Water Resources Management (2006) 20: 489–508

DOI: 10.1007/s11269-006-8773-4 
C Springer 2006

Spatial Distribution and Seasonal Variability of Rainfall

in a Mountainous Basin in the Himalayan Region

MANOHAR ARORA1,∗ , PRATAP SINGH1 , N. K. GOEL2 and R. D. SINGH1

1 National Institute of Hydrology, Roorkee, India; 2 Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, India

(∗ author for correspondence, e-mail: arora@nih.ernet.in)

(Received: 17 August 2004; in final form: 8 June 2005)

Abstract. The average distribution of precipitation provides essential input for understanding the
hydrological process. The role of complex topography in mountainous basins makes the spatial distri-
bution of precipitation different than the plain areas. Besides the rugged topography, the Himalayan
basins also face the problem of limited physical accessibility and data availability.
In this study, seasonal and annual distribution of rainfall with elevation and distance from the lower
most station (Akhnoor) has been studied for the Chenab basin (western Himalayas). The study basin
covers all the three ranges i.e. outer, middle and greater Himalayas. The rainfall stations are grouped
into windward and leeward categories. The trends of spatial distribution of rainfall are discussed
in detail. Attempts are also made to investigate the impact of reduced network on the mean annual
rainfall of the Chenab basin. A reduction in rain gauges from 42 to 19 has resulted in an increase in
the estimate of mean annual rainfall by 14% with respect to the estimate obtained using 42 stations
network.

Key words: rainfall distribution, Himalayas, elevation, distance, mean areal rainfall, kriging

Introduction
Information on precipitation distribution is needed for various hydrological ap-
plications such as realistic assessment of water resources, estimation of probable
maximum precipitation and hydrological modelling of the basin. Some of the most
significant data-related problems in mountainous basins are associated with the
measurement of precipitation depth and its spatial distribution. WMO (1986) made
a comparative study of various models and indicated that precipitation distribution
assumptions and determination of the form of precipitation were the most impor-
tant factors in producing accurate estimates of the runoff volume. Gan et al. (1997)
reported that in order to simulate/forecast the streamflow from a basin, good pre-
cipitation input is more important than the choice of complexity of the hydrological
model.
The distribution of precipitation is different in the mountainous areas than the
plain areas because of difference in their topography. In the mountainous basins,
weather systems interact with topography and result in highly non-uniform pre-
cipitation. Uplift of moisture laden air currents striking against a mountain barrier
490 M. ARORA ET AL.

provides a good precipitation on the windward side. Changes in rainfall with alti-
tude make the rainfall distribution more complex in mountainous area. A number
of studies have been carried out to understand the variation in precipitation with
altitude in different mountainous areas of the world (Clayton, 1982; Loukas and
Quick, 1994; Marquinez et al., 2003). Depending upon the relief of a mountain,
there may be a continuous increase in precipitation with altitude, and it may begin
to decrease above a particular altitude (Singh et al., 1995, Singh and Kumar, 1997).
Thus, orography plays an important role in precipitation distribution, which varies
significantly in space and time not only within a particular range, but also from one
mountain range to another. A precise understanding of climatic conditions in the
mountain regions is lacking because of poor observational network. Generally, a
poor assessment of spatial precipitation is made in the mountainous basins, because
of non availability of adequate network of precipitation gauges for recording the
variability of precipitation with altitude. Statistical and geostatistical techniques
have also been widely used for understanding the precipitation-elevation relation-
ship in the mountainous basins (Hayward and Clarke, 1996; Sen and Zeyad, 2000;
Martinez-Cob, 1995). Therefore, estimation of mean rainfall for the mountainous
basin needs special attention (Wilk and Anderson, 2000).
In Indian context, about 35% of the total geographical area of the country is
mountainous and out of this about 58% is covered by the mighty Himalayas. De-
tailed studies to assess the orographic effect on precipitation in the Himalayan region
are lacking due to various reasons. Singh et al. (1995) and Singh and Kumar (1997)
studied the precipitation distribution in the mountainous basins located in different
parts of Himalayan region. In these studies main emphasis was laid to study the
effect of altitude on precipitation distribution. Dhar et al. (2000) reviewed the pre-
cipitation studies carried out for high altitude regions of Himalayas. In the present
study, changes in rainfall distribution are studied with elevation and distance for
the Chenab basin located in western Himalayan region.

Study Area and Data Used

The Chenab River is one of the five main tributaries of the great Indus River system.
The river Chenab rises in two streams – Chandra and Bhaga – in the Himalayan
canton of Lahaul in Himachal Pradesh. The catchment of Chenab is elongated and
narrow in shape. The elevation of the catchment area varies widely from 305 to
7500 m showing very high relief of the basin. The mean elevation of the basin is
3600 m asl. The catchment area of the Chenab River up to Akhnoor, the lowermost
rain gauge site in India is 22,200 km2 . Singh and Kumar (1997) have reported
that on an average, about 70% of the total drainage area of Chenab basin up to
Akhnoor is covered by snow during the month of March/April, which reduces to
about 5400 km2 (25%) during the month of September/October. This area (25%)
can be considered to be covered by perpetual snow and glacier. The Chenab basin is
a well-gauged basin. For this study, rainfall data of 42 stations for the period from
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 491

Figure 1. Chenab basin with location of rainfall stations.

1974 to 1990 and 19 stations for the period from 1974 to 1998 have been used.
Figure 1 shows the Chenab basin with raingauge network.

Results and Discussion

The rainfall received at a particular station depends upon its geographical loca-
tion, orientation and elevation. Rain gauges located at same elevation may receive
492 M. ARORA ET AL.

Figure 2. Distribution of annual rainfall with elevation in the study basin.

different amount of rainfall due to orientation and location in different ranges.

Therefore, for studying the rainfall distribution it becomes necessary to group the
stations. In this study, grouping of stations has been considered on the basis of aspect
of the mountain range. The study area covers all the three Himalayan ranges, i.e.,
outer, middle and greater. The grouping of stations for different mountain ranges is
shown in Figure 2. It is notable that one station (Nandan) in the middle Himalayan
range lies outside the circles. This station has different rainfall characteristics. For
studying the rainfall distribution the data set of 19 stations with data length from
1974–1998 are used. Subsequently, one station in outer Himalayas and five stations
in the middle Himalayas with shorter data period are included, to ascertain the trend.
Thus, the data of the twenty-five stations have been used for the study. The distri-
bution of these stations for each range and aspect is given in Table I. The analysis is
carried out on annual and seasonal time scales. For seasonal analysis, each year is
divided into four principal seasons viz. post-monsoon (October–December), winter
(January–March), pre-monsoon (April–June) and monsoon (July–September).

Outer Himalayas
The outer Himalayan range of this study basin includes six rainfall stations. The
numbers of stations on the windward and leeward side of this range are 4 and 2
respectively. The elevation range of these stations varies from 305 m to 1000 m.
On the windward side, two stations (Paoni, 600 m and Salal, 610 m) at about the
same elevation, receive different intensity and magnitude of rainfall because of
Table I. Seasonal distribution of average rainfall in different ranges of the Himalayas
Distance in km. Rain (mm)
Elevation with respect
Range Station in meters to Akhnoor Post-monsoon Winter Pre-monsoon Monsoon Annual

Outer Himalaya (Windward) Akhnoor 305 0.0 78.4 233.3 165.4 1036.3 1513.5
Paoni 600 21.4 144.2 381.6 243.4 1654.2 2423.3
Salal 610 29.8 169.2 523.5 260.2 806.0 1758.8
Gainta 1000 27.2 180.9 555.3 238.8 748.6 1723.6
Average 143.2 423.4 227.0 1061.3 1854.8
Outer Himalaya (Leeward) Damni 885 47.9 195.0 657.4 332.5 679.0 1863.9
Dhamkund 640 57.5 171.2 573.2 232.5 361.1 1338
Average 183.1 615.3 282.5 520.0 1601
Average (Outer Himalaya) 163.2 519.4 254.8 790.7 1727.9
Middle Himalaya (Windward) Darabshala 1095 100.7 94.9 321.6 165.9 227.0 890.3
Doda 1140 82.4 119.5 393.1 185.4 180.8 878.8
Rot 1375 66.6 141.4 374.3 318.7 317.3 1151.8
Nandan 1910 54.8 227.8 396.3 421.6 1465.8 2511.6
Gohala 2400 72.3 43.5 140.7 101.1 144.5 429.7
Thana 2440 85.0 31.3 42.2 95.4 107.6 276.5
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL

Average 109.7 278.0 214.7 407.2 1023.1

Middle Himalaya (Leeward) Ohli 1585 121.3 115.3 428.6 256.6 220.5 1021.1
Kishtwar 1615 103.5 100.7 270.2 213.8 206.4 791.1
Banihal 1625 72.0 101.8 271.0 210.8 239.5 822.2
Shirshi 1675 138.1 92.3 184.8 272.2 279.2 828.5
Bhadarwah 1830 89.7 97.9 240.6 294.8 395.5 1028.9
(Continued on next page)
493
 494

Table I. (Continued)
Distance in km. Rain (mm)
Elevation with respect
Range Station in meters to Akhnoor Post-monsoon Winter Pre-monsoon Monsoon Annual
Chingaon 1840 99.0 115.9 241.9 324.2 347.2 1029.3
Dusadudha 2440 116.8 58.5 134.8 168.3 352.0 713.6
Devigol 2450 115.4 35.1 114.1 165.0 341.1 655.3
Bunnencha 2600 107.9 58.4 128.9 209.5 390.8 787.7
Average 86.2 223.9 235.0 308.0 853.1
Average ( Middle Himalaya) 98.0 251.0 224.9 357.6 938.1
Greater Himalaya Sohal 2000 175.5 50.3 103.9 123.3 119.6 397.1
Yurod 2165 135.0 36.7 90.4 164.1 171.4 462.4
Udaipur 2600 212.2 16.7 9.2 142.5 143.4 311.8
Tandi 3100 250.9 9.4 0.4 97.6 144.2 251.6
Average (Greater Himalaya) 28.3 51.0 131.9 144.7 355.7
M. ARORA ET AL.
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 495

their location and exposure. Salal is located between the ridges, whereas Paoni,
like Akhnoor and Gainta, is located on the exposed side of the ridge and receive
maximum moisture content.
The variation in rainfall with elevation on seasonal and annual scale for the
windward and leeward sides of this range is shown in Figure 3. Although the data
for one station on windward side, namely, Gainta (1000 m) are available for a
limited period from 1974 to 1990. However, these are included to ascertain the
trend of rainfall distribution. It is observed that rainfall in the windward side of
outer Himalayas increases linearly with elevation during winter season. While the
trends in the post-monsoon, pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons show that there
is an increase in rainfall up to certain elevation and then it starts decreasing. Salal
and Paoni, located at about the same altitude receive significantly different rainfall
during monsoon. The average annual rainfall observed at Salal is 1759 mm, whereas
for Paoni it is 2423 mm. As the contribution of monsoon rainfall on the windward
side is about 57% of the annual total, the same trend is reflected in annual rainfall.
Seasonal and annual rainfall for different stations and average rainfall of different
ranges are given in Table I. As the data of only 2 stations were available on the
leeward side, the trend could not be established for the leeward side. However the
total rainfall on the leeward side is found to be higher than windward side for all
seasons except the monsoon season. This may be possible due to spill over effects of
rainfall in the outer Himalayas, where altitude of mountain barrier is not very high.
During winter, pre-monsoon and post-monsoon seasons, the moisture contents in
the air are less in comparison with monsoon season, and the clouds precipitate
at higher ranges after crossing the mountain barrier. It results in high rainfall at
higher elevation stations on the leeward side. A significant drop in rainfall at lower
stations on the leeward side is possible due to the fact that after precipitating at
higher altitudes, a little moisture is left in the clouds to precipitate at lower altitudes.
Also, winter rains, which make second largest contribution in annual rainfall and
even largest contribution in some cases, follow western disturbances approaching
from northwest. In contrast, during monsoon, the situation is entirely different,
the moisture content in the air is much higher than other seasons and the clouds
precipitate relatively at lower elevations on the windward side.
The monsoon rainfall is the major contributor (45%) to the annual rainfall on
the windward as well as leeward sides of the outer Himalayan range (Table I).
Thus it influences the annual rainfall significantly and guides the distribution with
elevation. Annual rainfall (1855 mm) on the windward stations is higher than that
at the leeward stations (1601 mm), indicates that a reasonably high rainfall occurs
on both sides of the mountain range with an average value of 1728 mm. Coefficient
of variation (Cv ) for seasonal and annual rainfall for all the stations in the different
Himalayan ranges are computed and given in Table II. In outer Himalayas, the
variability in seasonal rainfall is higher than annual rainfall. Post-monsoon season
shows the maximum variability in rainfall. The windward stations exhibit higher
variability than the leeward stations except for monsoon season.
496 M. ARORA ET AL.

Figure 3. Variation in rainfall with elevation on the windward and leeward sides of the outer
Himalayan range.
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 497

Table II. Coefficient of variation (Cv ) for seasonal and annual rainfall of outer, middle and
greater Himalayan stations

Rainfall Elevation Post- Pre-

Range Station (m) monsoon Winter monsoon Monsoon Annual

Outer Himalayas Akhnoor 305 0.96 0.42 0.54 0.34 0.24

(Windward) Paoni 600 0.84 0.54 0.53 0.40 0.31
Salal 610 0.93 0.48 0.41 0.39 0.21
Gainta 1000 0.66 0.53 0.54 0.38 0.22
Outer Himalayas Damni 885 0.64 0.42 0.35 0.48 0.28
(Leeward) Dhamkund 640 0.73 0.33 0.46 0.59 0.25
Middle Himalayas Rot 1375 0.81 0.50 0.58 0.82 0.39
(Windward) Nandan 1910 1.27 0.58 0.49 0.31 0.33
Doda 1140 0.78 0.46 0.58 0.49 0.34
Darabshala 1095 0.87 0.45 0.61 0.62 0.36
Middle Himalayas Banihal 1625 0.76 0.64 0.54 0.67 0.37
(Leeward) Ohli 1585 0.83 0.66 0.64 0.81 0.48
Kishtwar 1615 0.60 0.52 0.51 0.73 0.36
Shirshi 1675 1.29 1.32 1.06 1.10 0.97
Bhadarwah 1830 0.57 0.49 0.33 0.51 0.23
Chingaon 1840 0.84 0.67 0.55 0.61 0.40
Greater Himalayas Yurod 2165 0.56 0.49 0.45 0.61 0.28
Sohal 2000 0.83 0.66 0.64 0.81 0.48
Udaipur 2600 1.19 1.72 0.58 0.94 0.56
Tandi 3100 2.04 3.54 0.66 0.85 0.62

In order to investigate the influence of distance on rainfall distribution, attempts

are made to study the changes in rainfall with distance. Distances are calculated
with respect to the station at the outlet of the basin, i.e., Akhnoor. Figure 4 shows
the variation in rainfall with distance for the outer Himalayan range. On the wind-
ward side, the variation shows linear trends for post-monsoon, winter and pre-
monsoon seasons whereas, for annual and monsoon season the trends are linear
with elevation. On the leeward side, annual and seasonal rainfall is decreased
with distance. The respective governing equations with elevation and distance
on both the windward and leeward sides of the Himalayan ranges are given in
Table III.

Middle Himalayas
Rainfall records of 10 stations were available for the analysis in the middle
Himalayan range. Four stations are located on the windward side and six are on
the leeward side. The average annual rainfall in middle Himalayan range is about
938 mm. The value of Cv is higher during post-monsoon season for both windward
and leeward sides as compared to the other seasons. The annual rainfall values
have lower Cv than that of the seasonal rainfall indicating less variability in annual
rainfall.
498 M. ARORA ET AL.

Figure 4. Variation in rainfall with distance on the windward and leeward sides of the outer
Himalayan range.
Table III. Governing equations describing the annual rainfall distribution in the outer, middle and greater
Himalayan ranges of the study basin

Elevation as variable x Distance as variable x

Himalayan range Equation R2 Equation R2

Outer Himalayas
Windward y = 187.4 + 5.61x − 0.004x 2 0.51 y = 1518 + 127.45x − 4.1447x 2 0.87
Leeward Only two stations available Only two stations available
Middle Himalayas
Windward y = −9757.1 + 13.77x − 0.0039x 2 0.83 y = −34.03x + 3628.7 0.46
Leeward y = −931.2 + 1.97x − 0.00052x 2 0.42 No clear trend observed
Greater Himalayas
Windward ln(y) = −0.0005x + 7.092 0.86 ln(y) = −0.0053x + 6.885 0.98
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL
499
500 M. ARORA ET AL.

On the windward side of middle Himalayan range, rainfall at first increases

with elevation and then decreases after a certain elevation (Figure 5). In other
words, second order polynomial fits well to represent the distribution of rainfall
with altitude. The variation of rainfall with elevation on the leeward side is similar
to that observed on windward side except during the post-monsoon and winter
seasons when rainfall decreases linearly with elevation. Although rainfall data for
two stations on the windward side, namely, Thana and Gohala, and three stations
on the leeward side, namely Bunnencha, Devigol and Dusadudha were available
for a limited period (1974–1990), their inclusion was necessary to find out the trend
of rainfall variation in this Himalayan range.
The variations in rainfall with distance are shown in Figure 6. On the windward
side, a linear decreasing trend is observed for the post-monsoon, pre-monsoon,
monsoon season on annual scale. No clear trend is noticed for the winter season.
The seasonal and annual rainfall on the leeward stations is alike and did not exhibit
much variability except for the winter season. Maximum rainfall is observed around
1600–1800 m on both sides of this range. Figure 7 represents the relationship
between the distances and elevations of the stations located in the three ranges, i.e.
outer, middle and greater Himalayas. It is observed that the stations in the middle
Himalayan range show wide variation in elevation at small distances. This may
be the reason behind absence of clear trend of rainfall with distance in this range.
The distribution of rainfall is explained better by elevation than the distance in this
range.

Greater Himalayas
Data for four rainfall stations in the Greater Himalayas are available for the analysis
and these stations are located on the windward side. The elevation of the stations
varies between 2000 m and 3100 m. The stations are located in such a way that they
covered major area of the basin and had more inter-station distance in comparison
to that in the other ranges. Average annual rainfall in the Greater Himalayas is
found to be 356 mm. Monsoon season contributed maximum (41%) to the annual
rainfall. The value of Cv in the Greater Himalayan range for one station namely,
Tandi (3100 m) is higher during post-monsoon and winter seasons. In general the
monsoon season shows higher variability in rainfall.
The variations of rainfall with elevation are represented in Figure 8. Results show
that the rainfall decreases exponentially with elevation for the post-monsoon, winter
and annual rainfall. In the pre-monsoon season rainfall decreases with elevation and
no clear trend is observed in monsoon season. This may be attributed to the fact
that at higher elevations a major part of precipitation falls in the form of snowfall.
The distributions of rainfall with distance are represented in Figure 9. These figures
show the similar trends as observed for that of variation with elevation. In this
range variation of rainfall with distance is explained better (R 2 = 0.98, where R 2
is coefficient of determination).
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 501

Figure 5. Variation in rainfall with elevation on the windward and leeward sides of middle
Himalayan range.
502 M. ARORA ET AL.

Figure 6. Variation in rainfall with distance on the windward and leeward sides of middle
Himalayan range.
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 503

Figure 7. Distribution of elevation of stations with corresponding distances with respect to

outer most station of the basin (Akhnoor) distance and elevation.

Changes in Mean Annual Rainfall of Basin with Reduced

Number of Rainfall Stations
In this study basin the records of rainfall are available for 42 stations for a period
of 17 years (1974–1990). The numbers of stations were reduced from 42 to 19 in
the basin from the year 1990 onwards. In the present analysis 19 rainfall stations
having data for 25 years (1974–1998) are considered. In order to study the impact
of reduction in number of rain gauges on mean annual rainfall, it has been attempted
to determine the increase or decrease in percent keeping the period of record fixed.
Therefore, for the period 1974–1990 the mean annual rainfall is computed using
42 rainfall stations and then it is computed using 19 rainfall stations.
Tabios and Salas (1985) compared several Areal Average Rainfall (AAR) meth-
ods and concluded that a geostatistical method (ordinary and universal kriging) with
spatial correlation structure is superior to Thiessen polygons, polynomial interpre-
tation, and inverse-distance weighting. Assuming that the precipitation is a random
field that possesses a given set of first and second order characteristics, ordinary
KRIGING interpolation technique is used for the data set of 42 stations and value
of mean areal rainfall is estimated to be 988 mm. The same technique is used for the
data set of 19 stations for the same period and the mean areal rainfall is estimated to
be 1127 mm. It is found that mean annual rainfall of the basin has increased by 14%
with reduced network of rainfall stations. The result suggest that as data from the
504 M. ARORA ET AL.

Figure 8. Variation in rainfall with elevation on the windward side of greater Himalayan range.

reduced network will be available for the future hydrological studies in the basin,
for the accurate mean annual rainfall estimates, the computed mean annual rainfall
using reduced network should be reduced by 14%. The contour maps obtained after
interpolation are shown in Figure 10.
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 505

Figure 9. Variation in rainfall with distance on the windward side of greater Himalayan range.

Conclusion
Precipitation distribution for the Himalayas is poorly known as compared with many
other mountains of the world. In the present study, seasonal and annual distribution
506 M. ARORA ET AL.

Figure 10. Computation of mean annual rainfall using kriging.

rainfall for the Chenab basin is studied. In this study area, the precipitation is caused
by different weather systems during different seasons of a year and varies from
place to place because of highly rugged topography of the Himalayan mountains.
Depending upon the availability of rainfall data, the rainfall stations are grouped
with respect to ranges and aspect. The variability and trends exhibited by different
ranges are given in the following table.

Himalayan Seasonal maximum % of

range rainfall contribution Total Trends Correlation factors

Outer
Windward Monsoon (1061 mm) 57 Second order The distribution and
polynomial in all magnitude of annual
seasons and annual rainfall is guided by
scale monsoon season rainfall
Leeward Winter (615 mm) 38 – The average rainfall in
seasons other than
monsoon are more in
comparison to
windward stations
(Continued on next page)
SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION AND SEASONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL 507

(Continued)
Himalayan Seasonal maximum % of
range rainfall contribution Total Trends Correlation factors

Middle
Windward Monsoon (407 mm) 38 Second order The distribution and
polynomial in all magnitude of annual
seasons and annual rainfall is guided by
scale monsoon season
rainfall
Leeward Monsoon (308 mm) 36 Linear in post-monsoon Except pre-monsoon,
and winter seasons. the average rainfall
Second order in other seasons are
polynomial in other less in comparison
seasons and annual to windward
scale stations
Greater Monsoon (145 mm) 41 Exponential decrease in No clear trend is
post-monsoon, winter obtained in
and annual. Linear monsoon season
decrease in possibly because
pre-monsoon and no higher elevations
trend in monsoon receive major part
of precipitation in
form of snowfall

The average rainfall on windward side of outer and middle Himalayas is

more comparison to leeward side. The values of Coefficient of variation (Cv ) for
each station suggest that there is not much variability in the seasonal and annual
rain.
The trends of variation of rainfall with distance for both the sides (windward
and leeward) of the outer and middle Himalayas have been studied. Annual rainfall
distribution on the windward side of the outer Himalayan range is better correlated
with distance (R 2 = 0.87) than with elevation (R 2 = 0.51). In middle Himalayas, the
annual rainfall on the windward and leeward side corresponds better with elevation
(R 2 = 0.83 and R 2 = 0.42) rather than distance (R 2 = 0.46 and no trend). Both
elevation and distance are equally important in explaining the variability in annual
rainfall distribution (R 2 = 0.86 and R 2 = 0.98).
An attempt is also made to study the impact of reduction in number of rain
gauges on mean annual rainfall using two different sets of stations for the same
period of time (1974–1990). It is found that estimate of mean annual rainfall of the
basin has been increased by 14% with reduced network of rainfall stations. Because
the data from reduced network will be available for the future hydrological studies
in the basin, therefore, for the accurate mean annual rainfall estimates, therefore,
the computed mean annual rainfall using reduced network should be reduced by
14%.
508 M. ARORA ET AL.

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