locations
(potentially detectable with 4D seismic data). In
addition, mudclast lags, mud-prone debrites and
channel-base mud drapes around second-order
channels (cf. Deptuck et al. 2007; Barton et al.
2010), together with erosional remnants of mud-
rich levee and interchannel deposits, locally act as
flow barriers and baffles that can impede the effi-
cient sweep of the channel axes (e.g. Gill & Shep-
herd 2010). Channel bank failures are common in
such settings and can be a locally prominent com-
ponent of the channel-fill (Hogg 2003; Kunka
et al. 2003; Rose & Pyle 2014), leading to locally
isolated (albeit relatively small) volumes.
Despite the dominance of four-way closure on
trapping, the stratigraphic pinch-out of channels
has been proven as a locally efficient trapping mech-
anism in some locations (e.g. Rose & Pyle 2014)
within these reservoirs. An architecture comprising
the compensational stacking of channel bodies that
pinch-out laterally into heterolithics, combined
with channel-base drapes (Barton et al. 2010) and
interleaved erosional remnants of interchannel,
levee and abandonment fines, can be conducive to
leaving channels that are not fully connected to
the main reservoir interval. This may lead to com-
partmentalization of individual sandbodies that
require additional data (e.g. 4D seismic, fluid geo-
chemical data and material balance from production
history) to detect, and dedicated wells to access.
Lobe-dominated settings
As sediment gravity flows expanded outwards from
areas of flow restriction or channelization into the
more distal, lobe-dominated parts of the Sele fans,
the resultant event beds thin and widen, the pro-
portion of shale interbeds increase, and clean sand-
stone is replaced by argillaceous sandstone and
mudstones (Fig. 20b). Reduced depths of channeli-
zation and scouring (usually less than 5 m deep),
combined with increasingly sheet-like geometries,
mean that these thin-bedded lobe reservoirs can be
vertically compartmentalized, depending on the
degree of sand-on-sand amalgamation from small
channels and scours (cf. Manzocchi et al. 2007),
which would be more common in axial and proxi-
mal locations. In addition, compensational stacking
of lobe complexes can result in rapid lateral pinch-
out of sand-prone packages and lateral compartmen-
talization (Prélat et al. 2009). These thinly bedded
reservoirs can also be vulnerable to compart-
mentalization via fault offsets and clay smearing,
although modelling suggests this might not affect
sand-on-sand juxtaposition for small throw faults
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS 91

(Manzocchi et al. 2007). The main architectural
elements cannot typically be resolved in seismic-
reflection data in these settings, and high-resolution
biostratigraphic and/or chemostratigraphic corre-
lations, supported by organic/inorganic geochem-
ical and dynamic indications of connectivity, can
only partially address the inherent uncertainty in
reservoir description.
Definition of net pay in lobe-dominated settings
(and in interchannel heterolithics) can be proble-
matic. When conventional wireline logging suites
are run in these thin-bedded reservoirs, calculation
of net reservoir, based on a v-shale cut-off, can com-
monly underestimate the proportion of potential
reservoir present within a formation. In the exam-
ple shown in Figure 21 taken from a thin-bedded

Fig. 21. A wireline log suite from a field located along the distal margin of the Sele Formation. (a) A selection of
conventional wireline logs and the position of the cored interval. (b) Simplified graphic log from the cored section,
together with an illustration of how the total sand count decreases between core, OBMI log and that derived
from a standard log suite V-shale cutoff as the resolution of the tool decreases.
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92 J. ELDRETT ET AL.

reservoir in the distal Forties Fan, a traditional
v-shale net flag count over the reservoir interval
suggests that there is 58% net sand: although, an
Oil Base Micro-Imager (OBMI) log significantly
increases the net reservoir count to 65%. How-
ever, a direct sand count from core over the same
interval gives a net sand proportion of 83% by
capturing thinly bedded turbidite sandstones below
log resolution (c. 0.3 m), which still qualify as
net pay.
The Everest Field, located at the eastern edge of
the east axial fairway close to the Jaeren High
(Fig. 16), is an example of a lobe-dominated reser-
voir where the trapping structure is a combination
of a stratigraphic pinch-out to the east onto the
Jaeren High combined with tilting to the west, due
to differential subsidence (O’Conner & Walker
1993). The Everest Field exploits a bifurcated
sandstone fairway comprising two lobate features
separated by a NW –SE-trending palaeohigh (Fig.
7). The eastern lobe complex is interpreted as a
frontal splay complex, whereas the western lobe
complex is more sand-rich, general comprising
good-quality, amalgamated and erosional, sheet-
like sandstone packages (O’Conner & Walker 1993).
Amalgamated clean sandstone (AS) beds, while
dominant along the axis of the eastern lobe of the
field, are typically less than 4 m thick and rapidly
grade laterally into HSF and HMF beds before
pinching-out onto the eastern structural margin of
the Central Graben (Davis et al. 2009). The prefer-
ential deposition of linked debrites (hybrid-flow
deposits) at these locations results in a rapid
reduction in reservoir quality. In addition, the dom-
inance of extensive mud-prone deposits at the distal
fringes of the lobe complex also have a significant
impact on reservoir quality, reducing the overall
net pay and increasing the potential for vertical
compartmentalization beyond that already intro-
duced by hemipelagic shale interbeds.
Many of the more distal, lobe-dominated reser-
voirs rely on deformation by salt diapirs to create
a trapping structure, where syndepositional relief
might be expected to have impacted reservoir archi-
tecture. In the case of the Scoter Field, minor thin-
ning of the reservoir thickness on the top of the
structure suggests that, although the diapir might
have had a small or episodic impact on the seafloor,
it did not impose any significant changes on the flow
properties of the gravity flows (Hempton et al.
2005). However, in other examples, diapir growth
had a significant impact.
Syndepositional, diapir-modified settings
The ability of rising salt diapirs to impact on the
initial distribution and emplacement of sediment
gravity flows is a function of the rate of ascent of
the diapir v. the sediment aggradation rate, com-
bined with the magnitude and height of the imping-
ing sediment gravity flows (Kneller 1995; Kneller &
McCaffrey 1995; Brunt et al. 2004). If the relief of
the diapir expressed on the seafloor was greater
than approximately half the height of the sediment
gravity flow, then the flow would have been
forced to diverge around this topography with
limited deposition on the crest (Brunt et al. 2004).
Flow obstructions also result in changes in the
hydraulic regime of the flows, which may either
locally accelerate and become erosional (e.g. Trip-
sanas et al. 2012) or decelerate and deposit small
transient lobes (e.g. Gee & Gawthorpe 2006). The
distribution of sedimentary facies can be complex,
with units rapidly thinning- and shaling-out
against the diapirs, ponding in salt withdrawal mini-
basins or ‘shadow-zones’ developing where only

Fig. 22. Conceptual geoseismic model from the Pierce Field showing the infilling pattern of the channels to the west and
east of the Pierce diapirs, constrained by the relief on underlying mass-transport deposits and that generated by the
ascending diapirs. From core, it is observed that the diapir uplift induced sand injection in their immediate vicinity.
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SELE FORMATION DEPOSITIONAL SYSTEMS
hemipelagic sediment collected (Fig. 20c, d). How-
ever, if sedimentation rates were much greater than
the rate of ascent of the seabed perturbation, then
this can be rapidly buried and cease to have an
effect on subsequent flows.
Bathymetric irregularities and diapiric highs
forming at the fringes of fan systems are expected
to have a larger impact on sand distribution due to
the lower sediment aggradation rates in these set-
tings, where even minor bathymetric expressions
may not be completely infilled. This is apparent
from the common dog-leg orientation of the lobes
in the distal members of the fan systems (e.g. the
distal T65 west axial fairway fairway in Fig. 16a).
For example, bathymetric relief from the Fram
diapir apparently resulted in the blockage of the
southwards propagation of the T70 west axial fan
(Fig. 16b) and induced the bifurcation of the T80
B side-fan (Fig. 16d). The Banff diapir, located at
the western edge of the west axial fairway, had suf-
ficient seafloor expression to result in the eastwards
diversion of the Forties Fan with negligible to little
reservoir deposition on and to the west of the diapir
(Figs 16b, c & 19).
The Pierce Field, located on the east axial fair-
way of the Forties Fan (T70 and T75 sequences) in
a relatively marginal setting, is an example of sedi-
mentation across a complex bathymetry affected
by antecedent Lista deposits and bathymetry induced
by two adjacent rising diapirs (Fig. 12). The diapirs
protrude through the Sele Formation in this loca-
tion, and seismic data highlight ‘channelized fair-
ways’ wrapping around these (Scott et al. 2010).
Wells logs and core indicate that the channel fair-
ways are characterized by thick, amalgamated sand-
stone facies (Fig. 22). Post-depositional sand
injections (0.01–0.1 m and rarely up to 1 m in thick-
ness) are evident in the cores from the Pierce
Field, and they are anticipated to have affected the
connectivity between the sandbodies. However,
towards the crests of the diapirs, well data show
that there is a transition to finer-grained, more het-
erolithic facies. The divergence of the channels
and the fining of the sediment towards the crests of
the diapirs indicate that they had a seafloor expres-
sion sufficient to strongly influence flow (Birch &
Haynes 2003; Scott et al. 2010). In this situation,
with channel sandbodies wrapping around the
diapir structure, reservoir fluid movement in the
field follows the higher-permeability, lateral deposi-
tional trends rather than being driven by vertical
buoyancy or gravitational forces (Scott et al. 2010).
Further complexity in such fields arises from
the development of common sediment failures
in the underconsolidated deposits on the flanks of
a rising diapir and their redeposition as mass-
transport complexes at its foot. Although MTCs
directly impact reservoir architecture by acting as
93
flow barriers due to their typically mud-rich,
impermeable nature, they also have the potential
to have initially deflected sand-rich gravity flows
around their topography, thereby increasing the
degree of reservoir variability at the flanks of
the diapir (Hempton et al. 2005). Although mass-
transport complexes are typically mud-rich and
non-reservoir, some larger examples are hydro-
carbon bearing and have shown production. How-
ever, they are typically statically and dynamically
isolated, so volumes are minimal and production
rates decline rapidly over very short time intervals.
Conclusions
Deposition of multiple Sele Formation fan systems
occurred during a low-order fall and rise in relative
sea-level punctuated by higher-frequency sea-level
cycles and fluctuations in sediment yield and type.
During low-order fall, the basin underwent oce-
anographic restriction, shelfal areas were generally
exposed and large sediment yields from uplifting
source terrains shed voluminous quantities of terri-
genous material into a stressed, anoxic to dysaerobic
basin. During low-order rise, the basin acquired nor-
mal marine salinities and sediment supply included
resedimentation of glauconitic material from epi-
sodically inundated shelves, together with localized
hyperpycnal input from shelfal deltas. Persis-
tent sediment entry points resulted in the repeated
advance and retreat of fan systems along broadly
similar trends, although these were subject to deflec-
tion by the bathymetric expression of earlier fans,
mass-transport complexes and rising salt diapirs. The
proximal fan regions comprised large-offset, low-
aggradation channel complexes of low sinuosity,
which form highly productive reservoirs, although
extreme permeability contrasts between channel and
overbank facies, combined with compensational
stacking of variably baffled and sealed channel
bodies, result in unswept and isolated intervals that
require targeted infill wells. In more distal regions,
lobe-dominated settings form heterogeneous, strati-
graphically compartmentalized reservoirs that can
have an intimate relationship between the diapirs
forming the reservoir structure and the reservoir
facies, which may have been profoundly affected
by seafloor topography during diapir ascent.
Andrew Hurst and David Mudge are thanked for their
insightful reviews and for persisting with an earlier
version of the manuscript.
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