EMCOTECH Learners Manual - Mathematics in The Modern World

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1
Module 1
The Nature of Mathematics
Topic1 Mathematics in our World

1.1 Patterns and Numbers in Nature and The World………………………………………………………….5
Topic 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols
2.1. Language & Symbols………………………………………………………………………………………………….10
2.2 Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Functions, Relations, Binary operations
2.2.1. Sets………………………………………………………………………………………………….19
2.2.2. Relations and Functions…………………………………………………………………..26
2.2.3. Binary Operations…………………………………………………………………………….31
2.2.4. Logic…………………………………………………………………………………………………35
Module 2
Mathematics as a Tool
Topic 3 Data Management………………………………………………………………………………………………….41
Module 3
Topic 4 Apportionment & Voting…………………………………………………………………………………….…50
MATH 101 - Mathematics in the Modern World

LEARNERS MANUAL
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INTRODUCTION
This course begins with an introduction to the nature of mathematics as an explanation of patterns (in nature
and the environment) and as an application of inductive and deductive reasoning. By exploring these topics, students
are encouraged to go beyond the typical understanding of mathematics as merely a bunch of formulas but as a
source of aesthetics in patterns of nature, for example, and a rich language of itself (and of science) governed by
logic reasoning.
The course then proceeds to survey ways in which mathematics provides a tool for understanding and dealing
with various aspects of present day living, such as managing personal finances, making social choices, appreciating
geometric designs, understanding codes used in data transmission and security, and living limited resources fairly.
These aspects will provide opportunities for actually doing mathematics in a brand range of exercises that bring out
the various dimensions of mathematics as a way of knowing, and test the students’ understanding and capacity.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THIS COURSE
This course adapts the Blended Learning Modality where each student shall attend online classes and shall
submit their output and present it through online or prerecorded means. In the event that the students are required to
attend in a face to face class, they will be scheduled by batch subject to health and security protocols being
implemented by the school.
As such this Learner’s Manual was prepared in order to facilitate the delivery of this course. The following
symbols will be used to identify the phases of learning.
Legend:
Video Material Reading Material Activity Lecture
Module 1: Prelim
Topic1 Mathematics in our World
Mathematics is a useful way to think about nature and our world.

 Patterns and numbers in nature and the world:
o the snowflake and honeycomb;
o tiger’s stripes and hyena’s spots;
o the sunflower
o the snail’s shell, flower petals;
o world’s population;
o the weather
 the Fibonacci sequence

o mathematics helps organize patterns and regularities in the world
o mathematics helps predict the behaviour of nature and phenomena in the world
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o mathematics helps control nature and occurrences in the world for our own ends
o mathematics has numerous applications in the world making it indispensable.
SECTION 1. The Nature of Mathematics
LECTURE NOTES
Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics
Topic1 Mathematics in Our World
1. What is mathematics?
Mathematics, developed by human mind and culture, is a formal system of thought for recognizing,
classifying, and exploiting patterns. (Ian Stewart, p.1)
Mathematics is perceived as a study of numbers, symbols, and equations, an art of geometric

shapes and patterns, a universal language, a toll in decision-making and problem solving, and a way
of life to be exact and precise.
Indeed, mathematics is a study of patterns, an art, a language, a set of problem solving tools, and a
process of thinking. (Nocon and Nocon).
The diagram below shows the nature of mathematics as illustrated by Nocon and Nocon: (pls refer
to Figure 1 - attach)
2. Where is mathematics?
Mathematics is in every people’s daily task or activity. It is in nature, arts, music, medicine, and in
other disciplines. It is in our communities. Mathematics is everywhere. Moreover, there is always a
substantial interconnection and relationship between mathematics, the world, and the universe.
3. What is mathematics for?
Mathematics is extremely useful in making conclusions and/or prediction of the events of the
world. It is use to describe the natural order and occurrences of the universe. In addition, it is use
to organize patterns and regularities as well as irregularities, to help us control weather and
epidemics, to provide tools for calculations, and to provide new questions to think about.
(Vistru-Yu PPT presentation)
4. What is mathematics all about?
Mathematics is about numbers, symbols, equations, operations, functions, calculations,

abstractions, and devising proofs.
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5. How is mathematics done?
Mathematics is done with curiosity, with a penchant for seeking patterns and generalities, with a
desire to know the truth, with trial and error, and without fear of facing more questions and
problems to solve. (Vistru-Yu)
6. Who uses mathematics?
Mathematicians (pure and applied), scientists (natural and social), and practically, everyone uses
different mathematics at different times, for different purposes, using different tools, with
different attitudes. (Vistru-Yu)
7. Why is mathematics important to know / learn?
Mathematics puts order in disorder. It helps us become better persons and helps make the world a
better place to live in. (Vistru-Yu).
1.1 PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

Patterns in nature are visible regularities of form found in the natural world and can also be seen in the universe.
Nature patterns which are not just to be admired, they are vital clues to the rules that govern natural processes.
Check out examples of some of these patterns and you may be able to spot a few the next time you go for a
walk.
1. Patterns can be observed even in stars which move in circles across the sky each day.
2. The weather season cycle each year. All snowflakes contains sixfold symmetry which no two are exactly
the same.
3. Patterns can be seen in fish patterns like spotted trunkfish, spotted puffer, blue spotted stingray, spotted
moral eel, coral grouper, redlion fish, yellow boxfish and angel fish. These animals and fish stripes and
spots attest to mathematical regularities in biological growth and form.
4. Zebras, tigers, cats and snakes are covered in patterns of stripes; leopards and hyenas are covered in
pattern of spots and giraffes are covered in pattern of blotches.
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5. Natural patterns like the intricate waves across the oceans; sand dunes on deserts; formation of typhoon;
water drop with ripple and others. These serves as clues to the rules that govern the flow of water, sand
and air.
6. Other patterns in nature can also be seen in the ball of mackerel, the v-formation of geese in the sky and the
tornado formation of starlings.
The Fibonacci Sequence
Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci (fe¯b -näche¯) (c. 1170–1250), is one of the best-known mathematicians
of medieval Europe. In 1202, after a trip that took him to several Arab and Eastern countries, Fibonacci wrote the
book Liber Abaci. In this book Fibonacci explained why the Hindu-Arabic numeration system that he had learned
about during his travels was a more sophisticated and efficient system than the Roman numeration system. This
book also contains a problem created by Fibonacci that concerns the birth rate of rabbits. Here is a statement of
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.
At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits. After a month the rabbits have
produced no offspring; however, every month thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of rabbits.
The offspring reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many pairs of rabbits will
there be at the start of each succeeding month? This is best understood in this diagram:
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GROWTH OF RABBIT COLONY
ADULT YOUNG
MONTHS TOTAL
PAIRS PAIRS
1 1 1 2
2 2 1 3
3 3 2 5
4 5 3 8
5 8 5 13
6 13 8 21
7 21 13 34
8 34 21 55
9 55 34 89
10 89 55 144
11 144 89 233
12 233 144 377
The sequence encountered in the rabbit problem 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, 233, 377, …. is called
the Fibonacci sequence and its terms the Fibonacci numbers.
GOLDEN RECTANGLE
Leonardo of Pisa also known as Fibonacci discovered a sequence of numbers that created an interesting
numbers that created an interesting pattern the sequence 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34… each number is obtained by
adding the last two numbers of the sequence forms what is known as golden rectangle a perfect rectangle. A
golden rectangle can be broken down into squares the size of the next Fibonacci number down and below. If we
were to take a golden rectangle, break it down to smaller squares based from Fibonacci sequence and divide each
with an arc, the pattern begin to take shapes, we begin with Fibonacci spiral in which we can see in nature.
FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE
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The sunflower seed conveys the Fibonacci sequence. The pattern of two spirals goes in opposing directions
(clockwise and counter-clockwise). The number of clockwise spirals and counter clockwise spirals are consecutive
Fibonacci numbers and usually contains 34 and 55 seeds.
The Fibonacci sequence can also be seen in the way tree branches form or split. A main trunk will grow
until it produces a branch, which creates two growth points. Then, one of the new stems branches into two, while
the other one lies dormant. This pattern of branching is repeated for each of the new stems. A good example is the
sneezewort. Root systems and even algae exhibit this pattern.
GOLDEN RATIO
Fibonacci discovery of Fibonacci sequence happened to approach the ratio asymptotically. He found the
interesting and mysterious properties of the Fibonacci sequence that the series has a deep relationship with the
golden ratio.
The golden ratio was first called as the Divine Proportion in the early 1500s in Leonardo da Vinci’s work
which was explored by Luca Pacioli entitled “De Divina Proportione” in 1509. This contains the drawings of the five
platonic solids and it was probably da Vinci who first called it “section aurea” which is Latin for Golden Secion.
In mathematics, two quantities are in the Golden ratio if their ratio is the same of their sum to the larger of
the two quantities. The Golden Ratio is the relationship between numbers on the Fibonacci sequence where
plotting the relationships on scales results in a spiral shape. In simple terms, golden ratio is expressed as an
equation, where a is larger than b, (a+b) divided by a is equal to a divided by b, which is equal to 1.618033987…
and represented by φ (phi).
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a+b a
φ= = =1.618033987 … .
a b
LEARNING MATERIALS:
ONLINE CLASS LECTURE / ONLINE FORUM (Sked)
SELF PACED LEARNING
VIDEOS
For OFFLINE: Refer to attachment/video/Module1
Nature of Mathematics
 Watch Video: Introduction - The Nature of Mathematics (ppt)
https://bit.ly/39FNwHf
 Watch Video: The Nature of Mathematics

https://bit.ly/2EqiMOS
Patterns & Regularities

 Watch Video: Patterns & Regularities
https://bit.ly/2CZGqkU
Mathematics in Nature
o Watch Video: Mathematics in Nature (Concepts)
https://bit.ly/309YXUs
Nature in Numbers
 Watch Video: A short movie by Cristobal Vila
https://bit.ly/338Ae51
The Fibonacci Numbers:

 Watch Video: TED Talk - Arthur Benjamin
https://bit.ly/2P5q7pn
READINGS
Read: Nature of Mathematics

https://bit.ly/30O6VSm
Read: Mathematics as a Language

https://bit.ly/3famFnH
Read: Patterns in Nature

Copyright @scribd.com/
https://bit.ly/2E9uZaz
Read: Patterns in Nature

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https://bit.ly/30KUbf9
FACE TO FACE / OFFLINE FUROM
Activities:
No. 1: Reaction paper on the video clip “Nature in Numbers”

https://bit.ly/2P97GzW
OFFLINE: Refer to attachment/video/Module1
No. 2: Look for Fibonacci numbers in fruits, vegetables, flowers, or plants available in
their locality. Write a report about the obtained results.
https://bit.ly/2ZneHlq
OFFLINE: Refer to attachment/video/Module1
LECTURE NOTES
Topic2 Mathematical Language and Symbols
Like any language, mathematics has its own symbols, syntax, and rules.
 Characteristics of mathematical language: precise, concise, powerful
 Expressions vs sentences
 Conventions in the mathematical language
 Four basic concepts: sets, functions, relations, binary operations
 Elementary logic connectives, quantifiers, negation, variables
 Formality
2.1. Language & Symbols
Importance of the Language of Mathematics

 To understand the expressed ideas
 To communicate ideas to others
Language can be a major pedagogical tool
Once students understand HOW things are said, they can better understand WHAT is being said, and only
then do they have a chance to know WHY it is said.
- Robert E. Jamison
1.1. Comparison between the English Language and Mathematics
ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
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Symbols English alphabet and punctuation English alphabet, Numerals, Greek letters, grouping
symbols, special symbols
Name Noun Expression
Complete thought Sentence Sentence
Action Verbs Operation and other actions (e.g., simplify,
rationalize)
What’s in a sentence Verbs Equality, inequality, membership in a set
Attribute of a sentence Fact or fiction True or false
1. Characteristics of the Mathematical Language

 Precise
- able to make very fine distinctions
 Concise
- able to say things briefly
 Powerful
- able to express complex thoughts with relative ease
2. Examples of types of expressions in mathematics (or what commonly refer to as

mathematical objects)
 Numbers
 Sets
 Functions
 Ordered pair, ordered triple, ordered n - tuple
 Matrices
 Vectors
 Groups
3. Other Notions in the Mathematical Language
 Conventions and syntax
 Definitions and undefined terms
 Simplicity and elegance
Simpler means -
 FEWER symbols
5 + 2 + 7 = 14
 FEWER operations
7+7+7+7 = 7*4
 BETTERSUITED to current use

400 cm; 2m 2
 PREFERRED STYLE/FORMAT
5/20 = 1/4
Numbers and 4 Operations (do research)
2.1.1. TRANSLATING KEY WORDS AND PHRASES INTO ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS
Below are some of the key words and phrases that are used to describe common mathematical
operations. To write algebraic expressions and equations, assign a variable to represent the unknown
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number. The letter “x” is used to represent the unknown. In translation problems, the words sum, total,
difference, product and quotient imply at least two parts – use parentheses when a sum or difference is
multiplied. For example, the phrase "the sum of three times a number and five" translates to "3x + 5,"
while the phrase "three times the sum of a number and five" translates to "3(x + 5)."
Useful Tips to translate the Statements into Algebraic Symbol and vice versa
Algebra is sometimes defined as the science of signs and symbols. Hence, solution of most mathematics problem
depend upon the language of algebra by using the various signs, symbols and notations in algebra.
One of the important aspect in solving problems in algebra is a working knowledge of the ability to translate the
statement in algebraic symbols. Thus, one has to develop this ability in order to represent word problems into
mathematical statement using algebraic symbol.
A knowledge of constant and variable alongside with symbols of relations and operations will facilitate translation
of verbal phrases into mathematical phrases
The symbol of operations and relations with their corresponding meanings are as follows:
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Examples:
Mathematical translate phrases into each verbal phrases.
 twice a number x added to 10 = 2x + 10
 a number n decreased by five = n–5
 a number and multiplied by 7 = 7y
 twice a number a divided by three = 2a / 3
 five times a number x minus four = 5x – 4
 thrice the sum of a number x and six = 3 (x + 6)
 a number x is divided by two added to seven = 7 + x / 2
Now let’s have algebraic symbols translated into mathematical statement.
2x + y (this can be stated as :)

 twice the sum of x and y
 two times x increased by y
 twice x exceeds by y
x - 3y
 x minus thrice y
 thrice y and subtracted from x
 three times y less than x
 x diminished by thrice y
5x + 2y
 the product of five x added to the product of two and y
 the sum of five times x and two times y
 five times x increased by twice y
 twice y and more than five times x
x / y - 2z
 the quotient of x and y decreased by twice z
 x divided by y less twice z
 twice z less than the quotient of x and y
 the difference between the quotient of x and y, and twice z
Formulas are equations that state relationships between quantities. These formulas can be translated into
verbal sentences.
A = lw The area of a rectangle is the product of the length and the width of the triangle.
P = 2 l + 2 w = 2(l + w) The perimeter of a rectangle is the sum of twice its length and twice its width.
d = rt The distance traveled by a moving body is the product of rate and time.
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Hope this useful tips will help you a lot in solving word problems!
Examples - Translating Verbal Phrases into Math Language and Vice-Versa
The following examples will serve as your guide, analyze it well.
Part 1. Translate the following phrases into mathematical expressions or equations
1. Six less than twice a number is forty five. 2x - 6 = 45

2. A number minus seven yields ten x – 7 = 10
3. A total of six and some number 6+x
4. Twelve added to a number x + 12
5. Eight times a number is forty-eight 8x = 48
6. The product of fourteen and a number 14x
7. Twice a number minus eight 2x – 8
8. The quotient of a number and seven is two x/7 = 2
9. Three-fourths of a number ¾x
10. The product of a number and ten is eighty 10x = 80
11. Eight less than a number is five x–8=5
12. How many times does five go into twenty? 20/5 = x
13. Three times the sum of a number and 5 3(n + 5)
14. Eight less than four times a number 4x - 8
15. Four less than the difference of a number squared and six (x2 - 6) - 4
16. The product of 4 and the square of a number decreased by 6 4x2 - 6
17. Ten less than a number cubed x3 - 10
18. The sum of three times a number and 5 3x + 5
19. Three times the difference of a number cubed and 10 3x3 - 10
20. The difference of 5 and half of a number. 5 - n/2
Part 2. Translate the mathematical expression into English statement:
1. x + 12 = 8 Twelve added to a number is the same as eight

2. 3x = 15 Three times a number equals fifteen
3. x/15 The ratio (or quotient) of a number to fifteen
4. 10/x Ten divided by a number or the quotient of 10 and a number
5. x – 6 Six subtracted from a number or six less than a number
6. 5(x + 4) Five times the sum of a number and four
7. 2(x-3)=12 Twice the difference of a number and three totals twelve
8. 7/x The quotient of a seven and a number
9. (6 –x)/9 The difference between six and a number divided by nine
10. 4(12+y) Four times the sum of twelve and y
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Now let’s try it :)
Please comment your answer :)
1. Translate into verbal phrases.

1) 3x - 4
2) n + 8
3) 2 / x + y
4) 5y - 2
5) 2x + 3
2. Translate in algebraic symbols.
6) eight times a number x increased by three.
7) five times a number n added to six.
8) fifteen added to the quotient of a number y and two.
9) twenty-four multiplied by the sum of x and y.
10) the sum of the number n and seven multiplied by two.
Feel free to answer :) God bless :)
Translating Algebraic Expressions

You've learned how to work with variables and how to evaluate algebra expressions, now we are going to translate
words into algebraic expressions.
This skill will come in handy when working with word problems or real life situations. Pay close attention to the
"key words" that represent mathematical operations.
You are probably very used to translating words into numerical expressions. Think about this...
We are used to seeing the words, plus, sum, difference, minus, product ...
The good news is that these very same words that we use to write numerical expressions are going to be used to
write algebra expressions.
The difference between a numerical expression and an algebra expression is that we will be using variables when
writing an algebraic expression. Instead of "8 plus 9" (with two given numbers), you would see, "a number plus 9".
We don't know exactly "what number", so we would use a variable to indicate that it can be any number.
Key words for each operation are indicated in bold. This will help you to easily translate the expression.
Algebraic Expressions and Key Words for Addition
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As, you can see from the red, bold words, the key words for addition are: sum, more than, plus, increase, add,
older than.
Please also remember that addition is commutative; therefore, you can reverse the digits and you will end up with
the same answer.
Now, let's take a look at the key words for subtraction.
Algebraic Expressions and Key Words for Subtraction
Our key words for subtraction are: minus, less, subtract, decrease, younger than, and lowered. Remember that
subtraction is not commutative, so the order in which write the digits does matter!
Now we'll take a look at key words for multiplication word problems.
Algebraic Expressions and Key Words for Multiplication

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The key words for multiplication are: times, product, twice, doubled, multiplied, and of. Of is the tricky word.
This is mostly used when you are multiplying a fraction times a number. For example 1/2 of a number means 1/2
times a number.
Think of "of" meaning to multiply when you are working with fractions.
The last operation that we will study is division. Division is not commutative, so you must pay close attention to the
order in which you write the expression.
Algebraic Expressions and Key Words for Division
Division is much more simple. The key words are: divided by and divided into. Play close attention to the order in
which it is written.
Quotient is also a key word for division. A quotient is the answer to a division problem.
As you begin to work with algebraic expressions more, you will see word problems that require you to use more
than one operation.
Take a look at these few examples:
Expressions with More Than One Operation
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Many people struggle with translating word problems into algebraic expressions. This is a very brief lesson on
simple algebraic expressions.
We will study this in more depth as we get into writing and solving algebraic word problems.
One of the most important things to remember is to look for key words and to make sure that your expression
matches the context of the word problem.
This is most important for operations that are not commutative, such as subtraction and division.
Learning Materials:
ONLINE CLASS LECTURE / ONLINE FORUM (Schedule)
SELF PACED LEARNING
Videos:
For OFFLINE: Refer to attachment/video/Module1
Mathematical Language & Symbols

 Watch Video: Intro - Mathematical Language & Symbols (Part1)
https://bit.ly/2NWaLTy
 Watch Video: Intro - Mathematical Language & Symbols (Part2)
https://bit.ly/2ZykRPW
 Watch Video: Intro - Mathematical Language & Symbols
https://bit.ly/2YRdNi3
 Watch Video: Mathematical Symbols & Signs
https://bit.ly/2BVA45i
 Watch Video: Illustration1: Translating words into symbols
https://bit.ly/2YOvDlQ
 Watch Video: Illustration2: Translating words into symbols
https://bit.ly/2BkBA13
 Watch Video: Illustration3: Translating words into algebraic expressions
https://bit.ly/3ioFIgY
 Watch Video: Illustration4: Translating word problems
https://bit.ly/2Bt3iZi
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Readings:
Read: Translating Key Words and Phrases into Algebraic Expressions
https://bit.ly/3evJORk
Read: Writing Expressions and Equations

https://bit.ly/3j2pvyw
Read: Useful Tips to translate the Statements into Algebraic Symbol and vice versa
https://bit.ly/3esjdEX
Read: Guide - Writing Equations for Word Problems

https://bit.ly/3fsBlQh
Read: Guide – How to Work Word Problems in Algebra

https://bit.ly/32hk6NR
Activities:
No. 3: Translation from English statement to Mathematical symbols & vice-versa

https://bit.ly/2DwKSHN
No. 4: Translation from English statement to Mathematical symbols & vice-versa

https://bit.ly/3eMjfHP
No: 5: Translate each sentence using mathematical symbols & vice-versa

https://bit.ly/2OGVpCu
Topic 2.2 Four basic concepts: Sets, functions, relations, binary operations
LECTURE NOTES
2.2.1. SETS
A set is the representation of a collection of objects; distinct objects with one or more common properties.
Grouping up the objects in a set is an act of distinguishing those objects from the members of another set. We can
use the terms – elements or members of a set instead of the term objects.
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In mathematics, any group or collection of objects is called a set. A simple application of sets occurs when you
use a search engine (such as Google or Bing) to find a topic on the Internet. You enter a few words describing
what you are searching for and click the Search button. The search engine then creates a list (set) of websites
that contain a match for the words you submitted.
For instance, suppose you wish to make a cake. You search the Internet for a cake recipe and you obtain a set
containing over 30 million matches. This is a very large number, so you narrow your search. One method of
narrowing your search is to use the AND option found in the Advanced Search link of some search engines.
An AND search is an all-words search. That is, an AND search finds only those sites that contain all of the
words submitted. An AND search for “flour less chocolate cake recipe” produces a set containing 210,400
matches. This is a more reasonable number, but it is still quite large.
You narrow the search even further by using an AND search for “foolproof flour-less chocolate cake recipe,”
which returns a few hundred matches. One of these sites provides you with a recipe that provides clear
directions and has several good reviews.
Sometimes it is helpful to perform a search using the OR option. An OR search is an any-words search. That
is, an OR search finds all those sites that contain any of the words you submitted.
Basic Properties of Sets
Sets
In an attempt to better understand the universe, ancient astronomers classified certain groups of stars as
constellations. Today we still find it extremely helpful to classify items into groups that enable us to find order
and meaning in our complicated world.
Any group or collection of objects is called a set. The objects that belong in a set are the elements, or
members, of the set. For example, the set consisting of the four seasons has spring, summer, fall, and winter as
its elements.
The following two methods are often used to designate a set.
■ Describe the set using words.
■ List the elements of the set inside a pair of braces, { }. This method is called the roster method.
Commas are used to separate the elements.
For instance, let’s use S to represent the set consisting of the four seasons. Using the roster method, we would
write
S = {spring, summer, fall, winter}
The order in which the elements of a set are listed is not important. Thus the set consisting of the four seasons
can also be written as
S = {winter, spring, fall, summer}
The following table gives two examples of sets, where each set is designated by a
word description and also by using the roster method.

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TABLE 2.2 Define Sets by Using a Word Description and the Roster Method
Description Roster method

The set of denominations of Philippines paper currency in Php20, Php50, P100, Php200, Php500, Php1000
production at this time
The set of states in the United States {California, Oregon, Washington, Alaska, Hawaii}
that border the Pacific Ocean
How to denote Sets?
If ‘A’ is a set and ‘a’ one of its elements then: ‘a ∈ A’ denotes that element ‘a’ belongs to ‘A’ whereas, ‘a ∉ A’
denotes that ‘a’ is not an element of A. Alternatively, we can say that ‘A’ contains ‘a’. A set is usually represented
by capital letters and an element of the set by the small letter.
Representation of Sets
There are mainly 3 ways to represent a set:
1. Statement form.
2. Roaster form (tabular method).
3. Set Builder form.
Statement Form or Word Description
Use a Word Description to Represent a Set
1) V = The set of all vowels in English.

2) Write a word description for the set
A = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, i, j, k, l, m, n, o, p, q, r, s, t, u, v, w, x, y, z}
Solution: Set A is the set of letters of the English alphabet.
Write a word description for the set {March, May}.
Roaster Form
In this form all the members of the given set are enlisted within a pair of braces { }, separated by commas.
Use The Roster Method to Represent a Set
1) The set of all even whole numbers between 1 to 10.

E = {2, 4, 6, 8}
2) The set of the days in a week.
D = {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday}
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Use the roster method to represent the set of months that start with
the letter A.
The following sets of numbers are used extensively in many areas of mathematics.
The set of natural numbers is also called the set of counting numbers. The three dots ... are called
an ellipsis and indicate that the elements of the set continue in a manner suggested by the elements that
are listed.
The integers ... , 4, 3, 2, 1 are negative integers. The integers 1, 2, 3, 4, ... are positive integers.
Note that the natural numbers and the positive integers are the same set of numbers. The integer zero is
neither a positive nor a negative integer.
If a number in decimal form terminates or repeats a block of digits, then the number is a rational
number. Rational numbers can also be written in the form p/q, where p and q are integers and q ≠ 0. For
example,
1 3
4 = 0.25 11 = 0.27
are rational numbers. The bar over the 27 means that the block of digits 27 repeats without end; that is,
0.27 = 0.27272727....
A decimal that neither terminates nor repeats is an irrational number. For instance,
0.35335333533335. . . is a nonterminating, nonrepeating decimal and thus is an irrational number.
Every real number is either a rational number or an irrational number.
Use The Roster Method to Represent a Set of Numbers
Use the roster method to write each of the given sets.
a. The set of natural numbers less than 5
b. The solution set of x + 5 = -1
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c. The set of negative integers greater than -4
Solution
a. The set of natural numbers is given by 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ... The natural numbers less than 5 are 1, 2, 3, and 4.
Using the roster method, we write this set as {1, 2, 3, 4}
b. Adding 5 to each side of the equation produces x = 6. The solution set of x + 5 = -1 is {6}
c. The set of negative integers greater than -4 is {-3, -2, -1}
Use the roster method to write each of the given sets.
a. The set of whole numbers less than 4
b. The set of counting numbers larger than 11 and less than or equal to 19
c. The set of negative integers between 5 and 7
Set Builder Form
Here, a property is stated that must be common to all the elements of that particular set.
 N = { x : x is positive integers between 10 to 20 }

We read the set builder form as ” N is the set of all x such that x is a positive integer between 10 to 20″. Braces{}
denote the set while ‘:’ denotes ‘such that’.
Types of Sets
Knowing the type of a set helps in verifying the appropriate set operations applicable to that particular set.
Empty Set
A set with no elements. Empty sets are also called null sets or void sets and are denoted by { } or Φ.
 Ex. {x: x is an integer which is a perfect cube and lies between 2 and 7}.
Equal Sets
Sets with equal elements.
 Example: A = {5, 6, 7} and B = {5, 6, 5, 7, 7}.
 Here, the elements of A and B are equal to each other (5, 6, 7) i. e., A = B
In case of repetition as in B we write B = {5, 6, 7} by ignoring the repetition.
Equivalent Sets
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Sets with the equal number of members.
 Ex. A = {3, 6, 8} and B = {p, q, r}.

 Both A and B having three elements are equivalent sets.
Two equal sets are equivalent too but the vice-versa doesn’t always hold true.
Finite and Infinite Sets
Based on the number of elements (finite or infinite) present in the set, the set is either finite or infinite. In case of
infinite the set, it is given as:
 N = Numbers divisible by 4 = {4, 8, 12, 16…..}
Singleton Set
A set with a single element. For example, {9}.
Subsets and Super-sets
A set qualifies as the subset of another set if all of its elements are also the elements of that another set. A
collection of all the subsets of a given set is a power set. Example, for R = {5, 8} , P(R) = {{5, 8}, {5}, {8}, {}}
will be the power set. Now, we can infer that a set with n no. of elements has 2n no. of subsets or 2n no.of
elements in its power set.
A super-set can be thought of as the parent set that at least contains all the elements of the subset and may or may
not contain some extra elements.
 C = The set of all colors and P = The set of all primary colors then, P ⊂ C; read as P is a “subset of” C
or P is “contained in” C. Or we have:
 C ⊃ P which means C is a “superset of” P or C “contains” P.
Subsets of a Set of Complex Numbers, Source: Wikipedia.
For the figure given above if we consider
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 N = the set of natural numbers
 W = the set of whole numbers.
 I = the set of Integers.
 Rt = the set of rational numbers.
 Re = the set of real numbers.
 C = the set of complex numbers.

We can say that N ⊂ W ⊂ I ⊂ Rt ⊂ Re ⊂ C. Also, going in the reverse order we have C ⊃ Re ⊃ Rt ⊃ I ⊃ W ⊃
N. Here we can call the set of complex numbers as a universal set for real, rational, integers, whole and natural
numbers.
Note: refer to MATH EXCURSION book for more details
Learning Materials:
SELF PACED LEARNING
Videos:
Sets
 Watch Video: Intro - Introduction to Sets - Roster Form & Set Builder Form
https://bit.ly/2ZLWdfH
Set Builder Notation & Roster Method

 Watch Video: Examples: Set Builder Notation & Roster Method
https://bit.ly/3fP0xjU
Introduction to Sets Concept and Venn Diagram

Watch Video:
https://bit.ly/32Mapaz
Types of Sets
Watch Video:
https://bit.ly/2OL2aDp
Reading
Read: SETS
Chapter 2, pp. 51-70
Mathematical Excursions by Richard Aufmann, et.al., 3rd edition
25
https://bit.ly/3eNTbMj
Activities:
No. 6: Sets
https://bit.ly/3jmCOKa
LECTURE NOTES
2.2.2. RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
Relations and functions are the set operations that help to trace the relationship between the elements of two or
more distinct sets or between the elements of the same set. But, before we move on to further explore the topic it is
important to get the idea about the Cartesian product and Venn diagrams.
Cartesian Product
If p ∈ P and q ∈ Q then the set of all ordered pair i. e., (p,q) is called the Cartesian product of P×Q. This means
every first element of the ordered pair belongs to the set P and every second element belongs to the set Q.
o P and Q must be non-empty sets.

o P × Q is null if either P or Q is a null set.
Example: X = {1, 3} and Y = {4, 7} then, X × Y = {(1, 4), (1, 7), (3, 4), (3, 7)}.
For above example, the number elements in X, n(X) = 2 (this no. is called the cardinal number) and number
elements in Y, n(Y) = 2 consequently, number of ordered pairs in the Cartesian product n(X × Y) = 4. The same
rule holds for any Cartesian product.
Venn-Diagrams
Euler – Venn Diagrams make it easy to operate on sets.
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Two intersecting Sets
In the above example we consider:
 The quadrilateral is a finite universal set which represents a set of ideas.
 Among those ideas we have two subsets which are finite as well:
 Set of Ideas that are the truth, let’s denote them as T and
 Set of Ideas that are the beliefs, let’s denote them as B.
 Their intersection set, knowledge is denoted as K.
o Here, T ∪ B is the union of these two sets which is the set of ideas that are either T or B or both.
o T ∩ B is the intersection of the two sets which is the set of ideas that are both T and B i. e., K as
already mentioned.
o Now, to find no. of elements in T ∪ B we have, n(T ∪ B) = n(T) + n(B) – n(T ∩ B).
RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS
The relation is the subset of the Cartesian product which contains only some of the ordered pair based on the
relationships defined between the first and second elements. The relation is usually denoted by R.
If every element of a set A is related with one and only one element of another set then this kind of relation
qualifies as a function. A function is a special case of relation where no two ordered pairs can have the same first
element.
This notation f:X→Y denotes that f is a function from X to Y. For x∈X there is unique y∈Y
and his y is represented as y = f(x) which means value of f at x which in turn is the value of y at
a specific value of x.
We can represent a function in three ways namely: Algebraic form, Tabular form, and Graphical form.
Domain and Range
o The domain is the set of all first elements of R.
o The range is the set of all second elements of R.

Total no. of relations for n(A×B) are 2n(A)×n(B)
Types of Functions
Based on the kind of element that the sets involved consists of functions can be:
 Identity function: y=f(x)=x; both range and domain of the function is the same.
 Constant function: y=f(x)=Constant; the range of the function is constant

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 Polynomial function: y=f(x)=polynomial for every value of x.
 Rational function: these are y=f(x)=g(x)/h(x) type of function where both g(x) and h(x) are
polynomials and h(x)≠0.
 Modulus function: The range of the function is positive plus the set of 0
 Signum function: Range of f is {-1, 0, 1}
 Greatest Integer function: The function assumes the value of the greatest integer. The range is a pure
integer value.
Based on the kind of relationship that the elements of the two sets have with each other there are mainly four
types of functions:
 One to one function(Injective): For each element in the domain there is one and only one element in
the range.
 Many to one function: When two or more elements from the domain are mapped to the same single
elements in the range.
 Onto function(Surjective): When every element of the range has been mapped to an element in the
domain.
 One-one and onto function(Bijective): A function which is both one to one and onto function.
Solved Examples on Set Operations
Question. {0} is equal to:
a) 0 b) Φ c) both a) and b) d) none.
Ans. d) none; the set {0} has one element 0 and therefore can’t be considered empty and 0 is not a number in {o}
but, it is an element of the singleton set so, {0} ≠ 0.
Question. The given function is:
a) Injective b) Surjective c) Many to one d) Bijective
Ans. a) injective each element in X is mapped to a distinct element in Y.
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Learning Materials:
SELF PACED LEARNING
Videos:
Relations, Functions, and Graphs-A Review
 Watch Video: Relations, Functions, and Graphs-A Review*
https://bit.ly/30BmzAk
Introduction to Functions
Watch Video: Introduction to Functions
https://bit.ly/2WJJbOd
Relations & Functions

Watch Video: Relations & Functions
https://bit.ly/39kjKaX
Relations and Functions and their Graphs

Watch Video: Relations and Functions and their Graphs
https://bit.ly/2CZr6EQ
Explain the Different Types of Functions

Watch Video: Explain the Different Types of Functions
https://bit.ly/2BjDBdG
Graphing Basic Functions

Watch Video: Graphing Basic Functions
https://bit.ly/2WHzJuo
Cartesian Product of Two Sets

Watch Video: Cartesian Product of Two Sets
https://bit.ly/30ztlGW
How to Find Cartesian Products (Examples)

Watch Video: How to Find Cartesian Products (Examples)
https://bit.ly/2CzEu2k
Venn Diagram
Watch Video: Venn Diagram
https://bit.ly/3eWTbtK
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Solving Problems with Venn Diagram
Watch Video: Solving Problems with Venn Diagram
https://bit.ly/2WHxV4U
Readings:
Read: Venn Diagram & Set Operations
Chapter 2 - SETS pp. 71-110
Activities:
No. 7: Relations & Functions

https://bit.ly/32N4XV8
Face to Face Schedule
LECTURE NOTES
2.2.3. BINARY OPERATIONS
Introduction
You first learned of binary operations in elementary (basic) school. The objects you were using were mainly
numbers and the binary operations you investigated were addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
The concept of binary operations in mathematics has been defined by many based on their different
understanding of the concept.
Few are:
 A binary operation is a calculation involving two operands, in other words, an operation whose arity is
two. Examples include the familiar arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division.
 A binary operation is simply a rule for combining two objects of a given type, to obtain another object of
that type.
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Considering all the above definitions, I can confidently summarize the idea of a binary operation as; “a way to
produce an element of a set from a given pair of elements of the same set according to a rule of operation”.
By way of summary, binary operation is:
Any operation or sign that combines any two elements of a given set
according to some clearly defined rule.
In studying binary operations on sets, we tend to be interested in those operations that have certain
properties and we will discuss this further.
Let us begin by taking a closer look at the properties of binary operations.
These properties form the basis for a better understanding of the concept of binary operations.
Remember that, the properties of binary operation are in application in many sectors or industries of our
economy including the stock market, transportation, IT, energy, medicine, printing, etc.
PROPERTIES
1. Closure Property
a) Suppose the binary operation of addition “+” is defined on a set of real numbers. We notice that
whenever two real numbers are added, we still obtain a real number. Under those circumstances, we
say that the operation of addition “+” is closed on the set of real numbers.
b) Suppose we define the binary operation of addition “+” on the set A = {2, 3,5,7}, we notice that 3+7=10,
but 10 ∉A so “+” is not closed on the set A.
In general, the binary operation defined on a set S is closed on S if and only if
This resembles the idea of a nuclear family where there is no “step” son or daughter by either the father or
mother. Rather, all children in the nuclear family come from the same source [same father, same mother]. In that
sense, the set of nuclear family is closed. No intruders or strangers.!!
Examples
1. The binary operation * is defined on the set S = (1,2,3,4,5} by a * b = a + 3b, for all a, b ∈S. Is the
operation * closed on S?
Answer
From the equation a * b = a + 3b + ab,
3 * 4 = 3 + 3(4) + 3(4)
= 3 + 12 + 12
= 27 but 27 ∉S, therefore the operation * is not closed
2. The binary operationꙨ is defined on the set by the table below.
Is the operation Ꙩ closed on the set B?

Answer
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From the table, we notice that m ∉B, so the operationꙨ is not closed on the set B.
3. The operation * is defined on the set S = (1,3,5} by the table below.
Is the operation * closed on S?

Answer
Since all the answers in the table (numbers in the shaded region) are members of set S, the operation is closed on
the set S.
2. Commutative Property
The binary operation* defined on the set S is said to be commutative if and only if
This property is properly one of the oldest and most frequently used properties that we as students of
mathematics have been using since our elementary days. Changing of positions and still getting the same answer.
Remember? 2 x 3 = 6 ≡ 3 x 2 = 6
Therefore, the commutative property is a very simple one that does not need much explanation.
Examples
1. The binary operation ⊡is defined on the set R of real numbers by
a ⊡b = a2 + b + ab, where a, b ∈ R
a) Evaluate (i). 3 ⊡2 (ii). 2 ⊡3 (iii). what conclusion can you draw from the results in (i) and (ii)
b) Find the truth set of 2x ⊡5 = 1 ⊡3, correct to two decimal places.
Answer
a) (i). 3 ⊡2 = 32 + 2 + 3(2) = 9 + 2 + 6 = 17
(ii). 2 ⊡3 = 22 + 3 + 2(3) = 4 + 3 + 6 = 13
(iii). From the result of (i) and (ii), 3 ⊡2 ≠ 2 ⊡3. Hence, the operation ⊡is not commutative
b) 2x ⊡5 = 1 ⊡3
⇨(2x) + 5 + (2x)(5) = (1)
2 2
+ 3 + 1(3)
2
4x + 5 + 10x = 1 + 3 +3
4x2 + 10x - 2 = 0
2x2 + 5x - 1 = 0 (dividing through by 2)
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2. A binary operation ◊ is defined on the set R of real numbers by a ◊ b = a + b - 2ab, a, b Є R
(i) Is the operation ◊ commutative?
(ii) Find the truth set of the equation 3x ◊ 9x = 0
Answer
NOTE: refer to BINARY OPERATIONS NOTES for more details
Learning Materials:
SELF PACED LEARNING
Videos:
Definition of Binary Operations

 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Definition)
https://bit.ly/32GjmSG
Binary Operations (Closure Property)

 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Closure Property)
https://bit.ly/2WJITqs
Binary Operations (Commutative Property)

 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Commutative Property)
https://bit.ly/2DYCqRR
Binary Operations (Associative Property)
33
 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Associative Property)
https://bit.ly/2ZPHosQ
Binary Operations (Identity Element)

 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Identity Element)
https://bit.ly/30yyWxb
Binary Operations (Inverse Property)

 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Inverse Property)
https://bit.ly/39fsqiS
Binary Operations (Distributive Property)

 Watch Video: Binary Operations (Distributive Property)
https://bit.ly/2CAGesh
Readings:
Read: Binary Operations - Notes

https://bit.ly/3fdyB8q
Activities:
No. 8: Binary Operations

https://bit.ly/2CwuGGF
PRELIM EXAM Part 1 (Face to Face Schedule)

https://bit.ly/30PZIRN
Course Requirement: Synthesis Paper

Due date: October 12, 2020
https://bit.ly/336lkMC
PDF format not exceeding100MB
Mathematical Language and Symbols
34
LECTURE NOTES
2.2.4 LOGIC
The rules of logic give precise meaning to mathematical statements. These rules are used to
distinguish between valid and invalid mathematical arguments. One of the major goal of this topic is to
teach the learners how to understand and how to construct correct mathematical arguments. This includes
elementary logic connectives, quantifiers, negation, variables and formality
Learning Materials:
SELF PACED LEARNING
LOGIC
In today’s complex world, it is not easy to summarize in a few paragraphs the subject matter known
as logic. For lawyers and judges, logic is the science of correct reasoning. They often use logic to
communicate more effectively, construct valid arguments, analyze legal contracts, and make
decisions. Law schools consider a knowledge of logic to be one of the most important predictors of
future success for their new students. A sizeable portion of the LSAT (Law School Admission Test),
which is required by law school applicants as part of their admission process, concerns logical
reasoning.
Many other professions also make extensive use of logic. For instance, programmers use logic to
design computer software, electrical engineers use logic to design circuits for smart phones, and
mathematicians use logic to solve problems and construct mathematical proofs.
In this TOPIC, you will encounter several facets of logic. Specifically, you will use logic to;
■ analyze information and the relationship between statements,
■ determine the validity of arguments,
■ determine valid conclusions based on given assumptions, and
LOGIC STATEMENTS & QUANTIFIER
One of the first mathematicians to make a serious study of symbolic logic was Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz (1646–1716). Leibniz tried to advance the study of logic from a merely philosophical subject to a
formal mathematical subject. Leibniz never completely achieved this goal; however, several
35
mathematicians, such as Augustus De Morgan (1806–1871) and George Boole (1815–1864), contributed
to the advancement of symbolic logic as a mathematical discipline.
Logic Statements
Every language contains different types of sentences, such as statements, questions, and commands.
For instance,
“Is the test today?” is a question.

“Go get the newspaper” is a command.
“This is a nice car” is an opinion.
“Manila is the capital of Philippines” is a statement of fact.
The symbolic logic that Boole was instrumental in creating applies only to sentences
that are statements as defined below.
It may not be necessary to determine whether a sentence is true to determine whether

it is a statement. For instance, consider the following sentence.
Hidilyn Diaz won an Olympic gold medal in weightlifting.
You may not know if the sentence is true, but you do know that the sentence is either true or it is false, and
that it is not both true and false. Thus, you know that the sentence is a statement.
Identify Statements
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. Ilocos Sur is a province in the Philippines.
b. How are you?
c. 90 + 7 is a prime number.
d. x + 5 = 12
Solution
a. Ilocos Sur is one of the 81 provinces in the Philippines, so this sentence is true and
it is a statement.
b. The sentence “How are you?” is a question; it is not a declarative sentence. Thus it is not
a statement.
c. You may not know whether 90 + 7 is a prime number; however, you do know that
it is a whole number larger than 1, so it is either a prime number or it is not a prime
number. The sentence is either true or it is false, and it is not both true and false, so it is a
statement.
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d. x + 5 = 12 is a statement. It is known as an open statement. It is true for x = 7, and
it is false for any other values of x. For any given value of x, it is true or false but not both.
Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. Close the door.
b. 70555 is a large number.
c. In the year 2020, the president of the United States will be a woman.
d. X > 3.
Connecting simple statements with words and phrases such as and, or, if ... then, and if and only if
creates a compound statement. For instance, “I will attend the meeting or I will go to school.” is a
compound statement. It is composed of the two simple statements, “I will attend the meeting.” and “I
will go to school.” The word or is a connective for the two simple statements.
George Boole used symbols such as p, q, r, and s to represent simple statements and
the symbols , , , l, and i to represent connectives. See Table 2.1.
Table 2.1 Logic Connectives and Symbols
What connective is used in conjunction?
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The negation of the statement “Today is Friday.” is the statement “Today
is not Friday.” In symbolic logic, the tilde symbol ~ is used to denote the
negation of a statement. If a statement p is true, its negation ~p is false,
and if a statement p is false, its negation ~p is true.
See the table at the left. The negation of the negation of a statement is the
original statement. Thus ~(~p) can be replaced by p in any statement.
Write the Negation of a Statement
Note: refer to Math Excursion book for more details
Videos:
Intro on Propositional Logic (Presentation – Part1)

 Watch Video: Intro on Propositional Logic
https://bit.ly/39DYRHM
Introduction to Propositional (Logic Part2)

 Watch Video: Introduction to Propositional Logic
https://bit.ly/38M55oB
Logic Laws
 Watch Video: Logic Laws
https://bit.ly/38Sn6BJ
Truth Tables
 Watch Video: Truth Tables
https://bit.ly/3gIAR8E
Proofs with Truth Tables

 Watch Video: Proofs with Truth Tables
https://bit.ly/2AWgMwu
38
Translation: compound statements to symbolic form (sample)
 Watch Video: Translation: compound statements to symbolic form
https://bit.ly/38SppVp
Construction: a truth table from compound statements (sample)
 Watch Video: Construction: a truth table from compound statement
https://bit.ly/2C30138
Readings:
Read: Propositional Logic
Discrete Math Book pp.16-76
https://bit.ly/2WaJKQy
Read: Logic
https://bit.ly/3iYJAG
Read: Important Terms in Logic
https://bit.ly/3ecRHuU
Read: Truth Tables
https://bit.ly/3gN4S7n
Read: Logic and Truth Tables
https://bit.ly/3iOvcQq
Read: Logic
Chapter 3; pp. 111-170
Activities:
No. 9: LOGIC (Part1)

https://bit.ly/2CuWTgZ
No. 10: LOGIC (Part2)

https://bit.ly/30KjY7w
PRELIM EXAM Part 2 (Face to Face Schedule)

https://bit.ly/3hCcVEw
39
Module 2: Midterm
SECTION 2: Mathematics as a Tool
LECTURE NOTES
III. Data Management
Statistical tools derived from mathematics are useful in processing and managing numerical data in
order to describe a phenomenon and predict values. It comprises the following:
 Data Gathering and Organizing Data; Representing Data using graphs and charts;
Interpreting organized data
 Measures of Central Tendency: Mean, Median, Mode, Weighted Mean
 Measures of Dispersion: Range, Standard Deviation and Variance
 Measures of Relative Position: z-scores; Percentiles, Quartiles and Box-and-Whiskers
Plots
 Probabilities and Normal Distributions
 Linear Regression and Correlation: Least-Squares Line, Linear Correlation Coefficient
Learning Materials:
SELF PACED LEARNING
What is Statistics and who should care?
Nowadays, people are curious about many things, chances are that you are interested with the
role of Statistics that made it useful by understanding of structures in data. Information developed
through the use of statistics has improved our understanding of how life works, helped us learn each
other, allowed control over some societal issues, and helped individuals make informed decisions. There
is almost no area of knowledge that has not been advanced by statistical studies.
Statistics defined in its plural sense is a set of numerical data, while in its singular sense refers to
the scientific discipline consisting of theory and methods in processing numerical information that one
can use when making decisions in the face of uncertainty. Thus,
Some Applications of Statistics
40
 Determining the level of patient’s satisfaction on the nursing care administered by
student nurses at Common View University.
 Determining the distribution of the number of text messages sent per day of
Mathematics in the Modern World (MMW) students.
 Relationship of faculty status and work commitment.
 Prediction of the number of MMW students for the next school year 2019-2020.
Major Categories of Statistics
i. Descriptive Statistics – methods concerned with collecting, describing, and analyzing a

set of data without drawing conclusions (or inferences) beyond the data.
ii. Inferential Satistics – methods concerned with the analysis of a subset of data leading
to predictions or inferences about the entire set of data, that is, to generalize results
beyond the data collected provided that the data collected is a part (sample) of a large
set of items (population).
Examples of Descriptive Statistics
 Total number of Statistics students weighing at least 50 kilograms.
 The University registrar cited statistics showing an increase number of students during
the past five years.
Example of Inferential Statistics
 A new teaching strategy was designed to improve the academic performance of college
students was tested on randomly selected college students. Based on the results, it was
concluded that the new teaching strategy is effective in improving the academic
performance of college students.
Key Terms
Universe – is the set of all entities under study, that is, the collection of things or observational
units under study.
Variable – is a characteristic observed or measured on every unit of the universe.
Population - is the set of all possible values of the variable.
41
Sample – is a subset of the population.
Parameters – are numerical measures that describe the population or universe of interest.
Statistics – are numerical measures of a sample.
Frame – a listing of all the elements in a population.
Census – the process in which information is gathered for all units in the population.
Sample survey or sampling – the process in which information obtained is only a part of the
population.
“A statistic is to a parameter as a sample is to a population”.
Types of Variables and Data
The building blocks of statistical science are data. Specific characteristics (e.g., age, height, and
weight) that we want to assess for a certain population are referred to as variables. Variables may
be categorized further as qualitative and quantitative variables.
Qualitative variables – variables that yield observations by which individuals can be categorized
according to some characteristic or quality.
- e.g., gender, marital status and blood type.
- Are expressed in categories.
Quantitative variables – variables that yield observations that can be measured.
- e.g., weight, height, systolic blood pressure and body mass index.
- Numerical measure exists.
Constant – variable that only assume one value.
Data collected on particular variables are classified as either qualitative or quantitative.

Qualitative data if no numerical measure exists (e.g., gender, marital status and blood type), data
obtained on particular variables are usually expressed in categories. Quantitative data are expressed
in numbers (e.g., weight, height, systolic blood pressure and body mass index); data collected on
particular variables are measured and counted.
42
Quantitative data is either classified as discrete or continuous data.
 Discrete data – data that can be counted, e.g., number of patients in a hospital,
number of students who obtained 1.0 grade in MMW. These data assume only a
countable number of values.
 Continuous data – data that can be measured, e.g., systolic blood pressure, weight
and height. These data result from infinitely many possible values that can be
associated with points on a continuous scale in such a way that there are no gaps or
interruptions.
Note: Arithmetical operations for quantitative data have some physical interpretation. Some
variables may take numerical values, but it does not make the variable quantitative, e.g.,
sum of two zip codes or the difference of your cellular telephone number to your seatmate.
Thus, the arithmetic operations of the above example do not make sense. The issue is
whether performing arithmetical operations on these data would make any sense. The
figure below illustrates the classification of data collected on particular variables.
Figure 1.1.1 Classification of Data on Particular Variables
Levels of Measurement or Measurement Scales
Since measurement is the assignment of numbers to objects or events according to a

predetermined set of rules, e.g., it is desired to measure a person’s n weight in kilograms, we may
assign the number 50 to a person and say that a person’s weight is 50 kilograms. Determining the
level of measurement of gathered data is important because it helps determine which statistical
inference test that will be used to analyze the data. There are four types of measurement scales:
43
nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. They differ in the property of numbers (identity, order,
additivity) that they possess.
- Identity – is the property that enables a person to distinguish one number from the other.
They are recognized by the shapes of the way they are written.
- Order – is the property that numbers are arranged in a sequence. For any integer number
A, B, we can determine whether A  B, A  B, and B  A.
- Addititvity – is the property that allows to add numbers. For any real number A, B, C , and
D, because of the equality of scale, we can determine if A  B  C  D, A  B  C  D
or A  B  C  D.
- Absolute zero property means nothing of the characteristic being measured.
 Nominal scale – the lowest level of measurement and is most often used with
variables that are qualitative in nature, rather than quantitative.
- Examples: gender, eye color, smoking status and nationality.
- it possess only the property of identity. Thus, numbers are only used to classify. For
example in the variable gender, if 1 is assign to male and 2 is for female, it does not
mean that female is better than male.
 Ordinal scale – possesses the property of identity and order.
- can rank-order the objects to whether they possess more, less or the same amount
of the variables being measured. Thus can determine whether A  B, A  B, or
A  B.
- cannot determine how much greater or less A is than B in the attribute being
measured.
- Examples: level of educational attainment, military ranks.
 Interval scale – possesses the properties of identity, order and additivity but do not have the
absolute zero property.
- Examples: Celsius scale measurement of temperature and intelligence score.
 Ratio scale – possesses the properties of identity, order, equality of scale and absolute
44
zero.
- Examples: weight and height.
Index, Subscript, Notation
In statistics, we usually deal with group of data that result from measuring one or more variables.
The data are often derived from samples and occasionally from population, but in either case it is
useful to let symbols stand for the variables measured in the study. Usually most statistics books
used the Roman letter X and sometimes Y , to stand for the variable(s) measured.
The number of observations is also represented stands for any of the numbers 1, 2, 3,…, n is
called a subscript, or index. Any letter other than i, such as j , k , v, q or r , could have been used as
well.
 The Summation symbol    - it is a more compact way of writing the sum of a set of data
values.
n
x
i 1
i
- is defined as
n
x
i 1
i
x1  x 2  ...  x n
=
Example 1. Consider the age of a sample of six children as shown in the table below
Table 1.1.1: Ages of Six Children
Child Number Age symbol Age (year)

1 x1 8
2 x2 10
3 x3 7
4 x4 6
5 x5 10
6 x6 12
45
Find the following: a. Find the sum of their ages in compact form.
2
 4  4 2
  xi   xi
b.  i 1  c. i 1 .
Rules of Summation
n n n n
 ( xi  yi  zi )   xi   yi   zi
i 1 i 1 i 1 i 1
1.
n n
 cxi  c xi
2. i 1 i 1 , where c is a constant.
n
 c  nc
i 1
3. , where c is a constant.
y 3  5, y 4  4, y 5  7 and y 6  6. Let the xi ' s be as defined in

Example 2. Let y1  1, y 2  1,
Example 1. Find the following:
6
x y
i 1
i i
a.
6
 (x
2 2
i  yi )
b. i 1
4 2
 ( xi  y i ) .
i 1
c.
 The Factorial Symbol  ! - is a compact way of writing the product of a sequence of positive
integers. The symbol n! is defined as
n! 1  2  3  ...  n.
- n! is the product of all positive integers less than or equal to n.
- 0! 1.
Example 3. Solve for n !.
a) n = 5 b) n = 7 c) n = 8 d) n = 10
NOTE: refer to Notes.Statistics doc for more details
46
Videos:
Recall: What is Statistics

 Watch Video: What is Statistics:
https://bit.ly/2C8Fj21
Mode, Median, Mean, Range and Standard Deviation

 Watch Video: Mode, Median, Mean, Range and Standard Deviation
https://bit.ly/3ezoPNL
Normal Distribution & Z-Scores

 Watch Video: Normal Distribution & Z-Scores
https://bit.ly/2ZqQXhD
Variance & Standard Deviation Sample

 Watch Video: Variance & Standard Deviation Sample
https://bit.ly/30cv1pu
Note: subject for updating
Readings
Read: Notes on Statistics

https://bit.ly/3ejVgQ5
Read: Intro to Stat and Frequency Distribution

https://bit.ly/3gU2pYZ
Read: Measures of Central Tendency

https://bit.ly/39vvJ5y
Read: Lect_on_Descriptive_stat.docx
https://bit.ly/3gSWXW7
Read: Lect_on_standard_deviation.docx
https://bit.ly/2WhuoKp
Read: Sample Standard Deviation Worksheet

https://bit.ly/3hD7xRB
Read: Lect_on_Normal_C.docx
https://bit.ly/3j1gNRa
Read: Lect_on_Testing_Hypo.docx
https://bit.ly/3h1yP3B
Read: Statistics
Chapter 13, pp. 803-869
47
Note: subject for updating
Activities:
No. 11: Probability & Statistics

https://bit.ly/32KHHqH
No. 12: Frequency Distribution & Measures of Central Tendency

https://bit.ly/3eVfT5j
No. 13: Normal Distribution

https://bit.ly/30B75fW
No. 14: Range, Standard Deviation & Variance

https://bit.ly/3hvGck2
Note: The activities shall be subject for updating
MIDTERM EXAM (Face to Face Schedule)

https://bit.ly/39wRemt
Course Requirement: Integrating Project (by group) – POSTER

Due date: November 12, 2020
https://bit.ly/2CYX2t1
PDF, Video (mp4), Slide Deck and Audio (mp3) files not exceeding100MB each file.
Module 3: Finals
SECTION 2: Mathematics as a Tool
IV. Apportionment & Voting
Mathematics can promote democracy through impartial voting methods and numerical
measures of fairness. This will includes the following topics:
 Introduction to apportionment
 Introduction to voting
 Weighted Voting Systems
Learning Materials:
48
SELF PACED LEARNING
LECTURE NOTES
Apportionment
Apportionment involves dividing something up, just like fair division. In fair division
we are dividing objects among people while in apportionment we are dividing people
among places. Also like fair division, the apportionment processes that are widely used do not
always give the best answer, and apportionment is still an open field of mathematics.
Apportionment is used every day in American politics. It is used to determine the size of
voting districts and to determine the number of representatives from each state in the U.S.
House of Representatives. Another example of how apportionment can be used is to assign a
group of new fire fighters to the fire stations in town in an equitable way. Overall,
apportionment is used to divide up resources (human or otherwise) in as fair a way as possible.
Basic Concepts of Apportionment and Hamilton’s Method
Apportionment can be thought of as dividing a group of people (or other resources)

and assigning them to different places.
EXAMPLE 1: Why we need apportionment
Lance is moving to a new condominium. On moving day, four of his friends come to help and
stay until the job is done since Lance promised they will split a case of beer afterwards. It sounds like
a fairly simple job to split the case of beer between the five friends until Lance realizes that 24 is not
evenly divisible by five. He could start by giving each of them (including himself) four beers. The
question is how to divide the four remaining beers among the five friends assuming they only get whole
beers. Apportionment methods can help Lance come up with an equitable solution
Basic Concepts of Apportionment
The apportionment methods we have in this topic were all created as a way to divide the seats in
the U.S. House of Representatives among the states based on the size of the population for each state.
The terminology we use in apportionment reflects this history. An important concept is that the number
of seats a state has is proportional to the population of the state. In other words, states with large
populations get lots of seats and states with small populations only get a few seats.
The seats are the people or items that are to be shared equally. The states are the
parties that will receive a proportional share of the seats.
49
The first step in any apportionment problem is to calculate the standard divisor. This is
the ratio of the total population to the number of seats. It tells us how many people are represented
by each seat.
Note: refer to Mathematical Excursions (book) by Richard Aufmann, et.al., 3rd edition, pp.171-190 for more details and
better understanding of the topic
Videos:
Introduction to Apportionment
 Watch Video: This video provides an introduction to apportionment.
https://bit.ly/3fzkhb7
Hamilton Method of Apportionment

Watch Video: This video explains and provides an example of the Hamilton
Method of Apportionment.
https://bit.ly/2CGneIm
Jefferson Method of Apportionment

Watch Video:T his video explains and provides an example of the Jefferson
Method of Apportionment.
https://bit.ly/3evcMRv
Population Paradox of Apportionment

Watch Video: The video explains the new states paradox and provides an
example of the population paradox. Site: http://mathispower4u.com
https://bit.ly/32naBgj
The New States Paradox of Apportionment

example of the population paradox. Site: http://mathispower4u.com
https://bit.ly/32moQBX
The Alabama Paradox of Apportionment

example of the Alabama paradox.
https://bit.ly/3h7UJ5E
Huntington-Hill Apportionment Principle (Method1)

Watch Video: This video explains and provides an example of the Huntington-
Hill method1 of apportionment.
50
https://bit.ly/2Ou5SkH
Huntington-Hill Apportionment Principle (Method2)

Watch Video: This video explains and provides an example of the Huntington-
Hill method2 of apportionment.
https://bit.ly/30kle0C
Webster’s Method of Apportionment

Watch Video: This video explains and provides an example of the Webster’s
method of apportionment.
https://bit.ly/3j4AszH
Readings:
Read: Apportionment & Voting

Chapter 4, pp. 171-190
Read: Voting and Apportionment Presentation

https://bit.ly/2OnQzdo
Read: Notes on Apportionment

https://bit.ly/2OXQgWZ
Read: Lecture on Apportionment

https://bit.ly/2Zr3UI7
Read: Apportionment Notes & WS

https://bit.ly/39zugvc
Activities:
No. 15: Apportionment: Standard Divisor, Hamilton & Jefferson Method of

Apportionment
https://bit.ly/2WOSvQF
No. 16: Relative Unfairness of Apportionment

https://bit.ly/3hrg1v2
No. 17: Apportionment Principle

https://bit.ly/2ZPfRHU
51
No. 18: Standard Divisor, Hamilton & Jefferson Method of Apportionment
https://bit.ly/39lD5bD
No. 19: Paradox

https://bit.ly/3hu8dIV
No. 20: Apportionment Problems

https://bit.ly/32Yrq1i
FINAL EXAM (Face to Face Schedule)

https://bit.ly/3jICztc
Course Requirement: Group project proposal for a quantitative study

Due date: December 12, 2020
https://bit.ly/3jOTKJr
PDF, Video, Document, Slide Deck, Image and Audio files not exceeding 100MB each file.
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56
SYNTHESIS RUBRIC
57
4 Advanced 3 Proficient 2 Basic 1 Below Basic
CONTENT
clearly synthesizes the synthesizes content from several synthesizes some of the demonstrates minimal
content from several sources dealing with a single issue, content from several synthesis of information
sources dealing with a single paraphrasing the ideas and connecting sources dealing with a single
issue, paraphrasing the them to other sources and related issue, but paraphrasing
ideas and connecting them topics to demonstrate comprehension. demonstrates limited
to other sources and related comprehension
topics to demonstrate
comprehension.
demonstrates a thorough demonstrates a comprehensive grasp of demonstrates a limited demonstrates minimal grasp
comprehensive grasp of the the text. grasp of the text of the text
text
accurately and coherently accurately and coherently provides provides few if any textual provides no textual details
provides specific textual general textual details and examples to details and examples to or examples to support the
details and examples to support the thesis and main ideas from support the thesis and main thesis and main ideas
support the thesis and main one or more sources. ideas from at least one
ideas from two or more source
sources.
thoughtfully anticipates and anticipates and addresses the reader’s may address the reader’s does not address the
addresses the reader’s potential misunderstandings, biases, potential reader’s potential
potential and expectations. misunderstandings, biases, misunderstandings, biases,
misunderstandings, biases, and expectations, but in a and expectations.
and expectations. limited manner
STYLE
provides a variety of provides a variety of sentence types provides few, if any, types provides no sentence
sentence types and uses and uses some descriptive language of sentences and uses variety and uses limited
precise, descriptive predictable language. vocabulary.
language.
contains few, if any, errors may contain some errors in the contains few, if any, errors contains serious errors in
in the conventions of the conventions of the English language. in the conventions of the the conventions of the
English language. Errors are Errors do not impede understanding English language. Errors may English language. Errors
first draft in nature. impede understanding. impede understanding
POSTER RUBRIC
CATEGORY 4 3 2 1
Required Elements The poster includes all All required elements All but 1 of the required Several required
required elements as well are included on the elements are included on elements were missing.
as additional information. poster. the poster.
Labels All items of importance on Almost all items of Many items of Labels are too small to
the poster are clearly importance on the importance on the poster view OR no important
labeled with labels that poster are clearly are clearly labeled with items were labeled.
can be read from at least 3 labeled with labels that labels that can be read
feet away. can be read from at from at least 3 feet away.
least 3 feet away.
58
Graphics - All graphics are related to All graphics are related All graphics relate to the Graphics do not relate
Relevance the topic and make it to the topic and most topic. One or two to the topic OR several
easier to understand. All make it easier to borrowed graphics have a borrowed graphics do
borrowed graphics have a understand. Some source citation. not have a source
source citation. borrowed graphics have citation.
a source citation.
Attractiveness The poster is exceptionally The poster is attractive The poster is acceptably The poster is
attractive in terms of in terms of design, attractive though it may distractingly messy or
design, layout, and layout, and neatness. be a bit messy. very poorly designed. It
neatness. is not attractive.
Grammar There are no There are 1-2 There are 3-4 There are more than 4
grammatical/mechanical grammatical/mechanic grammatical/mechanical grammatical/mechanica
mistakes on the poster. al mistakes on the mistakes on the poster. l mistakes on the poster
poster.
PROJECT PROPOSAL RUBRIC

1 2 3 4 5
Attribute Novice Beginner Competent Proficient Expert
Project Idea: -Proposal gives a -Proposal is relatively clear, but -Proposal is well written
Innovation/ general picture of uses some jargon and/or some with all parts clearly
Originality project goals and definition is lacking. explained. Idea originates
objectives, but does -Project contains original, from the student and the
not provide an in- innovative or creative aspects, project is the student’s own
depth description. but the extent to which the design.
- Project not original, project is of the student’s own -Proposal shows creativity
innovative or creative design is unclear. and originality.
aspects, the extent to -Proposal outlines a vague plan -The proposal demonstrates
which the project is for completing the project. a clear plan for completing
of the student’s own -Proposal claims significance to the proposed project.
design is unclear. the field and/or community but -Clear evidence of
-Proposal does not does not explain. significance and
outlines plan for contribution to the field is
completing the provided.
project.
-Proposal does not
have significance to
the field.
Project Idea: Vague relevance to Relevance to course is clear. Relevance to course is clear.
Relevance to the course. Content consistently supports Supporting ideas maintain
Course the relevance. exceptional focus on the
topic.
Presentation Not every member of Each member of the team Each member of the team
Quality/ the team participated participated in the delivery of fully participated in the
Group in the delivery of the the presentation. However, delivery of the presentation
Presentation presentation or the there did not seem to be an and there was an equitable
Skills participation of one equitable division of labor since division of labor. The flow of
or two members was some members had more the presentation made it
minimal. There is a delivery time than others. The clear that team members
clear inequity in the flow from one speaker to the had practiced not only their
59
division of labor. next was relatively smooth delivery but the transitions
There were a few although there were a few from one section to the
rough transition minor transitional issues. next.
areas where the Tone: presenters attempted to Tone: presenters engaged
members seemed engage the audience in their the audience in their
unsure of the next presentation. presentation.
speaker. Knowledgeable: presenters Knowledgeable: presenters
Tone: presenters went beyond what is presented shared personal experiences
were monotic for the on the slides. from the project.
duration of
presentation
- Knowledgeable:
presenters read
directly from slides.
Technical There are some The presentation is mostly The presentation accurately
Content major accurate in its description of describes concepts, skills,
misunderstandings of concepts, skills, and tools. and tools. It is clear that the
the technical content There may be some minor presenters understand the
demonstrated by the misunderstandings. However, content area.
description of the presenters demonstrate a
concepts, skills, and general understanding of these
tools. Presenters may areas.
have some
understanding of the
relevant materials
but it is clear there
are some significant
knowledge
shortcomings.
Global and Design project Design project includes Design project includes
Societal includes content/information that content/information that
Impact content/information shows adequate understanding shows good understanding
that shows little or of impact in a global, of impact in a global,
slight understanding economic, environmental, and economic, environmental,
of the impact in a social context. and social context.
global, economic,
environmental, and
social context.
Time The group needed to The group manages time very The group manages time
Managemen hurry to finish on effectively. However, students very effectively. Students
t time. did not have time for questions work within the parameters
and answers. allocating time for questions
and answers.
Answering Presenters answer Presenters present clear mostly Presenters provide clear and
Questions most questions accurate answers to many of accurate answers to most
vaguely and questions posed by the questions posed by
inconclusively. Even audience. They may attempt to audience. However, they
when they may not answer question before also readily admit when
know an answer they acknowledging they do not they do not have an answer
attempt to provide know the answer to something. to a particular question.
multiple answers in
order to arrive at a
correct one.
60
Overall Irrelevant, Important ideas and Information/ideas are
Quality unnecessary information are identified for presented in a consistently
information detracts. the audience. logical sequence.
Big ideas are not Information/ideas are Transition/connections are
Specifically identified. presented in a logical sequence eloquent. A strong sense of
There are significant with few lapses. Transitions wholeness is conveyed.
lapses in the order of and connections are made. Conclusion leaves the
ideas. Transitions are Closing effectively summarizes audience with a strong
inconsistent and the presentation. sense of closure.
weak or missing.
Closing demonstrates
an attempt to
summarize.
Prepared by:
ENGR. ANGELITA S. AGUILAR, MAED

Instructor
Approved by
FILOMENA G. MONTEALTO, ED.D.

School President
61

EMCOTECH Learners Manual - Mathematics in The Modern World

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Nature of Mathematics

Topic1 Mathematics in our World

Topic 2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

2.1. Language & Symbols………………………………………………………………………………………………….10

2.2 Four Basic Concepts: Sets, Functions, Relations, Binary operations

2.2.2. Relations and Functions…………………………………………………………………..26

2.2.3. Binary Operations…………………………………………………………………………….31

Topic 4 Apportionment & Voting…………………………………………………………………………………….…50

MATH 101 - Mathematics in the Modern World

INSTRUCTIONS FOR THIS COURSE

Video Material Reading Material Activity Lecture

Mathematics is a useful way to think about nature and our world.

 the Fibonacci sequence

SECTION 1. The Nature of Mathematics

Section 1: The Nature of Mathematics

Topic1 Mathematics in Our World

Mathematics is perceived as a study of numbers, symbols, and equations, an art of geometric

3. What is mathematics for?

4. What is mathematics all about?

Mathematics is about numbers, symbols, equations, operations, functions, calculations,

6. Who uses mathematics?

7. Why is mathematics important to know / learn?

1.1 PATTERNS AND NUMBERS IN NATURE AND THE WORLD

The Fibonacci Sequence

FIBONACCI SEQUENCE IN NATURE

ONLINE CLASS LECTURE / ONLINE FORUM (Sked)

SELF PACED LEARNING

 Watch Video: The Nature of Mathematics

Patterns & Regularities

The Fibonacci Numbers:

Read: Nature of Mathematics

Read: Mathematics as a Language

Read: Patterns in Nature

Read: Patterns in Nature

FACE TO FACE / OFFLINE FUROM

No. 1: Reaction paper on the video clip “Nature in Numbers”

Topic2 Mathematical Language and Symbols

2.1. Language & Symbols

Importance of the Language of Mathematics

Language can be a major pedagogical tool

1.1. Comparison between the English Language and Mathematics

1. Characteristics of the Mathematical Language

2. Examples of types of expressions in mathematics (or what commonly refer to as

 BETTERSUITED to current use

Numbers and 4 Operations (do research)

2.1.1. TRANSLATING KEY WORDS AND PHRASES INTO ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

Mathematical translate phrases into each verbal phrases.

Now let’s have algebraic symbols translated into mathematical statement.

2x + y (this can be stated as :)

Examples - Translating Verbal Phrases into Math Language and Vice-Versa

The following examples will serve as your guide, analyze it well.

Part 1. Translate the following phrases into mathematical expressions or equations

1. Six less than twice a number is forty five. 2x - 6 = 45

17. Ten less than a number cubed x3 - 10

18. The sum of three times a number and 5 3x + 5

19. Three times the difference of a number cubed and 10 3x3 - 10

20. The difference of 5 and half of a number. 5 - n/2

Part 2. Translate the mathematical expression into English statement:

1. x + 12 = 8 Twelve added to a number is the same as eight

1. Translate into verbal phrases.

Translating Algebraic Expressions

Algebraic Expressions and Key Words for Addition