Draught 222

Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology
Certificate
This is to certify that Mr./Ms.____________________________________
Enrollment No. ________________ Branch: - Mechanical Engineering
Semester: VII has satisfactory completed the course in the subject Power Plant
Engineering (2171910) in this institute.
Date of Submission: - __________________________
Staff in Charge Head of Department

DARSHAN INSTITUTE OF ENGG. & TECH.
Department of Mechanical Engineering
B.E. Semester – VII
Power Plant Engineering (2171910)
List of Experiments
Sr. Date of Date of

Title Sign Remark
No. Performance Submission
To study of modern steam power

1.
plant
To study of steam turbines (impulse,

2.
reaction and governing)
To study of gas and steam turbine

3.
combined cycles
4. To study of nuclear power plant
5. To study of various draught system
To study about feed water treatment

6.
plant and processes
To study of different types of steam

7.
nozzle and design a nozzle
To comparative study of different

8.
types of high pressure boilers
9. To study of different pulverizing mill
To study of condenser and cooling

10.
tower
STEAM POWER PLANT
1. To study of modern steam power plant

1. Objective:
Study of modern steam power plant.
2. Aim:
To understand working of different components of steam power plant.
3. Introduction:
The availability of electrical energy and its per capita consumption is regarded as
index of national standard of living in the present day civilization and for development of
any country, energy is the basic input.
Next to the food, fuel and power are the most important items on which national
standard life depends. That’s why once the food requirement is fulfilled; next task for any
country is to increase the power generation. The production of food also increases with
increases of power generation. Therefore, the increase in power potential of a nation is
considered most important among all.
The energy in the form of electricity is most desired as it is easy to transport, easy to
control, clean in its surroundings and can be easily converted in heat or work as per
requirements. If we see the data of last ten years, we can realize that consumption of power
increases continuously, not only in India but worldwide and it will increase with
development of industries and the improvement of living standard. As the coal is easily
available in India, large percentage of electricity is developed by thermal power plant in
which coal is used as fuel.
4. Components of Thermal Power Plant:
Steam power plant basically works on the Rankine cycle in which steam and water is
used as working fluid. In Rankine cycle high pressure and temperature steam is generated in
the boiler by burning of fuel. That high pressure and temperature steam is then expanded in
the turbine to produce power which in turn used to drive the generator to produce
electricity. After the expansion of steam low pressure and temperature steam is condensed
in the condenser and the condensate is fed back to the boiler with the help of the pump and
cycle is repeated.
The main components of cycle are boiler, turbine, condenser and feed pump.
In modern thermal power plant Rankine cycle is used.
Process 1-2: Isentropic expansion: Steam at high pressure and temperature is
expanded in turbine isentropically. Pressure of the steam is decreases from P1 to P2.
During the process work is done by the turbine.
Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection: Exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed at
constant pressure in the condenser so steam is condensed into water. During the
process latent heat of steam is rejected to cooling water.
Process 3-4: Isentropic compression: Condensate from the condenser is pumped
back to the boiler. During with work is done on the water by the pump.

Darshan Institute of Engineering and Technology, Rajkot
1-1
STEAM POWER PLANT
Process 4-1: Isobaric heat supply: In the boiler heat is supplied at constant pressure
by burning of the fuel.
Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of Rankine cycle
Fig. 1.2 T-S diagram of Rankine cycle
5. General Layout of Thermal Power Plant:

The general layout of the thermal power plant consists of mainly 4 circuits as shown
in figure 1.3. The four main circuits are:
1. Coal and ash circuit
2. Air and gas circuit
3. Feed water and steam flow circuit
4. Cooling water circuit

1-2
STEAM POWER PLANT
Fig. 1.2 T-S diagram of Rankine cycle

1. Coal and Ash Circuit
Coal from the coal storage is fed to the boiler through coal handling system to
generate the steam. Ash produced due to combustion of coal is removed and dump into ash
sump through ash handling system.
2. Air and Gas Circuit
Air from the atmosphere is supplied to the boiler either through F.D. or I.D. fan or by
using both. The dust from the air is removed with the help of air filter. Air preheater is used
to utilize the heat of exhaust gases which increase the efficiency of the plant. To remove fly
ash from the gases electrostatic precipitator is used. Exhaust gases from the boiler is
discharge to the atmosphere through chimney.
3. Feed Water and Steam Circuit
High pressure and high temperature steam is generated in the boiler by burning of
the fuel. That high pressure and temperature steam is then expanded in the turbine to
produce mechanical work which in turn is used to drive generator to produce electrical
power. The steam coming out from the turbine is condensed in the condenser and then fed
back to the boiler with the help of feed pump. The condensate may be heated in feed water
heater using the steam tapped from the different points of the turbine.

1-3
STEAM POWER PLANT
Some of the steam and water may be lost due to leakage through different
components. To compensate the loss, make up water is supplied to the boiler through feed
water treatment plant to remove the impurities.
4. Cooling Water Circuit
The considerable amount of cooling water is required to condense the steam in
condenser. It is taken either from lake, river or sea. If adequate water is available
throughout the year, then cooling water is taken from the upstream of the river, passed
through the condenser and discharge to downstream of the river.
If adequate water is not available, then hot water from the condenser is cooled in
the cooling tower and cold water from the cooling tower is passed through the condenser.

1-4
STEAM TURBINE
2. To study of Steam Turbine

1. Objective:
Study of steam turbine (impulse, reaction and governing).
2. Aim:
 To understand working of different steam turbine
 To understand compounding of steam turbine
 To understand different governing system of steam turbine
3. Introduction:
A steam turbine converts the energy of high-pressure, high temperature steam
produced by a steam generator into shaft work. The energy conversion is brought about in
the following ways:
1. The high-pressure, high-temperature steam first expands in the nozzles emanates as
a high velocity fluid stream.
2. The high velocity steam coming out of the nozzles impinges on the blades mounted
on a wheel. The fluid stream suffers a loss of momentum while flowing past the
blades that is absorbed by the rotating wheel entailing production of torque.
3. The moving blades move as a result of the impulse of steam (caused by the change
of momentum) and also as a result of expansion and acceleration of the steam
relative to them. In other words they also act as the nozzles.
5. Types of Steam Turbine:
Impulse steam turbine:
Impulse turbines (single-rotor or multirotor) are simple stages of the turbines. Here
the impulse blades are attached to the shaft. Impulse blades can be recognized by their
shape. They are usually symmetrical and have entrance and exit angles respectively, around
20 °C. Because they are usually used in the entrance high-pressure stages of a steam
turbine, when the specific volume of steam is low and requires much smaller flow than at
lower pressures, the impulse blades are short and have constant cross sections.
The single-stage impulse turbine is also called the de Laval turbine after its inventor.
The turbine consists of a single rotor to which impulse blades are attached. The steam is fed
through one or several convergent-divergent nozzles which do not extend completely
around the circumference of the rotor, so that only part of the blades is impinged upon by
the steam at any one time. The nozzles also allow governing of the turbine by shutting off
one or more them.
Reaction steam turbine
A reaction turbine, therefore, is one that is constructed of rows of fixed and rows of
moving blades. The fixed blades act as nozzles. The moving blades move as a result of the
impulse of steam received (caused by change in momentum) and also as a result of
expansion and acceleration of the steam relative to them. In other words, they also act as
nozzles. The enthalpy drop per stage of one row fixed and one row moving blades is divided
2-1
STEAM TURBINE
among them, often equally. Thus a blade with a 50 percent degree of reaction, or a 50
percent reaction stage, is one in which half the enthalpy drop of the stage occurs in the
fixed blades and half in the moving blades. The pressure drops will not be equal, however.
They are greater for the fixed blades and greater for the high-pressure than the low-
pressure stages.
The moving blades of a reaction turbine are easily distinguishable from those of an
impulse turbine in that they are not symmetrical and, because they act partly as nozzles,
have a shape similar to that of the fixed blades, although curved in the opposite direction.
Fig. 2.1 Impulse and Reaction Turbine
6. Compounding of Steam Turbine

Compounding of steam turbines is the method in which energy from the steam is
extracted in a number of stages rather than a single stage in a turbine. A compounded
steam turbine has multiple stages i.e. it has more than one set of nozzles and rotors, in
series, keyed to the shaft or fixed to the casing, so that either the steam pressure or the jet
velocity is absorbed by the turbine in number of stages.
Necessity
The steam produced in the boiler has sufficiently high enthalpy when superheated.
In all turbines the blade velocity is directly proportional to the velocity of the steam passing
over the blade. Now, if the entire energy of the steam is extracted in one stage, i.e. if the
steam is expanded from the boiler pressure to the condenser pressure in a single stage,
then its velocity will be very high. Hence the velocity of the rotor (to which the blades are
keyed) can reach to about 30,000 rpm, which is pretty high for practical uses because of
2-2
STEAM TURBINE
very high vibration. Moreover at such high speeds the centrifugal forces are immense, which
can damage the structure. Hence, compounding is needed. The high velocity which is used
for impulse turbine just strikes on single ring of rotor that cause wastage of steam ranges
10% to 12%. To overcome the wastage of steam compounding of steam turbine is used.
Types of compounding
1. Velocity compounding
2. Pressure compounding
3. Velocity pressure compounding
Velocity compounding of Impulse Turbine:
The velocity compounded Impulse turbine was first proposed by C G Curtis to solve
the problem of single stage Impulse turbine for use of high pressure and temperature
steam.
The rings of moving blades are separated by rings of fixed blades. The moving blades
are keyed to the turbine shaft and the fixed blades are fixed to the casing. The high pressure
steam coming from the boiler is expanded in the nozzle first. The Nozzle converts the
pressure energy of the steam into kinetic energy. It is interesting to note that the total
enthalpy drop and hence the pressure drop occurs in the nozzle. Hence, the pressure
thereafter remains constant.
This high velocity steam is directed on to the first set (ring) of moving blades. As the
steam flows over the blades, due the shape of the blades, it imparts some of its momentum
to the blades and loses some velocity. Only a part of the high kinetic energy is absorbed by
these blades. The remainder is exhausted on to the next ring of fixed blade. The function of
the fixed blades is to redirect the steam leaving from the first ring of moving blades to the
second ring of moving blades. There is no change in the velocity of the steam as it passes
through the fixed blades. The steam then enters the next ring of moving blades; this process
is repeated until practically all the energy of the steam has been absorbed.
A schematic diagram of the Curtis stage impulse turbine, with two rings of moving
blades one ring of fixed blades is shown in figure 2.2. The figure also shows the changes in
the pressure and the absolute steam velocity as it passes through the stages.
In the fig. 2.2 figure there are two rings of moving blades separated by a single of
ring of fixed blades. As discussed earlier the entire pressure drop occurs in the nozzle, and
there are no subsequent pressure losses in any of the following stages. Velocity drop occurs
in the moving blades and not in fixed blades.

2-3
STEAM TURBINE
Fig. 2.2 Velocity Compounding for Impulse Turbine

Where,𝑝𝑖 = Pressure of steam at inlet
𝑉𝑖 = Velocity of steam at inlet
𝑝𝑜 = Pressure of steam at outlet
𝑉𝑜 = Velocity of steam at outlet
Pressure compounding of Impulse Turbine:
The pressure compounded Impulse turbine is also called as Rateau turbine, after its
inventor. This is used to solve the problem of high blade velocity in the single-stage impulse
turbine.
It consists of alternate rings of nozzles and turbine blades. The nozzles are fitted to
the casing and the blades are keyed to the turbine shaft.
In this type of compounding the steam is expanded in a number of stages, instead of
just one (nozzle) in the velocity compounding. It is done by the fixed blades which act as
nozzles. The steam expands equally in all rows of fixed blade. The steam coming from the
boiler is fed to the first set of fixed blades i.e. the nozzle ring. The steam is partially
expanded in the nozzle ring. Hence, there is a partial decrease in pressure of the incoming
steam. This leads to an increase in the velocity of the steam. Therefore the pressure
decreases and velocity increases partially in the nozzle.
This is then passed over the set of moving blades. As the steam flows over the
moving blades nearly all its velocity is absorbed. However, the pressure remains constant
during this process. After this it is passed into the nozzle ring and is again partially
expanded. Then it is fed into the next set of moving blades, and this process is repeated
until the condenser pressure is reached.
This process has been illustrated in figure 2.3.

2-4
STEAM TURBINE
Fig. 2.3 Pressure Compounding for Impulse Turbine

Where, the symbols have the same meaning as given above.
It is a three stage pressure compounded impulse turbine. Each stage consists of one
ring of fixed blades, which act as nozzles, and one ring of moving blades. As shown in the
figure pressure drop takes place in the nozzles and is distributed in many stages.
An important point to note here is that the inlet steam velocities to each stage of
moving blades are essentially equal. It is because the velocity corresponds to the lowering of
the pressure. Since, in a pressure compounded steam turbine only a part of the steam is
expanded in each nozzle, the steam velocity is lower than of the previous case. It can be
explained mathematically from the following formula i.e.
𝑉1 𝑉2
+ ℎ1 = + ℎ2
2 2
Where,ℎ1 = Enthalpy of fluid at exit
ℎ2 = Enthalpy of fluid at inlet
Pressure-Velocity compounded Impulse Turbine:
It is a combination of the above two types of compounding. The total pressure drop
of the steam is divided into a number of stages. Each stage consists of rings of fixed and
moving blades. Each set of rings of moving blades is separated by a single ring of fixed
blades. In each stage there is one ring of fixed blades and 3-4 rings of moving blades. Each
stage acts as a velocity compounded impulse turbine.
The fixed blades act as nozzles. The steam coming from the boiler is passed to the
first ring of fixed blades, where it gets partially expanded. The pressure partially decreases
and the velocity rises correspondingly. The velocity is absorbed by the following rings of
moving blades until it reaches the next ring of fixed blades and the whole process is
repeated once again.
2-5
STEAM TURBINE
This process is shown diagrammatically in figure 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Pressure-velocity Compounding for Impulse Turbine

Where, symbols have their usual meaning.
Pressure compounding of Reaction Turbine:
As explained earlier a reaction turbine is one which there is pressure and velocity
loss in the moving blades. The moving blades have a converging steam nozzle. Hence when
the steam passes over the fixed blades, it expands with decrease in steam pressure and
increase in kinetic energy.
Fig. 2.5 Pressure Compounding for Reaction Turbine

2-6
STEAM TURBINE
This type of turbine has a number of rings of moving blades attached to the rotor
and an equal number of fixed blades attached to the casing. In this type of turbine the
pressure drops take place in a number of stages.
The steam passes over a series of alternate fixed and moving blades. The fixed
blades act as nozzles i.e. they change the direction of the steam and also expand it. Then
steam is passed on the moving blades, which further expand the steam and also absorb its
velocity.
This is explained in figure 2.5.
Where, symbols have the same meaning as above.
7. Governing of Steam Turbine
Steam turbine governing is the procedure of controlling the flow rate of steam to a
steam turbine so as to maintain its speed of rotation as constant. The variation in load
during the operation of a steam turbine can have a significant impact on its performance. In
a practical situation the load frequently varies from the designed or economic load and thus
there always exists a considerable deviation from the desired performance of the turbine.
The primary objective in the steam turbine operation is to maintain a constant speed of
rotation irrespective of the varying load. This can be achieved by means of governing in a
steam turbine.
Depending upon the particular method adopted for control of steam flow rate,
different types of governing methods are being practiced. The principal methods used for
governing are described below.
Throttle governing:
In throttle governing the pressure of steam is reduced at the turbine entry thereby
decreasing the availability of energy. In this method steam is passed through a restricted
passage thereby reducing its pressure across the governing valve. The flow rate is controlled
using a partially opened steam control valve. The reduction in pressure leads to a throttling
process in which the enthalpy of steam remains constant.
Throttle governing – small turbines
Low initial cost and simple mechanism makes throttle governing the most apt
method for small steam turbines. The mechanism is illustrated in figure 2.6. The valve is
actuated by using a centrifugal governor which consists of flying balls attached to the arm of
the sleeve. A geared mechanism connects the turbine shaft to the rotating shaft on which
the sleeve reciprocates axially. With a reduction in the load the turbine shaft speed
increases and brings about the movement of the flying balls away from the sleeve axis. This
result in an axial movement of the sleeve followed by the activation of a lever, which in turn
actuates the main stop valve to a partially opened position to control the flow rate.
Throttle governing – big turbines
In larger steam turbines an oil operated servo mechanism is used in order to
enhance the lever sensitivity. The use of a relay system magnifies the small deflections of

2-7
STEAM TURBINE
the lever connected to the governor sleeve. The differential lever is connected at both the
ends to the governor sleeve and the throttle valve spindle respectively.
Fig. 2.6 Throttle Governor

The pilot valves spindle is also connected to the same lever at some intermediate
position. Both the pilot valves cover one port each in the oil chamber. The outlets of the oil
chamber are connected to an oil drain tank through pipes. The decrease in load during
operation of the turbine will bring about increase in the shaft speed thereby lifting the
governor sleeve. Deflection occurs in the lever and due to this the pilot valve spindle raises
up opening the upper port for oil entry and lower port for oil exit. Pressurized oil from the
oil tank enters the cylinder and pushes the relay piston downwards. As the relay piston
moves the throttle valve spindle attached to it also descends and partially closes the valve.
Thus the steam flow rates can be controlled. When the load on the turbine increases the
deflections in the lever are such that the lower port is opened for oil entry and upper port
for oil exit. The relay piston moves upwards and the throttle valve spindle ascend upwards
opening the valve. The variation of the steam consumption rate ṁ (kg/h) with the turbine
load during throttle governing is linear and is given by the “willan’s line”.
The equation for the willan’s line is given by:
𝑚̇ = 𝑎𝐿 + 𝐶
Where 𝑎 steam rate in kg/kWh is is, 𝐿 is the load on turbine in KW and 𝐶 is no load steam
consumption.
2-8
STEAM TURBINE
Nozzle governing:
In nozzle governing the flow rate of steam is regulated by opening and shutting of
sets of nozzles rather than regulating its pressure. In this method groups of two, three or
more nozzles form a set and each set is controlled by a separate valve. The actuation of
individual valve closes the corresponding set of nozzle thereby controlling the flow rate. In
actual turbine, nozzle governing is applied only to the first stage whereas the subsequent
stages remain unaffected. Since no regulation to the pressure is applied, the advantage of
this method lies in the exploitation of full boiler pressure and temperature. Figure 2.7 shows
the mechanism of nozzle governing applied to steam turbines. As shown in the figure the
three sets of nozzles are controlled by means of three separate valves.
Fig. 2.7 Nozzle Governor

2-9
COMBINED CYCLE POWER PLANT
3. To study of gas and steam turbine combined cycle

1. Objective:
Study of gas and steam turbine combined cycle.
2. Aim:
To understand working and construction of gas and steam power plant.
3. Introduction:
Inner Workings of a Combined-Cycle Power Plant
A combined-cycle power plant uses both a gas and a steam turbine together
to produce up to 50 percent more electricity from the same fuel than a traditional
simple-cycle plant. The waste heat from the gas turbine is routed to the nearby
steam turbine, which generates extra power.
How a Combined-Cycle Power Plant Produces Electricity?
This is how a combined-cycle plant works to produce electricity and captures waste
heat from the gas turbine to increase efficiency and electrical output.
1. Gas turbine burns fuel.
 The gas turbine compresses air and mixes it with fuel that is heated to a very high
temperature. The hot air-fuel mixture moves through the gas turbine blades, making
them spin.
 The fast-spinning turbine drives a generator that converts a portion of the spinning
energy into electricity.
2. Heat recovery system captures exhaust.
 A Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG) captures exhaust heat from the gas
turbine that would otherwise escape through the exhaust stack.
 The HRSG creates steam from the gas turbine exhaust heat and delivers it to the
steam turbine.
3. Steam turbine delivers additional electricity.
 The steam turbine sends its energy to the generator drive shaft, where it is
converted into additional electricity.
4. Combine Cycle (Gas - Vapour Power Cycle)
The continued quest for higher thermal efficiencies has resulted in rather
innovative modifications to conventional power plants. The binary vapor cycle
discussed later is one such modification. A more popular modification involves a gas
power cycle topping a vapor power cycle, which is called the combined gas–vapor
cycle, or just the combined cycle. The combined cycle of greatest interest is the gas-
turbine (Brayton) cycle topping a steam turbine (Rankine) cycle, which has a higher
thermal efficiency than either of the cycles executed individually.

3-1
Gas-turbine cycles typically operate at considerably higher temperatures than

steam cycles. The maximum fluid temperature at the turbine inlet is about 620°C
(1150°F) for modern steam power plants, but over 1425°C (2600°F) for gas-turbine
power plants. It is over 1500°C at the burner exit of turbojet engines. The use of
higher temperatures in gas turbines is made possible by recent developments in
cooling the turbine blades and coating the blades with high-temperature-resistant
materials such as ceramics. Because of the higher average temperature at which
heat is supplied, gas-turbine cycles have a greater potential for higher thermal
efficiencies. However, the gas-turbine cycles have one inherent disadvantage: The
gas leaves the gas turbine at very high temperatures (usually above 500°C), which
erases any potential gains in the thermal efficiency. The situation can be improved
somewhat by using regeneration, but the improvement is limited.
It makes engineering sense to take advantage of the very desirable
characteristics of the gas-turbine cycle at high temperatures and to use the high
temperature exhaust gases as the energy source for the bottoming cycle such as a
steam power cycle. The result is a combined gas–steam cycle, as shown in fig. 3.1 &
3.2.
In this cycle, energy is recovered from the exhaust gases by transferring it to
the steam in a heat exchanger that serves as the boiler. In general, more than one
gas turbine is needed to supply sufficient heat to the steam. Also, the steam cycle
may involve regeneration as well as reheating. Energy for the reheating process can
be supplied by burning some additional fuel in the oxygen-rich exhaust gases.
Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram combined gas–steam power plant

3-2
Fig. 3.2 T-s diagram combined gas–steam power plant

Recent developments in gas-turbine technology have made the combined
gas–steam cycle economically very attractive. The combined cycle increases the
efficiency without increasing the initial cost greatly. Consequently, many new power
plants operate on combined cycles, and many more existing steam- or gas-turbine
plants are being converted to combined-cycle power plants. Thermal efficiencies
well over 40 percent are reported as a result of conversion.
A 1090-MW Tohoku combined plant that was put in commercial operation in
1985 in Niigata, Japan, is reported to operate at a thermal efficiency of 44 percent.
This plant has two 191-MW steam turbines and six 118-MW gas turbines. Hot
combustion gases enter the gas turbines at 1154°C, and steam enters the steam
turbines at 500°C. Steam is cooled in the condenser by cooling water at an average
temperature of 15°C. The compressors have a pressure ratio of 14, and the mass
flow rate of air through the compressors is 443 kg/s.
A 1350-MW combined-cycle power plant built in Ambarli, Turkey, in 1988 by
Siemens of Germany is the first commercially operating thermal plant in the world to
attain an efficiency level as high as 52.5 percent at design operating conditions. This
plant has six 150-MW gas turbines and three 173-MW steam turbines. Some recent
combined-cycle power plants have achieved efficiencies above 60 percent.

3-3
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
4. To study of nuclear power plant

1. Objective:
Study of nuclear power plant.
2. Aim:
To understand the basic processes, components and working of different types of
nuclear power plant.
3. Introduction:
Steam, diesel and gas turbine power plants are based on conventional sources of
energy. Availability of this fuels are fast depleting while power demand is ever increasing.
Thermal power plants also based on coal.
We have to seek for large alternative source of energy like solar energy, geothermal
energy, nuclear energy, tidal energy.
Nuclear has bright future due availability of uranium and thorium in earth crest.
Uranium and Thorium in earth crest are estimated to be 1011 tones at a depth 5km. 20 x
106 tons of Uranium, 1x 106 tons of Thorium can economically extracted. Fission of 1 kg of
uranium can produce the energy equivalent to burning about 4x 106 of high grade coal.
Initial cost is high but operating cost is low as compare to thermal power plant.
4. Nuclear Fission and Fusion Reaction:
Nuclear Fission Reaction
A heavy nucleus splits in to two or more lighter nuclei. This process is possible at
room temperature. Fission can be caused by bombarding with high energy alpha particles,
protons, electrons, deuterons, x-rays as well as neutrons.
However neutrons are most suitable for fission because of electrically neutral and
thus no require high kinetic energy to overcome electrical repulsion for positively charged
nuclei.
Fig. 5.1 Pictorial View of Nuclear Fission Reaction

4-1
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Fig. 4.2 Nuclear Fission Reaction

Nucleus of heavy electrons like U233 , U235 , Pu239 has ability to capture and absorbs
neutrons where upon its get converted to a compound nucleus sometimes this compound
nucleus is highly unstable undergoing spontaneous fragmentation in several equal lighter
nuclei or two to three neutrons this whole phenomenon called nuclear fission reaction.
Nuclear Fusion Reaction
It is process in which two light nucleuses makes heavy nucleus called fusion reaction.
Its required high temperature (1.2 X 109 K). High particle density. High particle confinement.
It is not possible in earth. Sun generates heat and energy is a best example of fusion
process. There is a 1.6 X 107 K temp. Middle of the sun and pressure is more 105 times then
earth.
Nuclear Chain Reaction
4.3 Nuclear Chain Reaction

4-2
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Essential condition for the practical condition of nuclear energy is that self-sustaining
chain reaction should be maintained. The neutrons released have very high velocity of the
order of 1.5 X 107 m/s. The energy liberated in chain reaction is according to Einstein law
E=MC2 . To maintain continues chain reaction it should be leakage of neutrons is less.
5. Nuclear Fuels
Nuclear fuels which are generally used in reactor are like U233 , U235 , Pu239 .
Natural uranium are consists of three isotopes of uranium U238 , U235 , U234 .
In natural uranium availability U238 is largest up to the extent of 99.28%.
U235 is only 0.715% which is most unstable and fissionable and the remainder
0.006% is U234 .
The other two fuels 94Pu239 and 92U233 are formed in nuclear reactor during fission
process from 94Pu239 and 90Th232 . Respectively due to absorption of neutron without fission.
Fissionable Materials: This kind of materials is those which are capable of sustaining
a fission chain reaction.
U235 is the only fissionable isotope found in nature.
Fertile Materials: The non-fissionable materials and they can be converted in to
fissionable materials.
U238 and Th232 can be converted in to fissionable materials. The chain reaction cannot
be maintained in some reactors with natural uranium having only 0.7% fissionable U235
therefore it is necessary to increase the percentage of u-235 in the fuel if it is used in
reactor. The process used to increase the percentage of U235 is known as enrichment of fuel.
Enrichment also reduces size of the reactor. Enrichment method:
1. Gaseous diffusion method.
2. Thermal diffusion method.
3. Centrifugal method.
4. Electromagnetic method.
Estimation of all resources of uranium in USA is 33%, South Africa 20%, Canada 20%
largest reserve of most economical and low of cost uranium lies in Australia.
6. Components of Nuclear Reactors
Components of nuclear power plant

categorize as under,
1.FUELS
2.MODERATOR
3. CONTROL RODS
4.COOLENT
5.REFLECTOR
6.SHIELDING
7. REACTOR VESSEL.
Fig. 4.4 components of Nuclear Power Plants

4-3
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
Fuel
Nuclear reactors use fissionable materials like U233, U235 , Pu239. Natural uranium
found in earth crest has 0.714% which unstable and capable of sustainable chain reactions.
The fuel is shaped in various shapes like rods, plates, pallets, tins etc. and located in
the reactor in such a manner that the heat production within the reactor is uniform. The
fuel elements are designed taking account the heat transfer, corrosion and structural
strength. Homogeneous reactors and heterogeneous reactor.
Moderator
The function of the moderator is to slow down the neutrons from high kinetic energy
to low kinetic energy in a fraction of the second. The main function of the moderator is to
increase the probability of the reaction. The fission chain reaction in the nuclear reactor is
maintained due to slow neutrons when ordinary uranium used as a fuel.
Moderators are lighter then fuel.
Water, heavy water. Graphite and beryllium.
Graphite and heavy water is used as a moderator with natural uranium.
For enriched uranium ordinary water is used.
Characteristic of moderator
1. It must be as light as possible.
2. It must not absorb the neutrons.
3. It must be work under high temperature and pressure with good corrosion
resistance.
4. It must have high chemical stability.
5. It must have high heat conductivity.
6. If it is in form of solid then it must have high melting point and good machinability.
Control Rods
The control road controls the rate of energy which is generated.
Function of control rod is ..,
1. When we need to start the reactor.
2. It is also used to increase, decrease and stop the reaction.
3. The rod may be shaped like fuel rod themselves and are interspersed throughout the
reactor core.
4. The control is necessary to prevent the melting of fuel rods, disintegration of the
coolant and destruction of reactor as the amount of energy released is enormous.
5. Control rod materials like cadmium, boron etc..,
Coolant
The main purpose of the coolant in the reactor is to transfer the produced heat in to
the reactor and keep fuel assembly at a safe temperature to avoid their melting and
destruction.
The heat carried away of coolant by using heat exchanger and use to generation of
steam or hot gas.

4-4
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
As a coolant generally water, heavy water carbon dioxide helium gas, liquid metal
like sodium (Na) potassium (k) or organic liquid.
CHARECTERISTICS OF COOLANT.
1. It must have high chemical and nuclear stability.
2. It must have high corrosion resistance.
3. It must have high boiling point and low melting point.
4. It should be nontoxic.
5. It must have high sp. heat and high thermal heat transfer co efficient.
6. It should have high density and low viscosity.
Reflector
It is important to conserve the neutrons as much as possible for reducing
consumption of fissile material and keep the size of reactor small.
This is possible by surrounding the reactor core with a material which reflects
escaping neutrons back in to the core. This material is called reflectors.
The require properties of good reflectors should have low absorption and high
reflection for neutrons. It should have high resistance to oxidation and high radiation
stability. Materials are used for moderators are also used for reflectors.
Shielding
Shielding is the radioactive zones in the reactor from possible radiation hazard are
essential to protect the human life from harmful effects. To prevent effects those radiation
on the human life it is necessary to absorb them before emitting to atmosphere.
Shielding consists of inner lining of 50 to 60 cm thick steel plate on the reactor core
called thermal shield. With a few meters of thick concrete wall surrounding the inner shield
called biological shield. Thermal shield cooled by circulation of water.
Reactor Vessel
It is enclose the reactor core, reflector and shield. It also provides coolant inlet and
outlet passages. It has to with stand the pressure at 200 bar or above. The reactor core, fuel
and assembly are generally placed at the bottom of the vessel.
7. Classification of Reactors:
On the basis of neutron energy
1. Fast reactors: In these reactors, the fission is affected by fast neutrons with out any
use of moderator.
2. Thermal reactors: In these reactors the fast moving neutrons are slowed down with
help of moderator.
3. Intermediate reactors: In this reactor velocity of the neutrons is kept between fast
reactors and thermal reactors.
On the basis of fuel used
1. Natural uranium fuel reactors.
1. Enriched uranium fuel reactor.

4-5
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
On the basis of coolant used

2. Water /heavy water cooled reactors.
1. Gas cooled reactors
2. Liquid metal /organic liquid cooled reactors.
On the basis of moderator
3. Water moderated.
1. Heavy water moderated.
2. Graphite moderated.
3. Beryllium moderated.
On the basis of reactor core used
1. Homogeneous reactor.
2. Heterogeneous reactor.
Pressurized Water Reactor
In a PWR the primary coolant (water) is pumped under high pressure to the reactor
core where it is heated by the energy generated by the fission of atoms. The heated water
then flows to a steam generator where it transfers its thermal energy to a secondary system
where steam is generated and flows to turbines which, in turn, spins an electric generator.
Fig. 4.5 Pressurized Water Reactor.

Nuclear fuel in the reactor vessel is engaged in a fission chain reaction, which
produces heat, heating the water in the primary coolant loop by thermal conduction
through the fuel cladding.
The hot primary coolant is pumped into a heat exchanger called the steam
generator, where it flows through hundreds or thousands of tubes (usually 3/4 inch in
diameter).
Heat is transferred through the walls of these tubes to the lower pressure secondary
coolant located on the sheet side of the exchanger where it evaporates to pressurized
4-6
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
steam. The transfer of heat is accomplished without mixing the two fluids, which is desirable
since the primary coolant might become radioactive. Some common steam generator
arrangements are u-tubes or single pass heat exchangers. In a nuclear power station, the
pressurized steam is fed through a steam turbine which drives an electrical generator
connected to the electric grid for distribution.
After passing through the turbine the secondary coolant (water-steam mixture) is
cooled down and condensed in a condenser. The condenser converts the steam to a liquid
so that it can be pumped back into the steam generator, and maintains a vacuum at the
turbine outlet so that the pressure drop across the turbine, and hence the energy extracted
from the steam, is maximized.
Before being fed into the steam generator, the condensed steam (referred to as feed
water) is sometimes preheated in order to minimize thermal shock.
BOILINIG WATER REACTOR
The BWR uses dematerialized water as a coolant and neutron moderator. Heat is
produced by nuclear fission in the reactor core, and this causes the cooling water to boil,
producing steam. The steam is directly used to drive a turbine, after which it is cooled in a
condenser and converted back to liquid water. This water is then returned to the reactor
core, completing the loop.
Fig.4.6 Boiling Water Reactor

CANDU REACTOR
The CANDU, short for Canada Deuterium-Uranium reactor is a Canadian-invented,
pressurized heavy water reactor. The acronym refers to its deuterium-oxide (heavy water)
moderator and its use of (originally, natural) uranium fuel.
These reactors are more economical to those nations which do not produce enriched
uranium as the enrichment of uranium very costly. In this reactor the fuel is normal uranium
oxide as small cylinder pallets the pallets are packed in corrosion resistance zirconium alloy
tube. The coolant heavy water is passed through the fuel pressure tubes and heat
exchanger. The heavy water is circulated in the primary circuit and the same way the steam
is generated as PWR in secondary circuit due to circulate heat in to it from primary circuit.

4-7
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
The control of the reactor is achieved by varying the moderator level in the reactor so no
control rod is needed.
Fig. 4.7 Candu Reactor

Gas Cooled Reactor
It is also called Gas Cooled Graphite Moderated (GCGM) Reactor. A gas-cooled
reactor (GCR) is a nuclear reactor that uses graphite as a neutron moderator and carbon
dioxide (helium can also be used) as coolant.
Fig.4.8 Gas Cooled Reactor

Fuel used is U233
as fissile material and thorium as fertile material. Because of high
melting point of graphite. In the primary circuit, coolant circulated is CO2 for GCGM reactor
or (He) for HTGC reactor. The coolant transfers the heat energy to feed water in the heat
exchanger and the steam generated is used to generate power in steam turbine.
Fast Breeder Reactor
4-8
NUCLEAR POWER PLANT
THE PROCESS OF CONVERTING MORE FERTILE MATERIAL IN TO FISSILE MATERIAL IN

A REACTOR IS CALLED BREEDING.
In fast breeder reactor the core containing U235 is surrounded by a blanket of fertile
material U238 . In this reactor no moderator is used the fast moving neutrons liberated due
to fission of U235 are absorbed by U238 which gets converted in to Pu239 a fissile material.
This reactor also uses two liquid metal coolants in which sodium is used as primary coolant
and sodium potassium as secondary coolant.(sodium boils at 850 0C under atmospheric
pressure and freeze at 95 0C).
The reactor also used two liquid metal coolants in which sodium is used as primary
coolants and sodium potassium as secondary coolants. Liquid sodium is circulated through
the reactor to carry the heat produced. The heat produced by the sodium is transferred to
secondary coolant sodium potassium in the primary heat exchanger which in turn transfer
the heat in secondary heat exchanger called steam generator.

4-9
DRAUGHT SYSTEM
5. To study of various draught system

1. Objective:
Study of various draught system.
2. Aim:
To understand the working principle and construction of various draught system.
3. Introduction:
The purpose of draught is to supply required quantity of air for combustion and
remove the burnt product from the system. To move the air through the fuel bed and to
produce a flow of hot gases through the boiler, economizer, preheater and chimney
required a difference of pressure equal to that necessary to accelerate the burnt gases to
their final velocity and to overcome the pressure losses equivalent to pressure head. This
difference of pressure required to maintain the constant flow of air and to discharge the
gases through the chimney to atmosphere is known as draught.
Because of the emission of large amount of flue gases and other materials
environment is polluted, thus to decrease the environmental pollution some techniques and
equipment’s are used. Generally Electrostatic precipitators and Draughts system is used by
coal gas plants to decrease the environment pollution. Here we explain the brief about the
Draught system.
Draught can be obtained by use of chimney, fan, steam or air jet or combination of
these. When the draught is produced with help of chimney only, it is known as Natural
Draught and when the draught is produced by any other means except chimney it is known
as Artificial Draught.
4. Types of draught system
Draught are of two types:
1. Natural Draught
2. Artificial Draught
Natural draught:
The natural draught is obtained with the use of tall chimney which may be sufficient
or insufficient to overcome the losses in the system. Its usefulness depends upon the
capacity of the plant and duct work. This system of producing the draught is useful for small
capacity boilers and it does not play much important role in the present high capacity
thermal power plants. A chimney is a vertical structure of masonry; brick, steel or reinforced
concrete built for the purpose of enclosing a column of hot gases to produce the draught
and discharge the gases high enough which will prevent an air pollution the draught
produced by the chimney is due to the temperature difference of hot gases in the chimney
and cold air outside the chimney. Consider the height of the chimney above the grate level
is ‘H’.

5-1
DRAUGHT SYSTEM
Fig. 5.1 Natural draught

The pressure acting on the grate from the chimney side,
𝑃1 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑊𝑔 𝐻
And the pressure acting on the grate from the atmospheric side,
𝑃2 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑊𝑎 𝐻
Where, 𝑃𝑎 = Atmospheric pressure,
𝑊𝑎 , 𝑊𝑔 = Weight densities of the atmospheric air and hot gases passing through the
chimney respectively.
The gas density varies along the height of the chimney as part of the heat is lost by
the gas to the chimney. Therefore the average density of the gas should be taken for
circulation.
The net acting pressure on the grate of the combustion chamber due to the pressure
exerted by gas column and air column is given by:
𝑃 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1
Artificial draught:
Artificial draught can be further classified as:
1. Forced draught:
In a forced draught system, a lower is installed near the base of the boiler and air is
forced to pass through the furnace, flues, economizer, air-preheater and to the stack. This
draught system is known as positive draught or forced draught system because the pressure
of air throughout the system is above atmospheric draught system or forced draught system
because the pressure of air throughout the system is above atmospheric pressure and air is
forced to flow through the system. A stack or chimney is also used in this system but its
function is to discharge gases high in the atmosphere to prevent the contamination. It is not
much significant for producing draught therefore height of the chimney may not be very
much.
5-2
DRAUGHT SYSTEM
Fig. 5.2 forced draught

2. Induced draught:
In this system, the blower is located near the base of the chimney instead of near the
grate. The air is sucked in the system by reducing the pressure through the system below
atmosphere. The induced draught fan sucks the burned gases from the furnace and the
pressure inside the furnace is reduced below atmosphere and induces the atmospheric air
to flow through the furnace. The action of the induced draught is similar to the action of the
chimney. The draught produced is independent of the temperature of the hot gases
therefore the gases may be discharged as cold as possible after recovering as much heat as
possible in the air-preheater and economizer.
This draught is used generally when economizer and air-preheater are incorporated
in the system. The fan should be located at such a place that the temperature of the gas
handled by the fan is lowest. The chimney is also used in this system and its function is
similar as mentioned in forced draught but total draught produced in induced draught is the
sum of the draught produced by the chimney and the fan.
Fig. 5.3 Induced draught

3. Balance Draught:
It is always preferable to use a combination of forces and induces draught instead of
forced or induced draught alone.
If the forced furnace is used alone, then the furnace cannot be opened either for
inspection or for firing because the high pressure air inside the furnace will try to blow out
suddenly and there us every chance of blowing out the fire completely and furnace stops.

5-3
DRAUGHT SYSTEM
If the induced draught is used alone, then also furnace cannot be opened either for
firing or inspection because the cold air will try to rush into the furnace as the pressure
inside the furnace is below the atmospheric pressure. This reduces the effective draught and
dilutes the combination.
To overcome both the difficulties mentioned above either using forced draught or
induced draught alone, a balanced draught is always preferred. The balanced draught is a
combination of forced and induced draught. The forced draught overcomes the resistance
of the fuel bed therefore sufficient air is supplied to the fuel bed for proper and complete
combustion. The induced draught fan removes the gases from the furnace maintaining the
pressure inside the furnace just below atmosphere. This helps to prevent the blow-off of
flames when the doors are opened as the leakage of air is inwards. The pressure inside the
furnace is near atmospheric so there is no danger of blowout of flames or there is no danger
of inrushing the air into the furnace when the doors are opened for inspection.
The pressure of air below the grate is above atmosphere and it helps for proper and
uniform combustion. The pressure of air above the grate is just below the atmosphere and it
helps to remove the exhaust gases as quick as possible from the combustion zone.
Fig. 5.2 Balanced draught

5-4
FEED WATER TREATMENT PLANT
6. To study about feed water treatment plant and Processes.

1. Objective:
Study of feed water treatment plants.
2. Aim:
To understand working of feed water treatment plants.
3. Introduction:
Feed water is the major source of soluble and insoluble impurities entering the boiler
and therefore the principal aim of the feed water treatment and monitoring is to minimize
the levels of such impurities.
The objectives of any chemical treatment for a modern, safe and efficient thermal
power plant are:
 To reduce corrosion of metals and equipment
 To avoid scale formation
4. Methods of Feed water treatment:
Feed water
treatment
External Internal
Treatment Treatment
Colloidal
conditioning
Lime-soda Zeolite Ion exchange
process process process Phosphate
conditioning
Cold lime-soda
Process Carbonate
Conditioning
Hot lime-soda
Process
Calgon
Conditioning
Chart 6.1 Methods of Feed water treatment

6-1
External treatment
1. Lime-soda process:
In this Method, the soluble calcium and Magnesium salts in water are chemically
converted into insoluble Compounds by adding calculated amounts of lime Ca (OH) 2 and
soda Na2CO3 calcium carbonate CaCO3 and magnesium hydroxide Mg (OH)2. So Precipitated,
are filtered off.
a) Cold lime-soda process:
In this Method, Calculated quantity of chemical (lime and soda) is mixed with water at
room temperature. At room temperature, the precipitates formed are finely divided, so they
do not settle down easily and cannot be filtered easily. Consequently, it is essential to add
small amounts of coagulants (Like Alum, aluminum sulphate, sodium aluminate, Etc.)Which
hydrolyses to flocculent, gelatinous precipitate of aluminum hydroxide, and entraps the fine
precipitates. Use of sodium aluminate as coagulant, also helps the removal of silica as well as
oil, if present in water. Cold L-S process provides water, containing a residual hardness of 50
to 60 ppm.
NaAlO2 + 2H2 O ----> NaOH +Al(OH) 3
Al2 (SO4 ) 3 +3 Ca(HCO3 ) 2 ----> 2Al(OH) 3 + 3 CaSO4 + 6CO2
Method:
Raw water and calculated quantities of chemicals (Lime + soda + coagulant) are fed
from the top into the inner vertical circular chambers, fitted with a vertical rotating shaft
carrying a number of paddles , As the raw water and chemicals flow down there is a vigorous
stirring and continuous mixing, whereby softening of water takes place. As the softened ware
comes into the outer chamber of the lime the softened water reaches up. The softened water
then passes through a filtering media (usually made of wood fibers) to ensure complete
removal of sludge. Filtered soft water finally a flow out continuously through the outlet at the
top sludge settling at the bottom of the outer chamber is drawn off occasionally.
Figure 6.1 Cold lime soda process
b) Hot lime-soda process:

Involves in treating water with softening chemicals at a temperature of 80 to 150 C.
Since hot process is operated at a temperature close to the boiling point of the solution, so
(a) the reaction proceeds faster; (b) the softening capacity of hot process is increased to may
fold; (c) the precipitate and sludge formed settle down rapidly and hence, no coagulants are
needed;(d) much of the gases (Such as CO2 and air) Driven out of the water;(e) Viscosity of
softened water is lower, so filtration of water becomes much easier. This in-turn increases

6-2
the filtering capacity of filters, and (f) Hot Lime-Soda Produces water of comparatively lower
residual hardness of 15 to 30ppm.
Hot lime-soda plant consists essentially of three parts (a)‘reaction tank’ in which raw
water, chemicals and steam are thoroughly mixed; (b)‘conical sedimentation vessel’ in which
sludge settles down, and (c)‘Sand filter’ which ensures complete removal of sludge from the
softened water.
Figure 6.2 Hot lime soda process
Advantages of Lime soda process:

 It is a very economical
 If this process is combined with sedimentation with coagulation, lesser amounts of
coagulants shall be needed
 The process increased the pH value of the treated water, thereby corrosion of the
distribution pipes is reduced
 Besides the removal of hardness, the quantity of minerals in the water are reduced
 To certain extent, iron and manganese are also removed from the water.
 Due to alkaline nature of treated- water, amount of pathogenic bacteria’s in water is
considerably reduced
Disadvantages of Lime soda process:
 Disposal of large amounts of sludge (insoluble precipitate) poses a problem. However,
the sludge may be disposed off in raising low-lying areas of the city
 This can remove hardness only up to 15 ppm, which is not good for boilers.
2. Zeolite process:
Chemical structure of sodium zeolite may be represented as Na2O3, Sio2, YH2O where
x=2-10 and y=2-6. Zeolite is hydrated sodium alumino silicate, capable of exchanging
reversibly its sodium ions for hardness, producing ions in water Zeolite are two types,
1) Natural zeolites are non-porous for Ex; Natrolite Na2Al3O3.4sio22h2o
6-3
2) Synthetic zeolites possess gel structure. Synthetic Zeolites possess higher exchange
capacity than natural Zeolites
Process
For Softening of water by Zeolite process, hard water is percolated at a specified rate
through a bed of zeolite; kept in a cylinder. The Hardness causing ions (ca +2, Mg+2 etc.) are
retained by the zeolite as CaZe and MgZe, while the outgoing water contains sodium salts.
Reactions taking place during the softening process are,
Na2Ze +Ca (HCO3) 2 ----> CaZe +2NaHCO3
Na2Ze +Mg (HCO3) 2 ----> MgZe +2NaHCO3
Figure 6.3 Zeolite process
Regeneration:
After Some time the zeolite is completely converted into calcium and magnesium
Zeolites and it ceases to soften water i.e.; it gets exhausted. At this stage the supply of hard
water is stopped and the exhausted zeolite is reclaimed by treating the bed with a
concentrated NaCl solution
CaZe (or MgZe) + 2NaCl ----> Na2Ze + CaCl2 (or MgCl2 )
The washings are led to drain and the regenerated zeolite bed thus obtained is used again
for softening process.
Limitations:
 If the supply of water is turbid in will clog the pores of zeolite led
 Water contains large quantities of colored ions such as Mn +2 and Fe+2 they may be
removed first because these ions produce Mn and Fe Zeolites ,which can’t be easily
regenerated
 Mineral acids destiny the zeolite bed
Advantages:
6-4
 If removes the hardness almost completely

 Equipment occupying a small space
 Requires less time
 It is quite clean
Disadvantages:
 Treated water contains more sodium salts than in time soda process
 The method only replaces Ca+2 and Mg+2 ions by Na+ ions leaves all the acidic ions.
3. Ion-exchange process:
Ion exchange resins are insoluble, cross linked long chain organic polymers with micro
porous structure, and the functional groups attached to the chains are responsible for the Ion
–exchanging properties resigns containing acidic functional groups (-cool+,-so3H etc.) are
capable of exchanging their H+ ions with other cat ions, which comes in their contact where
as those containing basic functional groups(-NH2=NH, hydrochloride) are capable of
exchanging their anions with other anions, which comes in their contact Ion exchange resins
may be classified as,
1. Cat ion exchange resin(RH+) are mainly styrene-divinyl benzene copolymers, which on
sulphonation or carboxylation, become capable to exchange their hydrogen ions with
the cat ions in water
2. Anions exchange resins (ROH) are styrene-divinyl benzene or amine-formaldehyde,
copdymers, which contains amino or quaternary ammonium or quaternary
phosphonium or tertiary sulphonium groups as an integral part of the resin matrix
these after treatment with dilute. NaOH solutions become capable to exchange their
OH-anions with anions.
Process:
The Hard water is passed first through cat ion exchange column, which removes all
the cat ions like Ca+2 etc. from it and equivalent amount of H+ ions released from this column
to water, thus
2RH+ + Ca2+ → R2Ca2+ + 2H+
2RH+ + Mg2+ → R2Mg2+ + 2H+
After Cat ion exchange column, the hard water is passed through anion exchange
column which removes all the anions like so4, cl- etc. present in the water and equivalent
amount of OH- ions are released from this column to water thus:
R’OH- + Cl- → R’Cl- + OH-
2R’OH- + SO42- →R’2SO42- + 2OH-
2R’OH- + CO32- →R’2CO32- +2OH-
H+ and OH- ions get combined to produce water molecule
H+ + OH- → H2O
The water coming out from the exchanger is deionized or demineralized water.
Regeneration:
When capacities of cation and anion exchangers to exchange H+ and OH- ions
respectively are lost, they are then said to be exhausted
The exhausted cat ion exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of Diluted HCL
or Dilute H2SO4. The regeneration can be represented as,
R2Ca2+ + 2H+  2RH+ + Ca2+

6-5
The exhausted anions exchange column is regenerated by passing a solution of diluted

NaoH. The regeneration can be represented as,
R’2SO42- + 2OH-  2R’OH- + SO42-
Figure 6.4 Ion-exchange process
Advantages:
 Process used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water.
 It produces water of very low hardness.
Disadvantage:
 The equipment is costly.
 If water contains turbidity out-out of the process is reduced.
Internal treatment
In this process, an ion is prohibited to exhibit its original character by converting it into
other more soluble salt by adding appropriate reagent. An internal treatment is accomplished
by adding a proper chemical to the boiler water either to precipitate the scale forming
impurities in the form of sludge, which can be removed by blow down operations, or to
convert them into compounds, which will stay in dissolved form in water and they do not
cause any harm.
Important Internal treatment methods are:
1. Colloidal conditioning:
In low pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by adding organic substances
like Kerosene, tannin, agar-Agar etc. which get coated over the scale firming
precipitates, there by yielding coated non sticky and loose deposits
2. Phosphate conditioning:
In High pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium phosphate
which reacts with hardness of water forming non- adherent and easily removable soft
sludge
6-6
3CaCl2+2Na3PO4 Ca2(PO4) 2+6NaCl

The main phosphates employed are (a) NaH2PO4 (b) Na2HPO4 (c) Na3PO4
3. Carbonate Conditioning:
In low pressure boilers, scale formation can be avoided by adding sodium carbonate
to boiler water, then caSo4 converted into Caco3 in equipment Caco3 forms loose
sludge
CaSO4+Na2CO3CaCO3+ Na2SO4
4. Calgon Conditioning:
Involves in adding calgon [(NaPO3)6] to boiler water then it forms soluble complex
compound with caso4
Na2[Na4(PO3) 6] -2Na++ [Na4P6O18]2-
2CaSO4 + [Na4P6O18]2- [CaP6O18] +2
5. Reverse Osmosis Process
Reverse Osmosis is a technology that is used to remove a large majority of
contaminants from water by pushing the water under pressure through a semi--‐permeable
membrane.
Osmosis
Osmosis is a naturally occurring phenomenon and one of the most important
processes in nature. It is a process where a weaker saline solution will tend to migrate to a
strong saline solution.
A solution that is less concentrated will have a natural tendency to migrate to a
solution with a higher concentration. For example, if you had a container full of water with a
low salt concentration and another container full of water with a high salt concentration and
they were separated by a semi--‐permeable membrane, then the water with the lower salt
concentration would begin to migrate towards the water container with the higher salt
concentration.
A semi-permeable membrane is a membrane that will allow some atoms or molecules
to pass but not others. A simple example is a screen door which allows air molecules to pass
through but not pests or anything larger than the holes in the screen door.
Figure 6.5 Osmosis Process

6-7
Reverse Osmosis
Reverse Osmosis is the process of Osmosis in reverse. Whereas Osmosis occurs
naturally without energy required, to reverse the process of osmosis we need to apply energy
to the more saline solution. A reverse osmosis membrane is a semi--‐permeable membrane
that allows the passage of water molecules but not the majority of dissolved salts, organics,
bacteria and pyrogens. However, we need to ‘push’ the water through the reverse osmosis
membrane by applying pressure that is greater than the naturally occurring osmotic pressure
in order to desalinate (demineralize or deionize) water in the process, allowing pure water
through while holding back a majority of contaminants.
Following Figure shows the process of Reverse Osmosis. When pressure is applied to the
concentrated solution, the water molecules are forced through the semi‐permeable
membrane and the contaminants are not allowed through.
Figure 6.6 Reverse Osmosis Process
Working
Reverse osmosis works by using a high pressure pump to increase the pressure on the
salt side of the RO and force the water across the semi-permeable RO membrane, leaving
almost all (around 95% to 99%) of dissolved salts behind in the reject stream. The amount of
pressure required depends on the salt concentration of the feed water. The more
concentrated the feed water, the more pressure is required to overcome the osmotic
pressure.
In very simple terms, feed water is pumped into a Reverse Osmosis (RO) system and
we end up with two types of water coming out of the RO system: good water and bad water.
The good water that comes out of an RO system has the majority of contaminants removed
and is called permeate. Permeate is the water that was pushed through the RO membrane
and contains very little contaminants.

6-8
Figure 6.7 RO Pumping Process
The ‘bad’ water is the water that contains all of the contaminants that were unable to
pass through the RO membrane and is known as the concentrate, reject, or brine. All three
terms (concentrate, reject, and brine) are used interchangeably and mean the same thing.
Figure 6.7 shows how an RO system works. As the feed water enters the RO
membrane under pressure (enough pressure to overcome osmotic pressure) the water
molecules pass through the semi--‐permeable membrane and the salts and other
contaminants are not allowed to pass and are discharged through the concentrate stream,
which goes to drain or can be fed back into the feed water supply in some circumstances to
be recycled through the RO system to save water. The water that makes it through the RO
membrane is called permeate or product water and usually has around 95% to 99% of the
Dissolved salts removed from it.

6-9
STEAM NOZZLE
7. To study about different types of steam nozzle and design of

nozzle.
1. Objective:
Study about different types of nozzle and calculate dimensions of nozzle for designing.
2. Aim:
To learn basics about nozzle working and its design for various applications.
3. Introduction:
A nozzle is often a pipe or tube of varying cross sectional area, and it can be used to
direct or modify the flow of a fluid (liquid or gas). Nozzles are frequently used to control the
rate of flow, speed, direction, mass, shape, and/or the pressure of the stream that emerges
from them. In a nozzle, the velocity of fluid increases or decrease at the expense of its
pressure energy.
4. Expansion through nozzle:
Characteristics of expansion phenomenon through nozzle is different for compressible
fluid and incompressible fluid.
For Incompressible fluid:
If liquid is passing through nozzle its velocity increase and pressure decrease. If we
decrease back pressure (pressure at outlet) higher and higher, we obtain maximum velocity
at outlet.
As the density remains same for incompressible fluid, there is no change in fluid
property and its velocity increasing continuously.
Figure 7.1 Convergent nozzle
For compressible fluid:

Initially if we decreasing the back pressure velocity increases, but at one point we will
find that if we decreasing back pressure, there is no further increase in velocity.
That means we are having decreasing back pressure but mass flow rate is not
increasing, as it the nozzle has got chocked. This is called chocking or critical condition of
nozzle. (It happens only in compressible fluids)

7-1
STEAM NOZZLE
Figure 7.2 mass flow vs pressure ratio
Initially mass flow rate is zero, so pressure ratio is 1. In left direction we decrease back
pressure and mass flow rate increases but at certain point there is no further increase in
velocity. So this is called typical characteristics of convergent nozzle. At this condition steam
velocity is reached near local sonic velocity.
When we are using convergent nozzle, maximum velocity and maximum mass flow
rate both are limited. We don’t increase velocity beyond local sonic velocity if nozzle
geometry is like convergent type and even we don’t change velocity by decreasing back
pressure also.
That’s why convergent-divergent nozzle is used.
5. Convergent-divergent nozzles
Figure 7.3 Convergent-divergent nozzle
Generally, in convergent section velocity increase and pressure decrease but it

happens up to sonic velocity. In divergent section pressure increase and velocity decrease and
maximum velocity obtain at throat. In convergent-divergent nozzle we find some unique
change in the divergent section of the nozzle.
Once sonic velocity at throat is reached and we are still decreasing back pressure then
further expansion will take place and we will have further reduction in pressure and increase
in velocity, so supersonic velocity obtained.

7-2
STEAM NOZZLE
Graphically,
Figure 7.4 Convergent – divergent nozzle shock waves formation
Initially inlet pressure and back pressure are same. So no flow is there. In convergent
section velocity increases and in divergent portion velocity decreases, till we have sonic
velocity at throat.
After that if we further, reduce back pressure to point c, there is no change in
convergent section and we will continue about the same line or expansion even in the
divergent section.
If we proceed along this line we will reach at point f, but we should be at point c. So
after certain distance shock waves produced and we will be come back at point C.
6. Application of steam nozzle:
 To produce high velocity jet to impinge on curved blade of driving turbine shaft.
 Jet engines to produce thrust.
 Rocket motors to produce thrust.
 Artificial Fountains.
 Flow measurements.
 Injectors for pumping feed water.
 Ejectors for removing air from condensers.
 Fire hose to produce water jet.

7-3
STEAM NOZZLE
7. Velocity of Steam through nozzle

Steam flow through nozzle maybe assumed as adiabatic flow since during expansion
of steam there is no any heat transfer. It can be calculated by following formula.
𝐶2 = 44.72√((ℎ1 − ℎ2 ) × 𝜂𝑛
Where,
ℎ1 = 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑡
ℎ2 = 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡
𝜂𝑛 = 𝑁𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦
8. Critical pressure ratio

The pressure ratio for the maximum mass flow rate of gas through the nozzle is called
the critical pressure ratio.
𝒏
𝑝𝟐 2 𝒏−𝟏
=( )
𝑝𝟏 n+1
Value of critical ratio depends upon index n. for different fluids it is as following.
Table: 7.1
Sr.
Type of Fluid Index Critical pressure ratio
No.
1 Air 1.4 0.528
2 Wet steam 1.035+0.1x Depends on value of dryness fraction
3 Dry saturated steam 1.135 0.578
4 Superheated steam 1.3 0.546
9. Nozzle efficiency and Effect of friction
Figure 7.5 h-s Diagram
Expansion process in nozzle considered as isentropic expansion but in actual practice

there is a friction loss in the nozzle, so actual flow in the nozzle is not isentropic flow.
7-4
STEAM NOZZLE
Nozzle efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual heat drop to isentropic heat drop or
heat drop due to isentropic expansion.
ℎ1 − ℎ2 ′
𝜂𝑁 =
ℎ1 − ℎ2
Where,
ℎ1 = 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
ℎ2 = 𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
ℎ2′ = 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦
Effect of Friction
When steam flows through a nozzle the final velocity of steam for given pressure drop
is reduced due to following reason.
 The friction between the nozzle surface and steam.
 The internal friction of steam itself.
 The shock losses.
The convergent portion of nozzle is smaller than the divergent portion. Thus, the wall
friction is small in the convergent portion as compared to divergent portion.
The fluid friction is also small in convergent portion than in the divergent portion, since
the fluid velocity in the convergent portion is small.
Thus, most of the friction occurs in the divergent portion of the nozzle and h-s diagram
plot as shown in following figure.
Figure 7.6 h-s Diagram
These frictional losses entail the following effects.

 The expansion is no more isentropic and the enthalpy and entropy of steam increasing
during the process.
 The final dryness fraction of steam is increased as the kinetic energy gets converted
into heat due to friction and is absorbed by steam.
 The specific volume of steam increased as the steam becomes drier due to this
frictional reheating.
 Exit velocity is reduced as the kinetic energy gets converted into heat due to friction.
 Mass flow rate is decreased.
7-5
HIGH PRESSURE BOILER
8. To comparative study of different types of high pressure boilers.

1. Objective:
Comparative study of different types of high pressure boilers.
2. Aim:
To understand working of different types of high pressure boiler in modern steam
power plant.
3. Introduction:
Efficiency of any cycle can be increased by increasing the temperature of source or
temperature of heat supplied. So, efficiency of the thermal power plant can be increased by
increasing temperature of the steam supplied to the turbine. With development of the
material, it is possible to supply high temperature steam to turbine. So to increase the
efficiency of the plant it is necessary to high pressure boiler.
4. Unique features of high pressure boiler:
Method of water circulation
The water may be circulated through the boiler by natural circulation due to density
difference or by forced circulation with the help of pump. In all modern thermal power
plants forced circulation is used.
But with increase of pressure, density difference decreases and at critical pressure it
becomes zero. Thus the natural circulation ceases. Therefore, in high pressure boiler, it is
necessary to use forced circulation. Further, heat transfer rate can also be increased by
increasing the velocity of water with the help of pump.
Types of Tubing
In most of high pressure boiler, the water is circulated through the tubes and outer
surface of tubes are exposed to the gases. If the water is circulated through the one
continuous tube, large pressure drop will take place. To minimize the pressure drop, water
is circulated through parallel system of tubing.
Improved Method of Heating
The heat transfer from the hot gases to water can be increased by using following
methods:
o At critical pressure, water is directly converted into steam. So, by increasing
the pressure above the critical pressure latent heat of vaporization can be
saved.
o If water is supplied to the boiler at high temperature, then efficiency of heat
supplied can be increased. So, by using the feed water heater, temperature
of feed water can be increased.

8-1
o The overall heat transfer coefficient can be increased by increasing velocity of

water inside the tube or by increasing the velocity of gases.
5. Different high pressure boilers:
LaMont Boiler:
Construction and Working
The arrangement of water circulation and different components is shown in figure
8.1.
Fig. 8.1 LaMont Boiler

The feed water from the hot well is supplied to a storage and separating drum
through economizer. The most of the sensible heat is supplied to feed water through
economizer. Water from the storage drum is circulated through the radiant evaporator and
convective evaporator with the help of circulating pump. Circulation of water through
evaporator is 8 to 10 times the weight of steam evaporated. Such large quantity of water
circulation through evaporator tubes prevents the tube from overheating. Part of the water
evaporated, as it pass through evaporator, is separated in the separating drum. Dry and
saturated steam from the separating drum is passed through the super-heater before
supply to prime mover. Distributing headers are used to distribute the water into radiant
evaporator through nozzles.
Note: - In the radiant evaporator, heat is transferred by radiation so it is called
radiant evaporator, whereas in convective evaporator, heat is transferred by convection. In
modern high pressure boiler, furnace wall is covered with the water tube, so heat transfer in
furnace is by radiation. This water tubes also protect the furnace wall from overheating.
8-2
Problem with La Mont Boiler and its Solution

The main difficulty experience in the La Mont boiler is the formation and attachment
of bubbles on the inner surface of the heating tubes. As the attached bubbles offers high
thermal resistance to heat transfer compare to water film, it reduce the heat transfer and
steam generation. It also increases the thermal stresses.
This problem can be reduced by increasing the pressure inside the boiler upto the
critical pressure. At the critical pressure, water and steam have same density, so formation
of bubble can be eliminated.
Benson Boiler:
To avoid the formation and attachment of bubbles inside the water tube, Benson
boiler is operated at critical pressure. The arrangement of the boiler components is shown
in figure 8.2.
Fig. 8.2 Benson Boiler

Water from the hot well is passed through the economizer where sensible heat is
supplied to the water. Part of the water is evaporated when it passes through the radiant
evaporator and remaining water is evaporated as it passes through the convective
evaporator. Then dry and saturated steam from the convective evaporator is passed
through the super-heater before supply to prime mover.
Problem with Benson Boiler and its Solution
Major problem with the Benson boiler is deposition of salt in the transformation
zone when all remaining water is converted into steam. This deposited salt offers the

8-3
resistance to heat transfer and reduces the steam generation. It also causes the overheating
of the tube.
To avoid this difficulty, the boiler is normally flashed out after every 4000 working
hours to remove the salt.
Loeffler Boiler:
The major difficulty experienced in Benson boiler is deposition of salt on the inner
surface of the tubes. This difficulty was solved in Loeffler boiler by preventing the circulation
of water through the tubes. The arrangement of the components of boiler is shown figure
8.3.
Fig. 8.3 Loeffler Boiler

The water from the hot well is supplied to the evaporating drum through
economizer. About 65% of the steam coming from the super-heater is supplied to the
evaporating drum for evaporation of the feed water from the economizer. Steam is
generated by mixing of the super-heated steam to the feed water in evaporating drum. Dry
and saturated steam generated in the evaporating drum is circulated through the radiant
super-heater and convective super-heater with the help of steam circulating pump. About

8-4
35% of super-heated steam generated in the super-heater is supplied to the H.P. turbine
and remaining is supplied to evaporating drum. Exhaust steam from the H.P. turbine is
reheated in the re-heater before supplied to the L.P. turbine.
For distribution of super-heated steam throughout the water into evaporator,
special design nozzles are used which reduce the priming and noise. Higher salt
concentration water can be used in this boiler.
Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler:
The operation of the boiler is similar to an electric transformer. The arrangement of
the boiler components are shown in figure 8.4.
Fig. 8.4 Schmidt-Hartmann Boiler

Construction and working
The boiler consists of two circuits. In the primary circuit, steam is generated from the
distilled water at 100 atm. The generated steam is passed through the coil submerged in the
evaporating drum. Evaporating drum contains the impure water at 60 atm. so, in the
evaporating drum, steam is generated at 60 atm. and high pressure steam is condensed.
Steam generated in evaporating drum is passed through the super-heater before supply to
the prime mover.
The high pressure condensate produced in the submerged coil is passed through the
feed pre-heater to raise the temperature of impure water to its saturation temperature. So,
only latent heat is supplied in the evaporator drum.
8-5
Natural circulation is used in the primary circuit and this is sufficient for desired rate
of heat transfer and to overcome the thermo-siphon head of about 2 to 10 m.
Every care is taken in design and construction to prevent the leakage of distilled
water in the primary circuit, so in normal circumstances, make up water is not required. For
safety of operation pressure gauge and safety valve are fitted in the primary circuit.
Advantages
1) There is a rare chance of overheating or burning the highly heated components of
primary circuit as there is no chance of obstruction to the circulation by impurities.
2) The salt deposited in the evaporator drum due to the circulation of impure water can
be easily brushed off just by removing the submerged coil from the drum or by
blowing off the water.
3) The wide fluctuations of load are easily taken by this boiler without priming problem.
4) The absence of water risers in the drum, and moderate temperature difference
across the heating coil allows evaporation to proceed without priming.
Velox Boiler:
High rate of heat transfer can be achieved by increasing the velocity of the flue gases
over the velocity of the sound. In the velox boiler, velocity of the gases is more than velocity
of the sound. The arrangement of components of the boiler is shown in figure 8.5.
Air is compressed to 2.5 bar with the help of the compressor driven by the turbine.
That high pressure air is supplied to combustion chamber to get supersonic velocity of the
gases. The supersonic gases are passed through the combustion chamber and gas tubes to
achieve high heat transfer rate.
Fig. 8.5 Velox Boiler

8-6
The burned gases in the combustion chamber are passed through the annulus of the
tubes as shown in figure 2.8. Heat is transfer from the gases to water while passing through
the annulus to generate the steam. The mixture of water and steam formed in the water
tube is passed to the separator which is design so that the mixture enters with spiral flow.
Due to the centrifugal force, heavier water particles are thrown outward on the wall which
separates the steam from water.
The gases coming out from the annulus at the top is further passed over the super-
heater to super heat the steam. The gases coming out from the super-heater is passed
through the turbine to utilize the kinetic energy of the gases. The power output of the
turbine is used to run the compressor. The exhaust gases coming out from the turbine are
passed through the economizer to utilize the heat of exhaust gases. The extra power
required to drive the compressor is supplied with the help of electric motor.
Advantages
1) Very high rate of combustion is possible.
2) It is very compact and has greater flexibility.
3) Low excess air is required as pressurized air is used and draught problem is
simplified.
4) It can be quickly started from the cold.
Super Critical Boiler:
The efficiency of the plant can be increased by increasing the pressure of the steam.
So in the modern power plants super critical boilers are used. Boiler which operates above
the critical pressure is called super critical boiler.
Note:-
Critical state: State of a substance beyond which there is no clear distinction
between the liquid and gaseous phase
A point where saturated liquid and dry saturated vapour lines meet so that latent
heat is zero, is called Critical Point (figure 8.6).
For water, Critical Point is given by:
Pressure: 221 bar Temperature: 374.15 0C
Fig. 8.6 T-S Diagram of Rankine Cycle

8-7
Super critical boiler is also called once through boiler as the water is converted into
super-heated steam in single continuous pass. It does not required steam separating drum.
Design consideration of super critical boiler
1) Above super critical pressure, there is no density difference between the steam and
water so forced circulation is necessary.
2) There is no steam drum so no blow down therefore extremely pure water must be
used for which require high quality water treatment plant.
3) Boiler tubes must be made of high strength austenitic steels or super alloys to
withstand high temperature.
4) Normally 3 steps of feed heating are required due to high pressure and to avoid
excessive moisture at turbine exhaust.
Advantages
1) The heat transfer rate is considerable large compare to sub critical boiler.
2) The pressure level is more stable due to less heat capacity of the boiler therefore
give better response.
3) Higher thermal efficiency of power plant can be achieved.
4) The problems of erosion and corrosion are minimized in as two phase mixture does
not exist.
5) The turbo generators connected to super-critical boilers can generate peak loads by
changing the pressure of operation.
6) It gives better response to load fluctuation.
Disadvantages
1) Feed pump is necessary.
2) More reheats are required, hence increased complexity of the plant and
maintenance.
3) High capital involved.
Super-charged boiler:
In the super-charged boiler combustion of the fuel is carried out under the high
pressure.
Construction and working
The arrangement of the different components is shown in figure 2.10. Air from the
atmosphere is supplied to combustion chamber at high pressure with the help of the
compressor. In the combustion chamber, combustion is carried out under the high pressure.
The exhaust gases from the combustion chamber are used to run the gas turbine as they are
exhausted at high pressure and the power produced by the gas turbine is used to run the
compressor to compressor the air. The exhaust gases from the turbine are further used to
preheat the feed water in the economizer.
Advantages
1) High heat transfer rate can be achieved as combustion is carried under the high
pressure.
8-8
Fig. 8.7 Super charged Boiler

2) Rapid start of the boiler is possible as the boiler is compact.
3) It gives the better response to load fluctuation due to small heat storage capacity.
4) The part of the gas turbine output can be used to drive other auxiliaries.
Disadvantages
1) The tightness of high pressure gas passage is essential
2) Capital cost of the boiler is high

8-9
PULVERIZING MILL
9. To study of different pulverizing mill

1. Objective:
Study of different types of Pulverizing Mill.
2. Aim:
To understand the pulverization of coal, its advantages and different types of
pulverizing mill.
3. Introduction:
Pulverize:
Pulverizes are devices that are used to produce coal in the powder form. They are
also called as pulverizing mills.
The pulverizing process consists of three stages namely
1. Feeding: Feeding system controls automatically air required for drying and
transporting pulverized fuel to the burner depending on the boiler demand. For
pulverization of coal has to be dry and dusty.
2. Drying: Dryer are an integral part of the pulverizing equipment. For drying coal part
of primary air passing through the air preheater at 350 0C is utilized.
3. Grinding: The third stage of pulverization process is the grinding and equipment used
for this action is known as the grinding mill.
4. Advantages and Dis advantages:
Advantages of Pulverized Coal Firing:
1) The main advantage of pulverized firing system lies in the fact that by breaking a
given mass of coal into smaller pieces exposes more surface area for combustion.
2) Greater surface area of coal per unit mass of the coal allows faster combustion as
more coal surface is exposed to heat and oxygen. This reduces the excess air
required to ensure complete combustion and the required fan power.
3) Wide variety and low grade coal can be burnt more easily when the coal is pulverized
4) Pulverized coal gives faster response to load changes as the rate of combustion can
be controlled easily and immediately. Automatic control applied to pulverized coal
fired boilers is effective in maintaining an almost constant steam pressure under
wide load variations
5) This system is free from clinker and slagging troubles.
6) This system works successfully with or in combination with the gas and oil.
7) It is possible to use highly pre-heated secondary air (350 oC) which helps in rapid
flame propagation.
8) The pulverized system can be repaired easily without cooling the system as the
pulverizing equipment is located outside the furnace.
9) Large amount of heat release is possible in this system compared to stoke firing
system.
9-1
PULVERIZING MILL
10) The banking losses are low compared to stoke firing system
11) The boiler can be started from cold very rapidly and efficiently. This is highly
important when grid stability is of the important concern
12) The external heating surface is free from corrosion and fouling as smokeless
combustion is possible
13) There are no moving parts in the furnace or boiler subjected to high temperature.
Therefore the life of the pulverized fuel firing system is more and operation is
trouble-less
14) Practically no ash handling problem in this type of firing system
15) The furnace volume required is considerably less as the use of the burners which
produce turbulence in the furnace makes it possible to complete combustion with
minimum travel
Disadvantages of Pulverized Coal firing:
16) The capital cost of the pulverized coal firing system is considerably high as it requires
many additional auxiliary equipment. Its operation cost is also high compared to
stoke firing system.
17) The system produces fly ash (fine dust) which requires special and costly fly-ash
removal equipment as electrostatic precipitators.
18) The flame temperatures are high and the conventional types of refractory lined
furnaces are not inadequate. It is always necessary to provide water cooled walls for
the safety of the furnace. The maintenance cost is also high as working temperature
is high which causes rapid deterioration of the refractory surface of the furnace.
19) The possibility of the explosion is more as coal burn like gas.
20) The storage of powdered coal requires special attention and high protection from
the fire hazards.
5. Types of Pulverizing Mill
Four different types of pulverizing mills are used.
a) Ball and race mill
b) Bowl mill
c) Ball mill
d) Hammer mill
Ball and race mill:
This is also known as the contact mill. The coal is crushed between two moving
surfaces ball and race.
The upper race is stationary and the lower race is driven by worm and gear, holds
the steel balls between them. The coal is allowed to fall on the inside of the race from
feeder or hopper. Moving balls and race catches coal between them to crush in to a powder.
Springs are used to hold down the upper race and adjust the force needed for crushing. Hot
air supplied picks up the coal dust as it flows between the ball and races and then enters in
to the classifier, moving and fixed vanes make the entering air to form a cyclonic flow which
9-2
PULVERIZING MILL
helps to through the oversized particles on to the wall of classifier. The oversized particles
slide down for further grinding in the mill.
The coal particles of required size carried to burners with air from the top of the
classifier.
Fig. 9.1 Ball and race mill

Bowl mill:
The bowl mill grinds the coal between a whirling bowl & rollers mounted on pivoted
axis. The pulverizer consists of stationary rollers and power driven balls in which
pulverization takes place as the coal passes between the bowl and rollers. The hot primary
air supplied in to the bowl picks up coal parcels and passes through the classifier. Where
oversized coal particles falls back to bowl for further grinding.
The required size coal particles along the primary air supplied to the burner.

9-3
PULVERIZING MILL
Fig. 9.2 Bowl mill

Ball Mill with double classifier:
The line diagram of the ball mill is as shown in figure 9.3. It consist of a large cylinder partly
filled with varying sized steel balls. The coal from coal hopper fed in to the cylinder with the
help of crew conveyor. At the same time required quantity of hot air from air preheater is
also enters. As the cylinder rotates pulverization takes place between the balls and the coal.
The stream of hot air picks up the pulverized coal and pass through the classifier. The
oversized coal particles thrown out of the air stream in the classifier and fine coal particles
are passed to the burner through exhaust fan. Ball mill capable of pulverizing 10 tons of coal
/hr containing 4% moisture requires 28 tons of steel balls and consumes 20- 25 KWh energy
per ton of coal pulverized.

9-4
PULVERIZING MILL
Fig. 9.3 Ball mill

Hammer mill:
The hammer mills have swinging hammers connected to an inner ring and placed
within the rotating drum. The coal to be pulverized is fed in to the path of hammers.
Grinding is done by the combination of impact on large particles and attrition on small
particles. The hot air is supplied to dry the coal as well as carrying coal particles to burners.
It is compact low in cost and simple in operation. However its maintenance is costly and its
capacity is limited. The power consumption is high when fine powder is required.
Fig. 9.4 Hammer mill

9-5
CONDENSERS AND COOLING TOWERS
10. To study of condenser and cooling tower

1. Objective:
Study of condenser and cooling tower
2. Aim:
To understand working of different types of condensers and cooling towers.
3. Introduction:
In systems involving heat transfer, a condenser is a device or unit used to condense a
substance from its gaseous to its liquid state, by cooling it. In so doing, the latent heat is
given up by the substance, and will transfer to the condenser coolant. Condensers are
typically heat exchangers which have various designs and come in many sizes ranging from
rather small (hand-held) to very large industrial-scale units used in plant processes. For
example, a refrigerator uses a condenser to get rid of heat extracted from the interior of the
unit to the outside air. Condensers are used in air conditioning, industrial chemical processes
such as distillation, steam power plants and other heat-exchange systems. Use of cooling
water or surrounding air as the coolant is common in many condensers
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which rejects waste heat to the
atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers
may either use the evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid
to near the wet-bulb air temperature or, in the case of closed circuit dry cooling towers, rely
solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the dry-bulb air temperature.
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries,
petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations and HVAC systems for
cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the
main types of cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers.
Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large hyperboloid
structures that can be up to 200 meters (660 ft.) tall and 100 meters (330 ft.) in diameter, or
rectangular structures that can be over 40 meters (130 ft.) tall and 80 meters (260 ft.) long.
The hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with nuclear power plants, although
they are also used in some coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and
other industrial plants. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of
cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to
discharge heat from air conditioning.
4. Stages in Condensation & Condensation Process:
1. De-superheating of the hot gas
2. Condensing of the gas to liquid state and release of the latent heat.
3. Sub-cooling of the liquid refrigerant.

10-1
Sub-cooling only occupies a small portion of condenser’s surface area. Therefore, an

average heat transfer coefficient is used for the whole condenser’s surface area, and the
condensation is assumed to occur at the condensing temperature.
When saturated vapour comes in contact with a surface having a temperature below
the saturation temperature, condensation occurs. There are two types of condensation:
1. Film-wise condensation: condensed liquid wets the surface and forms a film
covering the entire surface.
2. Drop-wise condensation: surface is not totally wetted by the saturated
vapour, and the condensate forms liquid droplets that fall from the surface.
Compared to film-wise condensation, drop-wise condensation has a greater surface
heat-transfer coefficient as it has a greater area exposed to the saturation vapour.
5. Types of Condensers
Condensers may be classified broadly into two major groups according to the
manner in which the cooling water cools and condenses the exhaust steam; these are:
1. Jet condensers, in which cooling water comes in direct contact with the exhaust
steam and the steam as a result is condensed. The condensing or cooling water is
usually sprayed into the exhaust steam so that rapid condensation of the steam
occurs.
2. Surface condensers, in which the cooling water and exhaust steam do not actually
mix; the cooling water passes through a number of tubes while the exhaust steam
passes over the outer surfaces of the tubes.
Condensor
Jet Surface
Condensor Condensor
Parallel Counter Ejector

Flow Flow type
Down Inverted Regener Evapora

Central
Flow Flow ative tive
Flow
Type Type Flow Flow
Type
Type Type
Fig.10.1 Types of Condensers

The most common type is a surface condenser which has the great advantage that
the condensate (condensed steam) is not thrown to waste but is returned to the boiler
10-2
through feed water system. A jet condenser is a much simpler and less costly apparatus
than a surface condenser. The jet condenser should be installed where a cheap source of
boiler feed water is available.
Jet Condenser
The exhaust steam and water come in direct contact with each other and
temperature of the condensate is the same as that of cooling water leaving the condenser.
The cooling water is usually sprayed into the exhaust steam to cause, rapid condensation.
Parallel-Flow type of Jet Condenser
The exhaust steam and cooling water find their entry at the top of the condenser
and then flow downwards and condensate and water are finally collected at the bottom.
The baffle plate is provided in it ensures the proper mixing of the steam and cooling water.
Fig. 10.2 Low level Parallel-Flow type of Jet Condenser

Counter-Flow type Jet Condenser
The steam and cooling water enter the condenser from opposite directions.
Generally, the exhaust steam travels in upward direction and meets the cooling water which
flows downwards.
a. Low Level Jet Condenser
Figure Shows, L, M and N are the perforated trays which break up water into jets.
The steam moving upwards comes in contact with water and gets condensed. The
condensate and water mixture is sent to the hot well by means of an extraction pump and
the air is removed by an air suction pump provided at the top of the condenser.

10-3
Fig. 10.3 Low level Counter-Flow type of Jet Condenser

b. High Level Jet Condenser
It is also called barometric condenser. In this type the shell is placed at a height
about 10.363 meters above hot well and thus the necessity of providing an extraction pump
can be obviated. However provision of own injection pump has to be made if water under
pressure is not available.
Fig. 10.4 High level Counter-Flow type of Jet Condenser

10-4
Ejector Condenser Flow type Jet Condenser

Here the exhaust steam and cooling water mix in hollow truncated cones. Due to this
decreased pressure exhaust steam along with associated air is drawn through the truncated
cones and finally lead to diverging cone. In the diverging cone, a portion of kinetic energy
gets converted into pressure energy which is more than the atmospheric so that condensate
consisting of condensed steam, cooling water and air is discharged into the hot well. The
exhaust steam inlet is provided with a non-return valve which does not allow the water
from hot well to rush back to the engine in case a failure of cooling water supply to
condenser.
Fig. 10.5 Ejector Condenser

Surface Condensers
Invariably, almost all the steam power plants employ surface condenser.
Surface condensers may be sub-divided into:
i. Surface condenser in which exhaust steam passes over a series of tubes through
which the cooling water is flowing.
ii. The evaporative surface condenser in which exhaust steam passes through a series
of tubes and water is allowed to flow in the form of thin film outside the tubes while
air passes upwards outside the tubes.
Double Pass Surface Condenser (Two-flow surface condenser)
A surface condenser, as illustrated in fig. 10.6, consists of a cast iron shell, cylindrical
in shape and closed at each end to form a water box. A tube plate is located between each
cover head and the shell. A number of water tubes are fixed to the tube plates.
The exhaust steam from the engine enters at the top of the condenser and is
condensed by coming in contact with the cold surface of the tubes through which cooling
10-5
water is being circulated. The cooling water enters at one end of the tubes situated in the
lower half of the condenser and after flowing to the other end returns in the opposite
direction through the tubes situated in the upper half of the condenser. The resulting water
from the condensation of the exhaust steam and the air associated with the uncondensed
water vapour, are extracted from the bottom of the condenser where the temperature is
the lowest, so that the work of the wet air pump is reduced. The surface condenser of this
type requires two pumps, namely, wet air pump to remove air and condensate, and a water
circulating pump to circulate the cooling water under pressure through the tubes of the
condenser. Steam driven reciprocating pumps are used, but electric driven centrifugal
pumps are used very extensively (commonly) for circulating water and condensate removal.
Steam ejectors are also sometimes used for air removal.
Fig. 10.6 Double Pass Surface Condenser

Surface condensers may be classified as, two-flow or multi-flow condensers. Surface
condenser, as illustrated in fig. 10.6, is a two-flow condenser because the circulating water
traverses (travels) the whole length of the ‘condenser twice. By introducing more partitions
in the water boxes, the condenser may be converted into a three-flow condenser or even
four-flow condenser. The velocity of cooling should be increased with the increase of
number of flows. The rate of transmission of heat through the tubes to the circulating
water, increases with the increase of number of flows, but the power required to circulate
the water is increased.
Surface condensers: According to the direction of flow of exhaust steam
a. Down flow condenser
Figure 10.7 shows a sectional view of a down flow condenser. The exhaust team
enters at the top and flows downwards over the tubes through which the cooling water is
flowing. The exhaust steam as a result is condensed and the condensate is extracted from
the bottom by the condensate extraction pump. The cooling water enters at one end of the
tubes situated in the lower half of the condenser and after flowing of the other end returns
in the opposite direction through the tubes situated in the upper half of the condenser. The
temperature of condensate, therefore, decreases as the exhaust steam passes downwards,
and hence partial pressure of steam decreases from top to bottom of the condenser.
10-6
Fig. 10.7 down flow condenser

The air exit is shielded from the downstream of the condensate by means of a baffle
plate, and thus air is extracted with only a comparatively small amount of water vapour. As
the air passes downwards, it is progressively cooled and becomes denser (partial pressure of
air increases) and hence it is extracted from the lowest convenient point. In a condenser of
this type, therefore, the partial pressure of steam decreases, the partial pressure of air
correspondingly increases, as the mixture passes from top to the bottom of the condenser.
The result of all these effects is that the condensate temperature falls below the exhaust
steam temperature which enters at the top. Thus, by cooling the air, the capacity of the air
pump is considerably reduced.
b. Central Flow Surface Condenser
In Central Flow Surface Condenser (fig. 10.8), the suction pipe of the air extraction
pump is placed in the centre of the tubes nest; this causes the condensate to flow radially
towards the centre as shown by the arrows in the figure. The condensate leaves at the
bottom where the condensate extraction pump is situated. The air is withdrawn from the
centre of the nest of tubes. This method is an improvement on the down flow type as the
exhaust steam is directed radially inward by a volute casing around the tubes nest; it has
thus access to the whole periphery of the tubes.
Fig. 10.8 Central Flow Surface Condenser

c. Evaporative condenser
Where the supply of cold water is extremely limited, the evaporative condenser is
the only suitable type which can be run on a minimum supply of cooling water, and even
without cooling water in cold weather and on light loads. Exhaust steam from the engine is
exhausted into a coil of grilled pipes or series of tubes, the outlet of which is connected to
10-7
the wet air pump (fig. 10.9). Cooling water is allowed to flow in a thin film over the outside
of the tubes. A natural or forced air current causes rapid evaporation of this film of water.
The effect of this is that not only the steam inside the tubes is condensed but some of the
cooling water is also evaporated on the outside of the tubes. The process of evaporation
cools the water. The film of water on the outside of the tubes is maintained by allowing
water to trickle (fail) over them continuously.
The water which is not evaporated falls into an open tank or collecting tank under
the condenser, from which it can be drawn by circulating water pump and used over again.
The evaporative condenser is placed outside in the open air. On account of nuisance which
would result from the production of clouds of steam, this type of condenser is restricted to
small power plants.
Fig. 10.9 Evaporative condenser

6. Principle of Operation for Cooling Towers
The principle of operation of cooling towers is very similar to that of the evaporative
type of condensers, in which the warm water gets cooled by means of evaporation. Water
evaporates as a result of the hot water droplet coming in contact with the air (which is being
pumped out by means of a fan). This evaporating water also absorbs the latent heat from
the water surrounding it. By losing latent heat, the water is cooled.
7. Types of Cooling Tower
According to the method adopted to circulate the air, cooling towers may be
classified as:
1. Natural draft cooling towers
2. Mechanical draft cooling towers.
Natural Draft Cooling Tower

As the name indicates, the air is circulated inside the cooling tower by natural
convection. The natural draft cooling towers are further classified as:
a. Natural draft cooling towers spray type
b. Natural draft cooling towers splash deck type

10-8
SPRAY TYPE
The entire system is housed inside a box-shaped structure which also accommodates
spray headers, spray nozzles, and louvers. The louvers (usually made of steel) are placed on
the sides to enhance natural circulation of air inside the cooling tower. To prevent the
carryover of water droplets to the atmosphere, the louvers are slanted towards the inside.
Usually these types of cooling towers are located outside the building, so that the air can
pass freely through the tower.
The fig. 10.10 shown below explains about the spray type of cooling tower.
Fig. 10.10 Natural draft cooling tower spray type

Warm water from the condenser is fed to the spray header by means of a pump. The
spray header is located on top as shown in the sketch. The spray nozzles spray the warm
water inside the tower. Air from the atmosphere comes in contact with the warm water,
thereby causing some water droplets to evaporate. The evaporating water also absorbs
some amount of latent heat from the surrounding water, which causes the remaining water
to cool. The passing air also absorbs some amount of sensible heat from the warm water. A
make-up line, which may be controlled by a simple float, may be used to make up the loss of
water due to evaporation. The cooled water may be then taken back to the condenser.
The size of the spray plays a vital role. If the spray is too fine, a greater amount of
water will be taken away by the air. On the other hand, if the size of the spray is too large,
the area of contact of water with the air will be reduced.
SPLASH DECK TYPE
This type of cooling tower is very similar to that of the spray type. Instead of a spray
header, a water box is used. The water box has small holes at the bottom. It also contains
decking inside the tower. The hot water from the condenser enters into the water box and
splashes via holes in the water box on the decking. The main objective of the decking is to
increase the surface area of contact of air with the warm water. This type of cooling tower is
20-30% more effective than the spray type.

10-9
Mechanical Draft Cooling Towers

The mechanical draft cooling towers are very much similar to that of the natural
draft cooling towers. As the name indicates, air is circulated inside the tower mechanically
instead of natural circulation. Propeller fans or centrifugal fans may be used.
According to the location of the fan, they are further classified as:
1. Forced draft cooling towers, and
2. Induced draft cooling towers.
Forced Draft Cooling Towers
In this system, fan is located near the bottom and on the side. This fan forces the air
from bottom to top as shown in fig. 10.11. The hot water from the condenser is supplied at
the top of the cooling tower which is sprayed through series of spray nozzles.
Around 3-5 % make up water is added to the pond to compensate the water lost due
to evaporation. A drift eliminator is used to prevent loss of water droplets along with the
forced air.
Fig. 10.11 Forced draft cooling tower

Induced Draft Cooling Towers
In this system, a centrally located fan at the top, takes suction from the tower and
discharges it to the atmosphere. Line diagram of the same is shown in fig. 10.12.
The only difference between the induced draft cooling tower and forced draft
cooling tower is that the fan is located at the top in the induced draft cooling tower.

10-10
Fig. 10.12 Induced draft cooling tower

Advantages of using mechanical draft cooling towers:
a. For the same capacity used, the mechanical draft cooling towers are much smaller
than the natural draft cooling towers. This is because of the increase in cooling
capacity due to increase in volume of the air being forced out by fan.
b. Capacity control is possible in mechanical draft cooling tower. By controlling the
speed of the fan, the volume of air can be controlled, which in turn controls the
capacity.
c. The natural draft cooling towers can be located only in open space. As they do not
depend upon the atmospheric air, the mechanical draft cooling towers shall be
located even inside the building.
Disadvantages of using mechanical draft cooling towers:
a. More power is required to run the system,
b. Increased running cost due to increase in maintenance of the fans, motors and its
associated controls,

10-11

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Darshan Institute of Engineering & Technology

This is to certify that Mr./Ms.____________________________________

Enrollment No. ________________ Branch: - Mechanical Engineering

Engineering (2171910) in this institute.

Date of Submission: - __________________________

Staff in Charge Head of Department

Sr. Date of Date of

To study of modern steam power

To study of steam turbines (impulse,

To study of gas and steam turbine

4. To study of nuclear power plant

5. To study of various draught system

To study about feed water treatment

To study of different types of steam

To comparative study of different

9. To study of different pulverizing mill

To study of condenser and cooling

1. To study of modern steam power plant

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of Rankine cycle

Fig. 1.2 T-S diagram of Rankine cycle

5. General Layout of Thermal Power Plant:

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 1.2 T-S diagram of Rankine cycle

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

2. To study of Steam Turbine

Fig. 2.1 Impulse and Reaction Turbine

6. Compounding of Steam Turbine

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 2.2 Velocity Compounding for Impulse Turbine

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 2.3 Pressure Compounding for Impulse Turbine

This process is shown diagrammatically in figure 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 Pressure-velocity Compounding for Impulse Turbine

Fig. 2.5 Pressure Compounding for Reaction Turbine

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 2.6 Throttle Governor

Fig. 2.7 Nozzle Governor

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

3. To study of gas and steam turbine combined cycle

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Gas-turbine cycles typically operate at considerably higher temperatures than

Fig. 3.1 Schematic diagram combined gas–steam power plant

Fig. 3.2 T-s diagram combined gas–steam power plant

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

4. To study of nuclear power plant

Fig. 5.1 Pictorial View of Nuclear Fission Reaction

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 4.2 Nuclear Fission Reaction

4.3 Nuclear Chain Reaction

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Components of nuclear power plant

Fig. 4.4 components of Nuclear Power Plants

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

On the basis of coolant used

Fig. 4.5 Pressurized Water Reactor.

Fig.4.6 Boiling Water Reactor

Power Plant Engineering (2171910)

Fig. 4.7 Candu Reactor

Fig.4.8 Gas Cooled Reactor