2019 IEEE SmartWorld, Ubiquitous Intelligence & Computing, Advanced & Trusted Computing, Scalable Computing &
Communications, Cloud & Big Data Computing, Internet of People and Smart City Innovation
Building Smart City Drone for Graffiti
Detection and Clean-up
*
Shuqin Wang Jerry Zeyu Gao
Jiangsu Normal San Jose State University,
University, San Jose, USA
Xuzhou, China Corresponding email:
email: wsq308@gmail.com jerry.gao@sjsu.edu
Abstract—Graffiti on buildings and bridges are oftentimes an
eyesore. Those on road symbol signs can even pose safety risks to
motorists. Not only is graffiti cleaning costly, it also disrupts
normal traffic. Graffiti is a widespread problem in many cities in
the U.S. This paper proposes a machine learning approach to
unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) graffiti detection and removal.
Our solution builds on the smart city framework. The proposed
solution is expected to lower graffiti cleaning cost and minimize
impact on city traffic.
Keywords— UAV, Smart City, Graffiti detection
I. INTRODUCTION
Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) were first created
only used for military purposes. However, they are now
widely used in civil applications, for example, agriculture,
environmental protection, public safety and traffic flow
control. However, one of the most evolving areas of UAVs
are their involvement in smart cities. Smart cities are those
cities that use digital technology to connect, protect, and
enhance the lives of citizens. Drones are just one of the
many important pieces of the puzzle when it comes to
developing and operating a smart city. Today, thousands of
drones are already being used to improve city life: drones
are being used to document accident scenes, support first
responder activities, and monitor construction sites.
Many cities in the U.S. face a serious graffiti problem.
There are many reports about graffiti at various locations,
including buildings, bridges, and road symbol signs. Some
even contain profanities or lewd images. Such graffiti
usually cause an undesirable impression. Graffiti cleaning is
very expensive and sometimes a logistic nightmare when
highway/street lane closure is required for crew to clean
signs above. Current graffiti removal is carried out by
cleaning crew typically using a Skylift crane. The whole
process is tedious and expensive. For example, Los Angeles
spends about $7 million per year dealing with graffiti. Since
2011 the City of San José has spent upward of $4 million on
graffiti eradication efforts. Ordinary methods for graffiti
cleaning, which are chemical, physical and biological [1],
pose a health risk to working crew. Therefore, there is a
strong need for convenient and cost-effective ways to
remove graffiti from highway overpasses and tall buildings.
Inspired by UAV application in forest fire detection [2],
we propose a smart city solution using UAV to support
graffiti detection and removal based on machine learning.
Designing a sufficiently safe control system is a daunting
challenge. Operators controlling a UAV need to skillfully
978-1-7281-4034-6/19/$31.00 ©2019 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/SmartWorld-UIC-ATC-SCALCOM-IOP-SCI.2019.00337
Weiyi Li, Yanning Li, Shengqiang Lu
Kaixuan Wang Taiyuan University of
San Jose State University, Technology,
San Jose, USA Taiyuan, China,
navigate the UAV and avoid obstacles and collisions during
its navigation path. Therefore, we decided to adopt machine
learning techniques for automatic obstacle recognition so
that drones in flight can automatically avoid barriers without
human intervention. It should also be able to determine if
the target area is covered by graffiti. Therefore, the drone in
our system can observe ambient environment for graffiti and
then clean them up using the carried spray paint upon
recognition of graffiti. The drone’s flight is controlled by an
operator through mobile applications. A cloud server is set
up to monitor drone status and gives commands to the
operator. This paper proposes a machine learning based
smart city solution using UAV to support graffiti detection
and removal. It discusses the challenges in drone obstacle
avoidance and graffiti detection. Our proposed solution has
a promising potential to lower graffiti cleaning cost and to
minimize the impact on traffic.
This paper provides a promising smart system that
addresses challenges in graffiti detection and removal. The
rest of the paper is organized as follows. Section II reviews
and summarizes the related work and existing solutions in
graffiti detection and UAV obstacle avoidance. Section III
discusses our proposed graffiti detection and cleaning
system based on UAV. Section IV evaluates the system
performance. Finally, conclusions are presented in Section
V.
II. RELATED WORK
A. Graffiti Detection
A lot of research has been done on graffiti detection. Di
Stefano et al. [3] presented a novel video surveillance
approach designed to detect vandalism acts occurring on the
background of the monitored scene, such as graffiti painting
on walls and surfaces, public and private property defacing
or etching, unauthorized sticking of posters. Angiati et al. [4]
implemented graffiti detection by catching appearance
changes against a reference background which is stationary
both in space and time. Tombari et al. [5] used a
time-of-flight (TOF) camera to detect acts of vandalism
such as dirtying, etching and defacing walls and object
surfaces.
Real-time recognition of making graffiti behavior can
fundamentally prevent the formation of graffiti, but this
requires monitoring every moment. Therefore, recognition
of graffiti images is critical. Parra et al. [6] took advantage
of touchscreen capabilities of modern mobile devices to aid
recognition of color in gang graffiti images and then used
color recognition based on touchscreen tracing to recognize
gang graffiti. Yang et al. [7] proposed an efficient graffiti
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image retrieval system that uses character detection results
and integrates both image and semantic level understanding
of graffiti characters. Parra et al. [8] designed a
mobile-based gang graffiti system that uses location
information for querying a database of graffiti images.
Munsberg et al. [9] investigated use of convolutional neural
networks (CNN) aiming at classifying weakly labeled
images to identify presence or absence of graffiti art in
images. Li et al. [10] proposed a deep CNN to classify
graffiti components, which reaches 89.3% accuracy with
dropout regularization.
B. UAV
The primary goal of smart city design is to provide
effective infrastructure and services at a low cost. UAVs can
help achieve this goal. This is why UAVs are utilized in a
wide range of applications for smart cities.
Avoiding obstacles while in flight is a non-trivial task
for UAV because the obstacles may be so positioned that
avoiding them requires delicate and agile maneuvers. Wang
et al. [11] developed a new technique for obstacle or
collision avoidance using a modified Grossberg neural
network. Foina et al. [12] presented a cloud-based system to
manage unmanned air traffic, which is an innovative way
for obstacle or collision avoidance in smart cities. Their
work proposes solutions for Unmanned Aerial Systems
flight at low-altitude through a community platform
engaging cities and tools for law enforcement officers. The
discussion in their work breaks down the new flight
problems into three broad areas: citizen engagement via a
community platform, vehicle-city coordination, and
vehicle-to-vehicle coordination. Since unmanned air traffic
management and law enforcement functions require
identification of a drone in real-time, an LED color
sequence is used as a unique identifier with assistance of an
identification and tracking system using cellular networks.
There is a ground identification device that can decode the
LED color sequence.
As UAVs are now used for many recreational and
technological purposes, there are a few issues related to
cope up with the privacy and other interference issues [13].
It is becoming increasingly clear that drones will play a
critical role in smart city applications and will be connected
to, if not directly, a part of the Internet of Things. Moreover,
drones will play an essential role in providing network relay
connectivity and situational awareness, particularly in
disaster assessment and recovery effort. The authors for [13]
discuss these challenges and consider future research
directions for privacy and security related issues for UAVs.
There is growing interest focusing on utilizing
information and communication technology services and
smart solutions in smart city development. Mohammed et al.
[14] introduced several opportunities for UAV use to
support a smart city, which will be very beneficial to any
smart city that utilizes UAVs for their economic growth and
development, such as geo-spatial and surveying activities,
civil security control, traffic and crowd management, natural
disaster control and monitoring, agriculture and
environmental management, urban security increasing city’s
attractiveness, big data processing, coordination between
heterogeneous systems. Paper [14] also addressed some
business challenges in this area, for example, ethics and
privacy, cost, licensing and legislation, business adoption as
well as other technical challenges.
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Ma et al. [15] proposed a generic framework that
integrates an autonomous obstacle detection module and a
reinforcement learning (RL) module to develop reactive
obstacle avoidance behavior for a UAV. Choi et al. [16]
presented a new two-layer obstacle avoidance algorithm that
allows an unmanned aircraft system to avoid multiple
obstacles with minimal effort. Prevost et al. [17] presented a
novel model-based predictive UAV guidance algorithm.
Obstacle avoidance is achieved by minimizing the UAV
collision probability with all known dynamic ellipsoidal
obstacles on the prediction horizon, while ensuring that the
collision probability with any given obstacle at each
prediction step does not surpass a preset threshold. Manner
et al. [18] presented a control algorithm for quadrotors based
on monocular vision that is specifically designed for
obstacle avoidance in a forest environment. Uzol et al. [19]
developed a strategy based on panel methods for fixed wing
aircraft. However, their work was based on the assumption
that knowledge of a global map of the environment is
available. Call et al. [20] presented a 2D sliding mode
obstacle avoidance controller in the horizontal plane.
Griffiths et al. [21] made use of optical flow to detect
obstacles and computed a lateral bias necessary to avoid
them. Aguilar et al. [22] proposed an obstacle avoidance
system for UAVs using a monocular camera. To detect
obstacles, the system compares the image obtained in real
time from the UAV with a database of obstacles that must
be avoided.
Object recognition and scene classification from aerial
imagery using deep learning techniques have also acquired a
relevant role in many applications, such as jellyfish
monitoring [23], road traffic monitoring from UAVs [24],
assisting avalanche search and rescue operations with UAV
imagery [25], and terrorist identification [26]. In these kinds
of applications, UAVs provide a low-cost platform for aerial
image acquisition, while deep learning technologies are
mainly utilized for feature extraction [27].
III. SYSTEM OVERVIEW
An operator controlling a UAV needs to be skillful in
navigating the UAV, and avoiding obstacles and crashes
during its navigation path. Therefore, we decided to adopt
machine learning technologies to enable the UAV to
automatically recognize obstacles without human
intervention. The UAV should also have detection features
for determining whether the target area is covered with
graffiti.
A semi-autonomous UAV graffiti detection and removal
system based on machine learning is proposed in this paper.
A semi-auto pilot drone can detect nearby environment and
recognize the graffiti and decide whether to clean it. The
drone is also equipped with spray paint. An operator
controls the drone through a mobile application. There is
also a cloud server which can monitor drone status and give
commands to the operator. This system can effectively
reduce human labor cost and minimize its impact on traffic.
The key component in the system is the drone that is
wirelessly connected to a remote control, which in turn is
linked to a mobile phone through a self-developed app. All
the commands sent from the operator go through the remote
control before hitting the drone. These communications are
based on DJI Mobile SDK. There is a backend server called
Ground Station, which acts as the admin server and sends all
graffiti missions to the mobile application.
 The drone has several onboard components. For example, in the red line in Figure 2 remain our focus.
the onboard server can directly control the drone without
instructions from the remote control. The embedded camera
can get visual information of the drone and helps to avoid
obstacles with onboard guidance system. The spray system
can paint over graffiti when detected.
The system architecture is shown in Figure 1. The whole
system consists of drone navigation, graffiti detection; spray
can control unit, and graffiti and user management. The
components in blue are the focus of our work.

Fig.2. Subsystem architecture

A. Obstacle Avoidance
During flight of the drone, it may encounter different
types of obstacles. The guidance system helps the drone
avoid hitting those obstacles, crashing or hurting people
around.
Fig.1. System architecture
To solve these problems, we come up with an obstacle
Communication and User Interfaces: DJI Matrice 100 avoidance solution. We use a guidance sensor to provide
has three interfaces: Guidance SDK, Onboard SDK and several guidance filters for the drone. Whenever an obstacle
mobile SDK. Guidance SDK is used for various navigation hits the guidance filter, the guidance system will issue a
commands and obstacle avoidance. Onboard SDK is warning to the drone. Then the drone will find a way to
connected to the remote controller via a light bridge that is avoid the obstacle. With those filters, we can ensure that the
connected to Ground Control Station (GCS) via a mobile drone moves directly forward, backwards, left or right
navigation app. Mobile app for the system is developed without being affected by obstacles.
using DJI Mobile SDK to control the drone. Onboard SDK
is also used for spray controller. Before we figure out how to build guidance filters, we
must know the flight field of the drone. Table I shows the
Navigation: Onboard camera and GPS keep sending basic performance details of the Matrice 100 drone. From
current location information of the UAV to the operator. For this table, we can notice that when the Matrice 100 drone
semi-automatic navigation and collision avoidance, we use uses the P-GPS mode to hover, it may fly up or down for 0.5
machine learning algorithms in the system to help detect meters and fly around horizontally for 2.5 meters. We can
obstacles automatically and alert the operator when call it the unstable zone of the drone. We need to consider
obstacles are detected within an unsafe distance. The UAV this zone as we don’t want the drone to hover around and
has four flight modes: Follow-Me, To-Location, Explore, suddenly hit some obstacle when we make obstacle
and Configure. Follow-Me is achieved by GPS follow or avoidance.
Camera follow. To-location enables the drone to get to the TABLE I. MATRICE 100 PERFORMANCE SPECS
designated location. The drone can generate work report
resulting from its panoramic exploration. Configure Hovering Accuracy Vertical: 0.5 m, Horizontal:
command can get map view and camera view of the drone. (P-Mode With GPS) 2.5 m
Max. Angular Velocity Pitch: 300°/s, Yaw: 150°/s
Onboard Server: Our onboard server has a pre-trained
model specifically designed to detect graffiti. Once a Max. Tilt Angle 35°
graffiti-like image is detected, the onboard server sends a Max. Speed of Ascent 5 m/s
message to the navigation module to navigate the proximity
around the drone for further confirmation. Max. Speed of Descent 4 m/s
Max. Wind Resistance 10 m/s
Spray Control: After the operator receives the graffiti
image and sends commands to clean it up, the UAV system Max. Speed 22 m/s (ATTI mode, no
will be changed to a cleaning mode. It will paint over the payload, no wind)
graffiti image with carry-on paint to cover the original 17 m/s (GPS mode, no
graffiti. payload, no wind)
Figure 2 provides a more detailed characterization of the Now we can start to build a guidance system. In order to
system architecture presented in Figure 1. Modules enclosed calculate the guidance filters, we need to know the
capabilities of the guidance sensors. Table II shows the

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guidance sensor sensor may be installed to different positions of the drone.
TABLE II. GUIDANCE FILTERS DESIGN – VERTICALLY This way, we can get the minimize obstacle sensing
Velocity Detection 0~16 m/s (From the ground 2 m)
distance vertically is:
Range (The measurement shall prevail) Dsvı(Huz/2+Os)/sin28
Velocity Detection 0.04 m/s (From the ground 2 m)
Accuracy One guidance sensor has two guidance cameras, each of
Positioning Accuracy 0.05 m (From the ground 2 m) them has a sensing area of 60°, and therefore, most of the
Effective Sensor Range 0.20 m ~ 20 m sensing areas are coincided. To achieve higher accuracy, we
calculate the coincidence field as a horizontal guidance
External Requirements Good lighting; Texture-rich
filter.
surface with clear patterns
According to Table II and Figure 3, we can see that a Similar to the vertical direction, we have to calculate the
guidance sensor can sense an obstacle range of 0.2 ~ 20 Ds horizontally (Dsh, which is line af in Figure 5). We need
meters. The sensing field of a guidance sensor is 60° to ensure that the width of guidance filter (Wf, which is line
horizontally and 58° vertically. For different sensing fields, ac in Figure 5) is equal to or longer than the width of
we need to design guidance filters both vertically and unstable region (Wuz, which is line gh in Figure 5). Wuz
horizontally. equals to the drone width (Wd, which is line jk in Figure 5)
plus twice the horizontal hover accuracy (HVh):
Wuz=Wd+2*HVh
In Figure 5, it becomes:
gh=jk+2*HVh
a

j
t
e b
d

f k

h
Fig.3.Guidance sensor sensing field
Drone
c
Figure 4 shows the vertical sliding of the drone system. Unstable zone
The green rectangle represents the drone, gray rectangle Guidance sensor
represents the unstable zone, and the pink rectangle
Fig.5.Guidance filter design- horizontally
represents the guidance sensor.
a
As we can see, even with the guidance system, a drone
f
still has a blind field. In order to prevent the drone from
g
entering the blind zone and to make our guidance system
j k
work properly, we only need to let it fly forward alone,
e
b backwards, left or right. This way, we can fully trust the
d
guidance system. If there is no warning, there is no obstacle.
m l

i h
Drone

c Unstable zone
Guidance sensor

Fig.4. Guidance filter design-vertically

The goal of this design is to determine the minimize

obstacle sensing distance (Ds) of the drone. To calculate the
Ds vertically (Dsv, which is line ab in Figure 4), we must
ensure that the height of guidance filter (Hf, which is line ac
in Figure 4) is equal to or longer than the height of unstable
zone (Huz, which is line gh in Figure 4). Huz is equal to the
drone height (Hd, which is line kl in Figure 4) plus twice the
vertical hover accuracy (HAv): Huz = Hd + 2*HAv.
In Figure 4, it becomes:
gh = kl + 2 * HAv
As we know, ğabc = 58e, acıgh, we can get abı
(gh/2+Os)/sin28, Os means the offset of guidance sensor
Fig.6. Obstacle avoidance decision tree
from center of the drone (Os=jm/2-mb), as the guidance

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 For the guidance system we developed a decision tree to
implement the obstacle avoidance as shown in Figure 6. The
decision tree covers all scenarios a drone might encounter in
its attempt to avoid obstacles. Most decisions are about
moving right or left to avoid obstacles until no obstacle
warnings are received, after which the task continues. Or the
drone cannot move left, right or forward. As a result, it can
only stop to ask operator for help. It’s easy to move left or
right horizontally and keep the drone safe as those two
directions have the guidance sensor for obstacle sensing.
However, there is no guidance sensor for vertical
movement.
As we know, a guidance filter keeps moving along with
the drone until it hits any obstacles. Then it will leave a safe
path for drone to fly through. In Figure 7, we can see that
the guidance sensor bm (purple rectangle) is not in the
middle of the drone (jm). According to the previous Fig.8. Graffiti detection model training process
formulas, we can ensure that ac is longer than fi. If Ds=Dsv The graffiti on walls and the graffiti on traffic signs are
(and thus DsvıDsh), we can get that when guidance is very different. The former are usually large and complex
installed to the upper position of the drone, point a will be while the latter are mostly limited in size due to space
higher than point f by a distance of az. If Ds=Dsh (and thus constraint. Therefore, two distinct models are trained to
Dsv<Dsh), the value of az becomes larger. recognize wall graffiti and traffic sign graffiti, respectively,
The line segment az is the distance between unstable in this project.
zone of the drone and the safe path created by guidance TABLE III. LABEL MAP FOR MODEL DETECTING GRAFFITI ON WALLS
filter. It is the maximum distance a drone can safely fly Item ID Name
upward when drone is not moving horizontally. But if we
1 Throw up Graffiti
keep the guidance filter moving, a new safe path will
continue to be generated from the filter. So the drone can fly 2 Wild style Graffiti
horizontally while flying up if the climb degree (denoted by 3 Cartoon Graffiti
Dc) is no greater than ğagz. 4 Throw up Alphabet
5 Wild style Alphabet
Dc=arctan(Hf-2HAv-2Os)/(2*(Wd+HAh)+Huz/tan28) 6 Cartoon Eye
a The model for wall graffiti is trained in such a way that
it recognizes the style and pattern of graffiti on walls and
g
z f classifies them into one of several styles, such as throw up
j k style, cartoon style, wild style and so on. It can also
b
distinguish whether it is a picture or some alphabets. The
d e label map of the model is listed in Table III.
For graffiti on traffic signs, we just train a model to
m l
detect if there are graffiti on a certain traffic sign. The label
i
h map of the model is listed in Table IV.
Drone
TABLE IV. LABEL MAP FOR MODEL DETECTING GRAFFITI ON TRAFFIC
c Unstable zone SIGNS
Guidance sensor
Item ID Name
Fig.7.Guidance system- vertically 1 Traffic Sign
B. Graffiti Detection 2 Graffiti Traffic Sign

Since Tensor Flow object detection API is open source
and easy to use, we decided to choose this API to do
machine learning work in order to achieve graffiti
auto-detection before the drone starts the cleaning process.
Besides, based on its transfer learning, it provides more
accurate results while consumes less time than other
machine learning modules. It also offers various pre-trained
models for users to choose. After careful research, we select
the ssd_mobilenet_v2_coco model which is optimized for
mobile platform and pre-trained on COCO dataset. The
training process is shown in Figure 8.
IV. SYSTEM EVALUATION
In this project, we trained two models, one for detecting
graffiti on traffic signs and the other for detecting graffiti on
walls. Figure 9 shows the detection results of graffiti on the
wall. It clearly indicates that our system recognizes it as
throw up graffiti. We also implemented a model to check
the content of graffiti. As shown in Figure 9, although the
white frame overlaps with the result presented in the green
frame, it indicates that our system recognizes the first letter
of the graffiti to be a throw up alphabet. The accuracies of
both models are up to 99%.

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Fig.11.Classification loss of box classifier
Fig.9. Graffiti detection on walls

Figure 10 shows the detection results for graffiti on

traffic signs. In this test, we have two types of traffic signs,
one with graffiti painted over and the other clean and clear.
The results indicate that our system can distinguish between
a clear traffic sign and a graffiti traffic sign.

Fig.12.Localization loss of box classifier

(a)Graffiti Traffic Sign

Fig.13.Localization loss of RPN

(b)Clear Traffic Sign
Fig.10. Graffiti Detection on Traffic Signs

The two tests given above demonstrate that the drone

itself can recognize graffiti on walls and graffiti on traffic
signs during its flight and automatically locate the graffiti
with an accuracy of up to 99%.
Figure 11 and 12 show the losses for the final classifier.
The loss for the classification of detected objects into
various classes is illustrated in Figure 11. Localization loss
or the loss of the bounding box regressor is shown in Figure
12. Figure 13 and 14 show the losses for the region proposal
network (RPN). Localization loss or the loss of the
bounding box regressor for the RPN is shown in Figure 13.
Figure 14 illustrates loss of the classifier, which classifies
whether a bounding box is an object of interest or merely Fig.14.Objectness loss of RPN
background.

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 Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), 2014 International Conference on, 2014, pp.
Fig.15.Total loss result
The corresponding total loss is shown in Figure 15,
where we can see that the total loss decreases to 0.05% at
15000 iterations.
V. CONCLUSIONS
The prevalent graffiti has become one of the main
problems in urban development. This paper proposes a
semi-autonomous UAV graffiti detection and removal
system based on machine learning to address this issue.
The semi-auto pilot drone can detect nearby environment
and recognize graffiti and decide whether to clean them up.
The drone carries spray paint to the target location and
cleans the graffiti if necessary. There is also a cloud server
which can monitor drone status and issues commands to the
operator. This system will effectively reduce human labor
cost and minimize the impact on traffic.
Due to limitations on test areas, our system needs to be
further tested in more practical places and more complicated
environments. In addition, better machine learning
algorithms should be tested to improve the recognition
accuracy of graffiti on walls and traffic signs.
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