chining Process

Milling-Broaching-Sawing-Filing-Gear Making

Teknik Mesin ITERA

 Complex Shape
In addition to producing parts with various external or internal round profiles, machining operations can produce
many other parts with more complex shapes.

Machining
Process
Produce
complex shape

In this chapter, several cutting processes and machine tools that are capable of
producing these shapes using single-point, multitooth, and cutting tools are described
 chining Process

MILLING and MILLING MACHINES

 Milling Cutter & Milling Operation
The difference between Milling & Turning process : In milling the Process is cutting away material
by feeding a workpiece past a rotating multiple tooth cutter.

Peripheral Milling
The axis of cutter rotation is parallel to the workpiece surface (Horizontal
Milling) . When the cutter is longer than the width of the cut, the process is
called slab milling. Cutters for peripheral milling may have straight or helical
teeth.

Face Milling
The cutter is mounted on a spindle having an axis of rotation
perpendicular to the workpiece surface (Vertical Milling).

End Milling
Important and common machining operation because of its
versatility and capability to produce various profiles and curved
surfaces. The cutter, called an end mill, usually rotates on an
axis perpendicular to the workpiece surface, and it also can be
tilted to conform to machine-tapered or curved surfaces.

Other shape of milling cutter

Ball-end mill with indexable coated-carbide inserts machining a cavity
in a die block.
 M i l l i n g O p e ra t i o n s
Conventional Milling
In conventional milling (also called up milling), the maximum chip thickness
is at the end of the cut as the tooth leaves the workpiece surface. This is the
more common method of milling.

The advantages to conventional milling are :

1. Tooth engagement is not a function of workpiece surface characteristics
2. Contamination or scale (oxide layer) on the surface does not adversely
affect tool life.
3. Proses kerja minim getaran (if the cutter teeth are sharp)

The disadvantages to conventional milling are :

1. The tooth will rub against and smear the surface for some distance before
it begins to cut.
2. There may be a tendency for the tool to chatter.
3. Memerlukan clamping yang baik karena cenderung mengangkat benda
kerja (because of the cutter rotation direction)

Climb Milling (a) Schematic illustration of conventional milling and

In climb milling (also called down milling), cutting starts at the surface of the climb milling.
workpiece where the chip is thickest. (b) Slabmilling operation showing depth of cut, d;
feed per tooth, f; chip depth of cut, and
Komponen gaya ke bawah menjaga posisi benda kerja. workpiece speed, v.
(c) Schematic illustration of cutter travel distance, to
Tidak cocok untuk permukaan keras dan abrasive karena akan menyebabkan reach full depth of cut.
keausan lebih pada mata potong.
 M i l l i n g Pa ra m e t e r s
Cutting Speed

Where D is the cutter diameter and N is the rotational speed of the cutter.

Chip Depth of Cut

Where f is the feed per tooth of the cutter (the distance the workpiece travels
per tooth of the cutter, in mm/tooth or in./tooth) and d is the depth of cut. As
becomes larger, the force on the cutter tooth increases.
Where v is the linear speed (feed rate) of the workpiece and n is the number of
teeth on the cutter periphery.

Cutting Time
(a) Face-milling operation, showing action of an
insert;
(b) Climb milling;
Where l is the length of the workpiece and lc is the horizontal extent of the (c) Conventional milling;
cutter’s first contact with the workpiece. (d) Dimensions in face milling. The width of cut, w, is
Material Removal Rate (MRR) not necessarily the same as the cutter radius.

Where w is the width of the cut

M i l l i n g Pa ra m e t e r s
 Face-Milling Cutter
Effect of Insert Shape on Feed Marks on
A face-milling cutter with indexable inserts. a Face- Milled Surface

insert

Schematic illustration of the effect of insert shape on feed marks

on a facemilled surface: (a) small corner radius, (b) corner flat on
insert, and (c) wiper, consisting of a small radius followed by a
large radius, resulting in smoother feed marks. (d) Feed marks
due to various insert shapes.
 Face-Milling Cutter
Position of Cutter and Insert in Face-Milling

(a) Relative position of the cutter and insert as they first engage the workpiece in face milling.
(b) Insert positions towards the end of cut.
(c) Examples of exit angles of the insert, showing desirable (positive or negative angle) and undesirable (zero
angle) positions. In all figures, the cutter spindle is perpendicular to the page and rotates clockwise.
 Face-Milling Cutter
Effect of Insert Shape on Feed Marks on
Terminology for a face-milling cutter
a Face- Milled Surface

The effect of the lead angle on the undeformed chip thickness in face milling.
Note that as the lead angle increases ( Fig. b), the chip thickness decreases, but the length of
contact (i.e., chip width) increases.
The edges of the insert must be sufficiently large to accommodate the contact length increase.
The lead angle also influences the forces in milling. It can be seen that as the lead angle decreases,
there is a smaller vertical-force component (axial force on the cutter spindle).
The lead angles for most face-milling cutters typically range from 0° to 45°.
 End-Milling Cutter

Ball Nose End-Milling

The cutter, called an end mill has either a straight shank (for small cutter sizes) or a tapered shank (for larger sizes)
and is mounted into the spindle of the milling machine.
End mills may be made of high-speed steels or with carbide inserts, similar to those for face milling.
End mills are available with hemispherical ends (ball nose mills) for the production of sculptured surfaces, such as
on dies and molds.
Hollow end mills have internal cutting teeth and are used to machine the cylindrical surfaces of solid, round
workpieces.
The cutter can remove material on both its end and its cylindrical cutting edges.

Ball nose end mills. These cutters are

able to produce elaborate contours and
are often used in the machining of dies
and molds.
 Other Milling Operations and Milling Cutters
(a) In straddle milling, two or more cutters are mounted on an arbor and
are used to machine two parallel surfaces on the workpiece
(b) Form milling produces curved profiles using cutters that have specially
shaped teeth Such cutters are also used for cutting gear teeth
(c) (d) Slotting and slitting operations are performed with circular cutters
T-slot cutters are used to mill T-slots, such as those found in machinetool
worktables for clamping workpieces.
(a) A slot is first milled with an end mill; then the cutter machines the complete
profile of the T-slot in one pass.
(b) Shell mills are hollow inside and are mounted on a shank; this allows the
same shank to be used for different-sized cutters. The use of shell mills is
similar to that of end mills.
General Recommendation for Milling Operation
General Troubleshooting Guide for Milling Operations
Edge Defects in Face Milling

(a) Burr formation along workpiece edge,

(b) Breakout along workpiece edge, and
(c) (c) how it can be avoided by increasing the lead angle
Milling Machine

(a) a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine and

(b) vertical-spindle column-and-knee-type milling machine.
(c) A computer numerical-control (CNC) vertical-spindle milling machine.
This machine is one of the most versatile machine tools.
 Advance Milling Machine

Smart Device
To program CNC (Computer Numerical Control)
CNC Milling Machine
Automated control of machining tools usually using 3
axis movement or more, 4 to 5 axis with special
accessories.

CNC Milling Machine

Automated control of machining tools using 5 axis
motor to move freely like human hands
 chining Process

BROACHING and BROACHING MACHINES

 Broaching

(a) Typical parts made by internal broaching.

(b) Parts made by surface broaching.
(c) Vertical broaching machine.
 Broach Terminology

(a) Cutting action of a broach, showing various features.

(b) Terminology for a broach.

The rake (hook) angle depends on the material cut (as it does in turning and other cutting
operations) and usually ranges from 0° to 20°.
The clearance angle is typically 1° to 4° finishing teeth have smaller angles.
Too small a clearance angle causes rubbing of the teeth against the broached surface.
The pitch of the teeth depends on factors such as the length of the workpiece (length of cut), tooth
strength, and size and shape of chips.

where k is aconstant, equal to 1.76 when length l is in mm and 0.35 when l is in inches.
Broach Terminology
Chip breaker features
(a) a flat broach and
(b) a round broach.
Broaches are available with various tooth profiles,
including some with chip breakers. The variety of
surface broaches include slab (for cutting flat
surfaces), slot, contour,dovetail, pot (for precision
external shapes), and straddle.

Pull-type Internal Broach

Terminology for a pull-type internal broach used for
enlarging long holes.
Internal broach types include hole (for close-tolerance
holes, round shapes, and other shapes), keyway, internal
gear,and rifling (for gun barrels). Irregular internal shapes
usually are broached by starting with around hole drilled
or bored in the workpiece.
Broaching Machine

The machines for broaching are relatively simple in construction, have only linear motions, and usually are actuated
hydraulically, although some are moved by crank, screw, or rack.
Push broaches usually are shorter, generally in the range from 150 to 350 mm (6 to 14 in.).
Pull broaches tend to straighten the hole, whereas pushing permits the broach to follow any irregularity of the leader hole.
Horizontal machines are capable of longer strokes.
The force required to pull or push the broach depends on the :
(a) strength of the workpiece material,
(b) total depth and width of cut,
(c) cutting speed,
(d) tooth profile, and
(e) use of cutting fluids. The pulling force capacities of broaching machines are as high as 0.9 MN (100 tons).

HORIZONTAL BROACHING MACHINE

chining Process

SAWING
 Sawing

Sawing is a common process dating back to around

1000 B.C. The cutting tool is a blade (saw) having a
series of small teeth, each tooth removing a small
amount of material with each stroke or movement
of the saw. This process can be used for all metallic
and nonmetallic materials and is capable of
producing various shapes.

Examples of various sawing operations

 Sawing Terminology

(a) Terminology for saw teeth.

(b) Types of tooth sets on saw teeth staggered to
provide clearance for the saw blade to prevent
binding during sawing.

The tooth set in a saw (Fig. b) is important in providing a sufficiently wide kerf for the
blade to move freely in the workpiece without binding or excessive frictional resistance,
thus reducing the heat generated.
Heat can have adverse effects on the cut, especially in cutting thermoplastics, which
soften rapidly when heated.
The tooth set also allows the blade to track a path accurately, following the pattern to be
cut without wandering. At least two or three teeth always should be engaged with the
workpiece in order to prevent snagging (catching of the saw tooth on the workpiece).
 Type of Saw
Hacksaws have straight blades and reciprocating motions. Developed in the 1650s, they generally are
used to cut off bars, rods, and structural shapes. They may be manual or power operated. Because
cutting takes place during only one of the two reciprocating strokes, hacksaws are not as efficient as
band saws.
Circular saws (also called cold saws in cutting metal) generally are used for high-production-rate sawing,
aprocess called cutting off.Cutting-off operations also can be carried out with thin, abrasive disks, as
described in Section 26.4. Cold sawing is common in industry, particularly for cutting large cross sections.
Band saws have continuous, long, flexible blades and thus have a continuous cutting action. Vertical
band saws are used for straight as well as contour cutting of flat sheets and other parts supported on a
horizontal table.

Circular saws
Band saws

Hacksaws
chining Process

FILING
 Filing
Filing involves the small-scale removal of material from
a surface, corner, edge, or hole—including the removal
of burrs.
First developed around 1000 B.C., files usually are
made of hardened steel and are available in a variety of
cross sections, such as flat, round, half-round, square,
and triangular.
Although filing usually is done by hand, filing machines
with automatic features are available for high
production rates, with files reciprocating at up to 500
strokes/min.

Types of burs used in burring operations

Rotary files and burs are used for such applications as deburring, removing scale from surfaces, producing chamfers on parts, and
removing small amounts of material in die making. These cutters generally are conical, cylindrical, or spherical in shape and have
various tooth profiles. Their cutting action (similar to that of reamers) removes small amounts of material at high rates. The
rotational speed of burs ranges from 1,500 rpm for cutting steels (large burs) to as high as 45,000 rpm for magnesium (small burs).
 chining Process

GEAR MANUFACTURING by MACHINING

Gear Manufacturing by Machining
Several processes for making gears or producing gear teeth on various
components were described : casting, forging, extrusion, drawing,
thread rolling, and powder metallurgy, among others.

Blanking of sheet metal also can be used for making thin gears, such as
those used in mechanical watches, clocks, and similar mechanisms.
Plastic gears can be made by such processes as injection molding and
casting.

Nomenclature for an involute spur gear

Gears may be as small as those used in watches or as large as 9 m (30 ft) in diameter, for rotating mobile crane superstructures.
The dimensional accuracy and surface finish required for gear teeth depend on the intended use.
Poor gear-tooth quality contributes to inefficient energy transmission, increased vibration and noise, and adversely affects the
gear’s frictional and wear characteristics.
Submarine gears, for example, have to be of extremely high quality so as to reduce noise levels, thus helping to avoid detection.
 Gear Generating with Various Cutters
Starting with a wrought or cast gear blank, there are two
basic methods of making such gear teeth:
(a) form cutting and
(b) generating.

The gear-tooth shape is reproduced by machining the gear blank

around its periphery.
The cutter travels axially along the length of the gear tooth and
at the appropriate depth to produce the geartooth profile.
After each tooth is cut, the cutter is withdrawn, the gear blank is
rotated (indexed), and the cutter proceeds to cut another tooth.
This process continues until all of the teeth are machined.

The cutting tool used in gear generating may be a pinion-shaped

cutter, a rackshaped straight cutter, or a hob.

(a) Producing gear teeth on ablank by form cutting.

(b) Schematic illustration of gear generating with a pinion-shaped gear cutter.
(c) and (d) Gear generating in a gear shaper using a pinion-shaped cutter.
Note that the cutter reciprocates vertically.
(e) Gear generating with rack-shaped cutter.
 Gear Hobbing
A hob is basically a gear-cutting worm, or screw, made into
a geargenerating tool by a series of longitudinal slots or
gashes machined into it to form the cutting teeth.
When hobbing a spur gear, the angle between the hob and
gear-blank axes is 90° minus the lead angle at the hob
threads.
All motions in hobbing are rotary, and the hob and gear
blank rotate continuously until all of the teeth are cut.
Hobs are available with one, two, or three threads. For
example, if the hob has a single thread and the gear is to
have 40 teeth, the hob and the gear spindle must be
geared together such that the hob makes 40 revolutions
while the gear blank makes 1 revolution.
Similarly, if a double-threaded hob is used, the hob would
make 20 revolutions to the gear blank’s 1 revolution. In
addition, the hob must be fed parallel to the gear axis for
adistance greater than the face width of the gear tooth
(Fig. 24.29) in order to produce straight teeth on spur
gears.
The same hobs and machines can be used to cut helical
gears by tilting the axis of the hob spindle.
 Cutting Bevel Gear

Straight bevel gears generally are roughed out in one cut

with aform cutter on machines that index automatically.
The gear is then finished to the proper shape on agear
generator. The generating method is analogous to the rack-
generating method described previously.
The cutters reciprocate across the face of the bevel gear as
does the tool on ashaper (Fig. a).
The machines for spiral bevel gears operate essentially on
the same principle, and the spiral cutter is basically a face-
milling cutter with a number of straight-sided cutting
blades protruding from its periphery (Fig. b).
(a) Cutting a straight bevel-gear blank
with two cutters.
(b) Cutting a helical bevel gear
Finishing Gears by Grinding

Finishing gears by grinding: (a) form grinding with shaped

grinding wheels; (b) grinding by generating, using two wheels
Design Considerations and Economics of Gear Machining

Gear manufacturing cost as a function of gear quality.

The numbers along the vertical lines indicate tolerances.
Thank You