Wang 2018

ARTICLE IN PRESS
The Effects of Mulch and Nitrogen

Fertilizer on the Soil Environment
of Crop Plants
Xiukang Wang*,†,1,2, Junliang Fan†,2, Yingying Xing*, Guoce Xu‡,
Haidong Wang†, Jian Deng*, Yanfeng Wang*,1, Fucang Zhang†,1,
Peng Li‡,1, Zhanbin Li‡,1
*College of Life Science, Yan’an University, Yan’an, PR China
†
Key Laboratory of Agricultural Soil and Water Engineering in Arid and Semiarid Areas of the Ministry of
Education, Northwest A&F University, Yangling, PR China
‡
Northwest Arid Regions of Water Conservancy Engineering State Key Laboratory, Xi’an University of
Technology, Xi’an, PR China
1
Corresponding authors: e-mail address: wangxiukang@126.com; 2473323815@qq.com;
zhangfc@nwsuaf.edu.cn; lipeng74@163.com; zhanbinli@163.com
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. Effects of Mulching and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 7
2.1 Soil Organic Matter 7
2.2 Soil Temperature 8
2.3 Soil Moisture 10
2.4 Soil Microorganisms 12
2.5 Soil Enzymes 13
2.6 Soil Fertility 14
2.7 Soil Emissions 16
2.8 Other Indirect Effects 18
3. Effects of Mulching and Nitrogen Fertilizer on WUE, NUE and Grain Yield 21
3.1 Water Use Efficiency 21
3.2 Nitrogen Use Efficiency 22
3.3 Grain Yield 27
4. Suggestions for Future Research 30
4.1 Fertilization Combined With Mulching Technologies 31
4.2 Legume Mulching and Precise Fertilization 31
4.3 The Combination of Fertilizer Application and Ridge-Furrow Mulching 31
4.4 Mechanisms of NUE Enhancement 32
4.5 The Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application on Microorganisms 32
4.6 Evaluation of Micronutrients 33
4.7 Risk of Soil Pollution 33
2
These authors contributed equally to this work.
Advances in Agronomy # 2018 Elsevier Inc. 1

ISSN 0065-2113 All rights reserved.
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2018.08.003
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2 Xiukang Wang et al.
5. Concluding Remarks 33
Acknowledgments 34
References 34
Abstract
The demand for food is expected to significantly increase with continued population
growth over the next 50 years, indicating that agricultural efficiency should be
simultaneously stabilized and enhanced. Here, we discuss the effects of mulching
and nitrogen (N) fertilizer on the soil environment and crop yield to inform food security.
The use of mulch in agriculture provides many benefits to the soil by reducing
evaporation, improving temperatures, adjusting the microbial biomass, maintaining
the soil organic carbon balance, increasing nutrient cycling, promoting soil enzyme
activity, enhancing soil aggregate stability and suppressing weed infestation. Nitrogen
fertilization can markedly improve soil fertility and crop yield. However, nitrogen use
efficiency (NUE) and the environment may be negatively affected by the improper
application of N fertilizers. The improvement of NUE has been an important focus in
field management for the more sustainable use of valuable N fertilizers. A better under-
standing of the interaction between N and mulch may improve NUE and crop yields.
Inorganic mulches more efficiently alter the soil environment to enhance the NUE and
crop yield, while organic mulching materials are more environmentally friendly and
inexpensive. The selection of appropriate mulching materials should be combined with
effective N management strategies, crop species, crop management practices and cli-
matic conditions. In the future, precise nitrogen fertilizer management on farms and the
development of relatively high-NUE and high-yielding crops will be highly feasible.
1. INTRODUCTION
Over the past 50 years, great achievements in food and agriculture
have been attained around the world (Alexandratos, 1999). Continuing
population growth is expected over the next 50 years, suggesting that there
will be increased competition for land, water, and nutrients to meet the
simultaneously rising demand for food (Godfray et al., 2010; Tilman
et al., 2001). This will necessitate an increase in agricultural production
per unit of land. Mulching has played an important role in agricultural
practices, and large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer have been used to increase
food production (Qin et al., 2015; Tilman et al., 2002; Wang et al., 2016b).
There is an urgent need to reduce the environmental impacts of the rapid
development of agriculture. Therefore, the effects of mulching and nitrogen
fertilizer on the soil environment associated with crop plants need to be
discussed.
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Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 3
In recent years, mulching has been widely used in the cultivation

of maize (Zea mays L.), spring wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), rice (Oryza
sativa L.), potatoes (Solanum tuberosum L.), sunflowers (Helianthus
annuus L.), groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.),
hairy vetch (Vicia villosa L.), coffee (Coffea arabica L.), geraniums (Pelargonium
graveolens L.), okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.), turmeric (Curcuma longa L.),
green grams (Vigna radiata L.), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.), mint (Men-
tha arvensis L.), vegetables and fruit trees (Alliaume et al., 2017; Kaur and
Brar, 2016; Kim et al., 2017; Kurothe et al., 2014; Li et al., 2001; Liu
et al., 2014a; Nzeyimana et al., 2017; Patra et al., 1993; Qin et al., 2014;
Ram et al., 2003; Ramakrishna et al., 2006; Singh, 2013; Yadav et al.,
2016; Zhao et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2017). Field mulching is an important
agronomic practice that serves to protect the soil and increase crop yield
(Giller et al., 2009; Knowler and Bradshaw, 2007). Many different materials
are used as mulch, such as plastic films, wheat straw, barley straw, maize
stalks, pebbles, fine sand, gravel, biological geotextiles, vegetative residues,
and crushed stones (Chakraborty et al., 2010; Gan et al., 2013; Mo et al.,
2016; Prosdocimi et al., 2016a,b).
Mulching has many advantages, and this practice therefore has a good
reputation in agricultural production. First, it plays an important role in
reducing the loss of soil moisture, resulting in enhanced precipitation use
efficiency, water use efficiency and crop production (Awe et al., 2015;
Chakraborty et al., 2008; Jemai et al., 2013; Li et al., 2015; Ramalan and
Nwokeocha, 2000; Xie et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2009). Second, it improves
the topsoil temperature, which benefits seed germination and root growth
during the early stages of plant development (Chen et al., 2007; Lal, 1974;
Moody et al., 1963; Siczek et al., 2015; Zhang et al., 2009). Third, it
alters the microbial biomass and soil fertility, enhancing the soil quality
and thus increasing grain yield (An et al., 2015; Balota et al., 2014; Huo
et al., 2017; Muñoz et al., 2017; Qiu et al., 2014; Wardle et al., 1999;
Zhang et al., 2011). Fourth, it maintains the soil organic carbon balance
and increases the recycling of mineral nutrients that are important in crop
productivity (Bationo et al., 2007; Bationo and Buerkert, 2001; Lal,
2004; Liu et al., 2009a; Naab et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2016c). Fifth, it
promotes soil enzyme activity and creates favorable conditions for soil
metabolism (Deng and Tabatabai, 1997; Elfstrand et al., 2007;
Masciandaro et al., 2004). Sixth, it suppresses weed infestation and reduces
weed density and biomass (Campiglia et al., 2015; Jabran et al., 2015; Nawaz
et al., 2017; Splawski et al., 2016). Furthermore, the use of organic mulches
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as cover materials also improves the soil water infiltration capacity during
rainfall events and decreases runoff volumes (Adekalu et al., 2007; Jordán
et al., 2010; Smets et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2016a). It enhances soil aggregate
stability and soil structure (Cambardella and Elliott, 1993; Luna et al., 2016;
Six et al., 1998). Black polyethylene mulching has also been shown to
prevent the spread of soil-borne pathogens and weeds during the hot season
( Jacobsohn et al., 1980).
Among the aforementioned benefits provided by mulching to soils, the
reduction of soil moisture loss rates and the alteration of soil temperature are
two of the most important (Bu et al., 2013; Li et al., 2004b; Montenegro
et al., 2013; Zhu et al., 2015). However, the advantages of mulching will
be affected by other factors, such as whether the mulch is applied in ridges
or furrows, the mulching time, the mulching period, the mulching materials
used and the tillage method (Edwards et al., 2000; Lal, 1978; Li et al., 2004b;
Maurya and Lal, 1981). In general, the application of mulch and nitrogen
fertilizer will have the best performance in terms of agricultural production
(Fan et al., 2005a; Liu et al., 2014d; Mo et al., 2017; Rahman et al., 2005;
Wang et al., 2015).
It is necessary to keep pace with, or even exceed, the demand for food
as the population exponentially expands by applying efficient agricultural
practices, such as the use of nitrogen fertilizers, breeding technologies,
hybrid and disease-resistant varieties, irrigation, and innovations in field
management (Alexandratos, 1999; Socolow, 1999; Tester and Langridge,
2010; Tilman et al., 2011). To reduce the gap between demand and
yield, greater amounts of water and nitrogen fertilizer have been used in
agriculture but with uncertain impacts on the soil environment and potential
risks that could affect the continuous production of food in the future
(Evenson and Gollin, 2003; Hazell and Wood, 2008; Herrero et al.,
2016; Liu et al., 2016). Crop productivity depends mostly on the application
of nitrogen fertilizer, but large doses are detrimental to the soil (Han et al.,
2015; Xu et al., 2012). Hence, it is important to review the effects of
nitrogen fertilizer on the crop soil environment.
Nitrogen fertilizers are chiefly made from crop residues, compost, green
manures, livestock manures, sewage sludge, biological fixation, gas absorp-
tion, precipitation, urea, ammonium bicarbonate, ammonium nitrate,
ammonium sulfate, and ammonium hydroxide, and they can be either
synthetic nitrogen fertilizers or commercial organic fertilizers (Agehara
and Warncke, 2005; Crews and Peoples, 2004; Das and Adhya, 2014;
Sainju et al., 2008; Wang et al., 2017). The main forms of available nitrogen
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are nitrate (in aerobic soils) and ammonium (in flooded wetland or acidic
soils) (Krapp, 2015; Xu et al., 2012). For most field crops, the two major
forms of inorganic nitrogen are ammonium and nitrate, which are obtained
from the soil by the root absorption system (Britto and Kronzucker, 2013;
Mi et al., 2016). Most soil nitrogen is applied to the soil through nitrogen
fertilizer and residual nitrogen (G€uereña et al., 2015; Jenkinson et al., 1985).
Excess nitrogen added to the soil is mainly removed through assimilation by
plants, absorption by the substrate, and other losses, including ammonia
volatilization and N2O and N2 emissions by simultaneous nitrification
and denitrification (Wang and Xing, 2016; Wu et al., 2013; Zhou and
Hosomi, 2008). A simplified diagram of nitrogen balance in the rhizosphere
of crop plants is presented in Fig. 1.
To obtain more information on nitrogen cycling in soil-plant systems,
it is absolutely vital to investigate nitrogen transformation and balance in
farmlands. Complex and dynamic variations in nitrogen cycling in the
soil-plant system occur depending on the soil type, climate and plant species
involved (Aranibar et al., 2004). Plant growth and development typically
rely on nitrogen absorption and assimilation (Evans, 2001). Furthermore,
root uptake and architecture are the main factors influencing nitrogen
acquisition by roots, and this process can be affected by the concentration
and form of nitrogen, temperature fluctuations, diurnal changes, moisture
alterations, enzyme activity and microorganisms (Glass, 2003; Kiba and
Krapp, 2016; Lam et al., 1996; Mi et al., 2010). Nitrogen loss in the field
occurs in two ways: ammonia volatilization from leaves and soil denitrifica-
tion and leaching (Raun and Johnson, 1999). Nitrogen losses from soils are
Fig. 1 The fates of nitrogen fertilizer applied to an ordinary crop field.

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related to nitrogen management practices, tillage systems and drainage

methods (Dinnes et al., 2002). As a consequence, nitrogen uptake by plants
and losses from soils are closely related to the soil environment.
Many researchers have discussed the effects of nitrogen fertilizer applica-
tion on the soil environment. A moderate amount of nitrogen fertilizer will
help improve crop yields, the content of soil organic matter and biological
activity in the soil (Haynes and Naidu, 1998). In addition, nitrogen fertilizer
application has been found to significantly influence the relative abundance
of lipids and fungi, the phenol content, and the fungal biomass and activity in
the soil (Frey et al., 2014). The chemical composition of the soil solution has
been shown to be affected by the addition of fertilizer to soils, and the
stability of soil aggregates was also found to be influenced by flocculation
and rearrangement phenomena (Bronick and Lal, 2005). Soil organic matter
fractions and dynamics are very helpful in understanding the relationship
between soil organic matter and soil fertility (Blair, 2000; Kapkiyai et al.,
1999; Ryals et al., 2014). Some authors have reported that the application
of nitrogen fertilizer reduces soil respiration, while others have observed that
nitrogen fertilizer reduces soil respiration in nitrogen-rich forests but
increases soil respiration in nitrogen-limited environments (Bond-
Lamberty and Thomson, 2010; Cusack et al., 2011; Gao et al., 2014a;
Hyv€ onen et al., 2007; Johnson and Curtis, 2001). The pattern of the increase
in nitrous oxide emissions with increased nitrogen fertilizer application is
exponential rather than linear (Shcherbak et al., 2014). Furthermore,
populations of the herbivorous Pratylenchus and Paratylenchus nematodes
were found to be greater in soils that had been fertilized with nitrogen than
in non-fertilized soils (Sarathchandra et al., 2001). Traditional soil nutrient
management methods still primarily rely on the application of external
chemical fertilizers, while the potential for the natural input of soil nutrient
resources through plant rhizosphere management has been ignored. Such
methods involve the regulation of root morphological and physiological
traits and the manipulation of rhizosphere processes and interactions
(Zhang et al., 2010).
Under field conditions, however, the net effects of management prac-
tices often remain unclear because many soil properties, which can interact
and counterbalance one another, are influenced simultaneously. Here, we
will discuss the effects of mulch and nitrogen fertilizer on the soil environ-
ment of crop plants and analyze how mulch and nitrogen fertilizer affect
nitrogen and water use efficiency and regulate root morphological and
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physiological traits in the rhizosphere. Based on the current knowledge, we

suggest some approaches that could improve nitrogen use efficiency in the
future through mulching and nitrogen fertilizer management.
2. EFFECTS OF MULCHING AND NITROGEN FERTILIZER

ON THE SOIL ENVIRONMENT
2.1 Soil Organic Matter
The management of soil organic matter (SOM) has played a major role in
recovering degraded soils and improving the sustainability of crop produc-
tion systems because SOM provides substrates and energy and increases bio-
diversity, allowing the maintenance of soil quality and ecosystem
functionality (Guimarães et al., 2013; Lal, 2009; Reganold et al., 2001).
The SOM pool usually increases with the application of increasing amounts
of ground surface mulch. For example, in one study, the water-soluble
organic matter, hot water-extractable organic matter and acid hydrolyzable
organic matter were found to be higher in a mulch treatment than in a
no-mulch treatment (Huang et al., 2008). In addition, in two long-term
field experiments that were carried out to study the effects of mulch on
SOM content, one, which took place over 11 years, showed that areas with
mulch residue had greater SOM content than bare land (Chen et al., 2009),
while the other experiment, which was 6 years in length, showed that higher
SOM content was associated with alfalfa and bark mulch in organic apple
orchards (Neilsen et al., 2014). Furthermore, in an arid environment, the
total SOM content significantly increased as a result of the application of
straw mulch to the top soil layers (0–15 cm), and the stratification ratio of
SOM also increased (Zhang et al., 2016), while in a humid area, the dis-
solved organic carbon significantly increased as a result of the application
of plastic film mulch at a depth of 0–5 cm (Tian et al., 2013). The effects
of mulching on the SOM mainly occur through decomposition and soil
moisture conservation (Youkhana and Idol, 2009), and the sensitivity of
SOM is often affected by nutrient availability, nutrient dynamics and micro-
bial biomass (Gonzalez-Quiñones et al., 2011; Hosseini Bai et al., 2014).
Farmlands with low soil fertility and available water have been success-
fully placed into production through the use of technical measures such as
mulching, irrigation and the intensive utilization of fertilizers. These field
management methods are very common in agricultural areas and seem to
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benefit soil quality. For the sustainable utilization of land resources, it is nec-
essary to review the relationship between nitrogen fertilizer use and SOM
characteristics.
The effects of nitrogen fertilizer on the SOM content in agricultural areas
are unclear, as positive, negative, and neutral effects have been identified.
One hypothesis is that nitrogen fertilizer has little effect on SOM; this per-
spective has been supported by the results of long-term experiments utilizing
gradients of increasing amounts of fertilizer (Brown et al., 2014; Salinas-
Garcia et al., 1997). Stable quantities of SOM compounds were found in
the fine soil fraction with an increase in nitrogen fertilizer application
(Gillespie et al., 2014; Gosling et al., 2013), and nitrogen fertilizer had no
significant effect on the SOM in the clay- and silt-sized fractions (Randall
et al., 1995). The application of nitrogen fertilizer has also been shown to
improve the SOM content over the long term, while the SOM content
showed no change over the short term (Liu et al., 2013; Mitchell et al.,
2016). The second hypothesis is that the SOM content increases with the
application of organic and inorganic nitrogen fertilizers (Galantini and
Rosell, 2006; Goyal et al., 1999; Qiu et al., 2016; Rasmussen and
Collins, 1991). The balanced application of fertilizer has been shown to
significantly increase the total SOM content as well as that of its different
fractions (Kanchikerimath and Singh, 2001; Kaur et al., 2008; Manna
et al., 2005). The third hypothesis is that the addition of nitrogen fertilizer
has a negative effect on the SOM content (Hobbie, 2008; Keeler et al., 2009)
as a result of the complex subsurface interactions affected by changes in the
input of nitrogen sources and rhizosphere processes (Creme et al., 2016).
However, overall, the number of studies showing positive effects of the
application of nitrogen fertilizer on the soil SOM content was higher than
the number of studies showing negative and neutral results. These results do
not contradict one another because of the complexity of the soil environ-
ment and its interactions with other factors, such as the crop type, experi-
mental period, nitrogen application rate and climatic conditions. We can
thus conclude that the appropriate application of nitrogen fertilizer has
remarkable effects on soil SOM.
2.2 Soil Temperature

Both the composition and quantity of surface mulch affect how it modifies
the soil temperature. Here, we discuss how mulch composed of different
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materials influences the soil temperature. Crop residue mulch significantly

decreased the maximum soil temperature by approximately 2–7 °C at a
depth of 15 cm in the early growing season (Olasantan, 1999), while corn
straw mulch applied to the soil surface reduced the maximum temperature
but increased the minimum diurnal soil temperature (Cadavid et al., 1998;
Jun et al., 2014). Liu et al. (2014e) reported lower soil temperatures during
the warmer seasons and higher temperatures during the colder seasons when
rice straw mulch was applied compared to the no-mulch treatment. The
application of plastic mulch has been found to significantly increase the soil
temperature in the subsoil layers compared to the bare surface (Gan et al.,
2013; Li et al., 2017; Steinmetz et al., 2016; Sui et al., 1992). Plastic mulch
increased soil temperatures, and the highest soil temperatures were observed
when the soil was covered with black plastic mulch (Filipovic et al., 2016).
Jiang et al. (2016) reported that plastic film mulching increased the near-
surface soil temperatures by approximately 1 °C, while partial plastic
film mulching with furrow-ridge tillage was found to increase the soil
temperature by 1.3 °C compared with non-mulching treatments (Gong
et al., 2015). Gravel mulch can increase or decrease soil temperatures; spe-
cifically, soil temperatures have been found to increase during warmer
periods and decrease during cold months. An experiment conducted using
tea plants showed that gravel mulch increased the soil temperature in the
first 2 years of growth, but no change was observed when the tea canopy
had developed to 40% coverage (Othieno and Ahn, 1980). Gravel mulch
was shown to cause significant increases of 0.97 °C at a depth of 3 cm and
1.5 °C at 10 cm (Nachtergaele et al., 1998). Quadratic and cubic relation-
ships between the particle size of gravel mulch and soil temperature were
observed in an experiment with watermelon (Xie et al., 2010). Gravel
and plastic film mulching can significantly increase topsoil temperatures
(Bu et al., 2013; Li, 2003; Luo et al., 2015). In the tropics, soil temperatures
were found to decrease with mulching treatments, increasing crop yields
(Awan, 1964). Furthermore, the application of thick newspaper mulch
reduced the soil temperature compared to the bare soil surface (Monks
et al., 1997), while mulching with dark-colored paper increased the temper-
ature of the soil above that attained with light-colored paper mulch (Haapala
et al., 2015).
Plastic film is the principal mulch type, as it can increase the near-surface
soil temperature by up to 6 °C and provides other benefits for crop growth
during the growing seasons. Black plastic mulches greatly increase soil
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temperatures because they can absorb and re-emit infrared radiation as

heat energy or long-wavelength thermal infrared radiation (Filipovic
et al., 2016; Lamont, 2005; Zhang et al., 2015), while white plastic mulches
are generally used in high-temperature regions to obtain slightly higher soil
temperatures compared to bare land (Briassoulis et al., 2015; Heißner et al.,
2005). However, the effects of mulching on soil temperatures are limited by
the soil depth, becoming non-significant below 40 cm (Dı́az-Hernández and
Salmerón, 2012; Li et al., 1999; Yang et al., 2006). There are few references
on the effects of nitrogen fertilizer on soil temperature, but nitrogen fertili-
zer has been shown to indirectly increase the soil temperature by increasing
SOM decomposition rates or fertilizer decomposition (Brackin et al., 2015;
Paustian et al., 2000). Meng et al. (2005) reported that basal and supplemen-
tary nitrogen fertilizer application did not significantly change the soil
temperature. Soil temperatures increase when polymer-coated urea fertil-
izers are used because they release more nitrogen than other granular fertil-
izers (Halvorson et al., 2014). However, nitrogen release patterns and rates
may change depending on the soil moisture and other field conditions. We
might conclude that there was no significant effect of nitrogen fertilizer
application on soil temperature. There are currently quite few studies on
the interactive effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer on soil tempera-
ture, and there is therefore much work to do in the future.
2.3 Soil Moisture

Mulches that help to maintain soil moisture are commonly used in arid
and semi-arid regions, as well as in semi-humid regions, mainly because
of their ability to reduce soil evaporation by preventing capillarity
( Jimenez et al., 2017; Keesstra et al., 2016; Ma and Li, 2011; Xie et al.,
2006, 2010). Particularly in areas that experience water shortages, the more
efficient use of irrigation water and precipitation by crops is sought to alter
the balance between transpiration and evaporation (Cooper et al., 1987; Xie
et al., 2005). Mulching is popularly used in such regions to reduce the evap-
oration of soil moisture (Beard and Green, 1994; Wang et al., 2011a). How-
ever, higher water consumption has been observed when plastic mulch is
used, as the increased longwave radiation and sensible heat could result in
increased plant temperatures and transpiration rates (Kjelgren and
Montague, 1998; Zajicek and Heilman, 1991). Because different mulch
materials have very important effects on soil moisture, we review the effects
of mulching with different materials on this soil property.
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Based on field experiments, straw mulching has been shown to reduce

evaporation and increase the soil moisture available for plant use. Straw
mulches were found to significantly reduce evaporation during the rainless
period and increase the infiltration and movement of excess soil moisture
below 54 in. (Adams, 1966). Straw mulches have also been found to have
significant effects on soil moisture and to greatly improve the soil moisture
at the depth of 0–40 cm (Deng et al., 2006; Zhao et al., 2014). In a Medi-
terranean environment, the soil moisture content (5–15 cm depth) in the
root zone was significantly increased by additional straw mulching
(Stagnari et al., 2014). In dry land environments, gravel mulching has been
used over the long term to conserve soil moisture, reduce evaporation and
runoff and increase precipitation infiltration (Li, 2003; Li et al., 2011; Peng
et al., 2016; van Wesemael et al., 1996). Plastic film mulching significantly
enhances crop yield and water use efficiency by maintaining soil moisture
and conserving water (Liu et al., 2014b), while full-film mulching systems
have been shown to remarkably increase soil moisture at the 0–160 cm depth
(Gao et al., 2014b). Mulch has been found to significantly increase the total
soil porosity by 35–46%, the available soil water capacity by 18–35% and soil
moisture retention at low suction from 29% to 70% (Mulumba and Lal,
2008). Plastic film mulching was also found to increase evapotranspiration
by 0.9–30.8% and decrease the minimum soil water content (Xie et al.,
2005). Because of all of the benefits it provides to soils, mulching has long
been practiced in agricultural fields and gardens in some semi-arid regions
with low precipitation to maintain soil moisture.
There have been few studies addressing how nitrogen fertilizer directly
affects soil moisture, but indirect effects of the application of such fertilizers
occur in the field. The effects of nitrogen fertilizer application on plant
growth have been demonstrated, with an increase in the consumption of
soil water facilitating vigorous growth in crops. In other words, the plants
maintain strong growth under appropriate levels of nitrogen fertilizer appli-
cation, causing the need for more water to support plant growth, and the soil
moisture therefore declines.
The interactive effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer on soil mois-
ture are complex, relating most closely to soil science and soil physics. They
are affected by several factors (mulching materials, nitrogen application
amounts, soil structure, soil temperature and climatic conditions), all of
which increase or decrease soil moisture. Therefore, it is necessary to study
the interactive effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilization on soil moisture
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in the future; such studies would help us better understand the internal
mechanisms of the effects of mulch and nitrogen fertilizer on the dynamic
growth of crops.
2.4 Soil Microorganisms

It is well known that soil microorganisms play an important role in the
cycling of soil nutrients in agricultural ecosystems. Indeed, the decomposi-
tion of plant materials by microbes is a critical process with widespread
effects on ecosystem functioning and stability in agricultural fields. Microbial
biomass therefore usually affects plant growth (Wardle, 1992). Straw mul-
ching was found to increase the microbial biomass by 42% compared to
non-mulched soils (Tu et al., 2006). The results of a long-term field exper-
iment showed that mulching and nitrogen fertilization impact microbial
biomass and activity, likely by improving the carbon and water availability
for soil microbes (Treseder, 2008; Tu et al., 2006). Several field and labo-
ratory studies have shown a negative effect of nitrogen addition on microbial
growth, indicating that the rate of nitrogen fertilizer application is an impor-
tant factor determining the effects of nitrogen on the soil microbial biomass
(Nohrstedt et al., 1989). The total microbial biomass after fertilization and
mulching was found to be significantly higher than that in bare soil plots
(Tiquia et al., 2002). Furthermore, the microbial activity and biomass in
samples from 1.3 to 9.0 cm depths were significantly increased by leaf mulch
and nitrogen fertilizer application (Acosta-Martı́nez et al., 1999; Arancon
et al., 2005), while the microbial biomass decreased after the long-term
nitrogen fertilization of tallgrass prairie soil in comparison to the unfertilized
treatment (Ajwa et al., 1999). Moreover, the soil microbial biomass was not
significantly enhanced by increased nitrogen fertilizer rates during the grow-
ing season for maize (Al-Kaisi et al., 2008). Nitrogen added to decomposing
organic matter often has no effect or a negative effect on microbial activity,
at least over the long term. More than 60 papers can be cited in support of
this statement (Fog, 1988). Therefore, the effects of mulching and nitrogen
fertilizer on soil microbial communities are obviously affected by the
soil type.
Different mulching materials have different effects on the soil microbial
biomass and activity, which are significantly higher when crop residue
mulches are applied compared to the practice of live mulching (Rabary
et al., 2008). Different sources of nitrogen fertilizer also significantly differ
in their effects on soil microbial biomass and activity, with microbial biomass
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and activity being greater following the application of a low amount of

chemical fertilizer compared to other analyzed nitrogen fertilizer treatments
(Liu et al., 2009b). However, microbial biomass was found to significantly
increase in response to nitrogen enrichment in the absence of mulch (Wang
et al., 2010). The determination of the effects of mulching and nitrogen
fertilizer on soil microbial biomass and activity is a complex topic in soil sci-
ence because changes in any of these factors, such as mulch composition and
depth or nitrogen fertilizer form and application rate, will affect the micro-
bial biomass and activity.
2.5 Soil Enzymes

Soil enzymes affect microbial functions and nutrient cycling, are important
indicators of organic matter decomposition, and provide required microbial
nutrients (Sinsabaugh et al., 2008). Many studies have addressed soil enzyme
activity with the goal of understanding soil nutrient cycling and decompo-
sition biochemistry (Cheeke et al., 2017; Chen et al., 2014; Doran, 1980;
Fatemi et al., 2016; Fontaine et al., 2003). The activities of dehydrogenase
and β-glucosidase were found to significantly increase following the appli-
cation of nitrogen fertilizer and leaf mulch in soil samples from 1.3 to 9.0 cm
depths (Acosta-Martı́nez et al., 1999). However, there were no significant
differences in the levels of sulfatase, protease or phosphatase activity when
different polyethylene mulches were applied (Haynes, 1987). The activities
of acid phosphatase, protease and arylsulfatase did not differ significantly
under different levels of nitrogen fertilizer and fresh red clover mulch
(Elfstrand et al., 2007), while arylamidase activity was found to be greater
following the application of crop residue mulch than in bare plots
(Acosta-Martı́nez and Tabatabai, 2001; Downer et al., 2001). Enzyme activ-
ities were 10–26% higher in response to the application of nitrogen fertilizer
to catch crops at rates of 40 and/or 80 kg N ha 1 year 1 than when a rate of
160 kg N ha 1 year 1 was applied (Piotrowska and Wilczewski, 2012), but
the soil enzymatic activities were higher in response to the application of
higher amounts of nitrogen fertilizer in the form of poultry manure in com-
parison to the application of smaller amounts (Tejada et al., 2008). In addi-
tion, enzyme activities were higher under subsoiling with mulch than in
no-till treatments with mulch ( Jin et al., 2009). The mulching of maize
residues with the addition of earthworms also significantly improved the
protease, urease, invertase and alkaline phosphatase activities compared to
those in the untreated control during rice and wheat cultivation
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(Tao et al., 2009). Furthermore straw mulch was shown to stimulate the
enzymatic activity in the straw-treated soil under compaction (Siczek and
Fra˛c, 2012).
Based on the above results, we concluded that the effects of mulching
and nitrogen fertilization on enzyme activities do not show a simple increas-
ing or decreasing trend and that soil compaction might be one of the most
important factors affecting our ability to understand these effects. This view
is supported by Tan et al. (2008), who suggested that enzyme activities are
more sensitive to soil compaction than nitrogen fertilizer application.
Higher enzyme activities were observed after nitrogen fertilization using
organic manure than when using inorganic fertilizers (Ge et al., 2009a).
In addition, soil enzymatic activities were shown to increase with the
long-term application of chemical nitrogen fertilizers and manures, partic-
ularly organic manure (Ge et al., 2009b). The nitrate reductase activity in soil
treated with biofertilizer increased by 42.2% compared to soil treated with
pure rapeseed cake, while urease activity decreased by 29.3% in tobacco crop
cultivation (Shang et al., 2017).
Mulch color is another factor that influences enzyme activity. Hamido
and Kpomblekou-A (2009) reported that L-asparaginase activity is greater
in mulch composed of crimson clover than in that composed of black oats.
A long-term study of the effects of living mulch on enzyme activity indi-
cated that white clover and crown vetch significantly enhance the soil ure-
ase, invertase and alkaline phosphatase activity levels (Qian et al., 2015). The
urease activity in straw mulch was 24.4–31.3% higher than that in no-mulch
treatments in the semi-arid region of northwest China (Wei et al., 2015).
Overall, mulching and nitrogen fertilizer application change soil enzyme
activity. Mulch composed of crop residues, chemical nitrogen fertilizers,
and organic fertilizers are the most conducive for enhancing soil enzyme
activity.
2.6 Soil Fertility

Mulching and nitrogen fertilization management either indirectly or directly
affect soil quality. Indeed, the combined application of mulch and nitrogen
fertilizer has been shown to effectively improve soil fertility. Mulching for
30–60 days after sowing not only increases the soil temperature and moisture
but also improves soil microbial biomass and nutrient cycling, providing a
more stable soil microenvironment and thereby increasing the amount of
mineral nitrogen in the rhizosphere (Li et al., 2004a,b). The use of mulch
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and nitrogen fertilizer as compost benefits soil management by increasing the

availability of soil nutrients (Pinamonti, 1998). For example, the short-term
application of mulch improved the total soil organic C and N and the soil
content of microbial C and N, showing the importance of the use of mulch
in enhancing soil fertility (Duda et al., 2003). Mulch composed of crop res-
idues also significantly improved soil fertility, with a soil inorganic nitrogen
content of 84 mg N kg 1 in comparison to 64 mg N kg 1 in bare soil treat-
ments at a 0–5 cm soil depth (Murungu et al., 2011). Furthermore, the appli-
cation of wheat straw mulch significantly improved soil fertility and physical
chemistry properties at intensities that were related to the mulching rate
( Jordán et al., 2010). However, some researchers have found no clear rela-
tionship between soil fertility and the application of mulch and nitrogen fer-
tilizer (Fan et al., 2005a).
The application of organic fertilizer as a nitrogen source increases soil
nutrient stocks in the rice rhizosphere, while the application of film mulch
reduces soil nutrient leaching and thus enhances soil fertility (Steiner et al.,
2007). Live mulch using understory plants increased the soil nitrate-N con-
tent and improved soil fertility, while the application of wood chip mulch
resulted in greater soil water availability and lower soil nitrogen (Hoagland
et al., 2008). It was difficult to maintain soil fertility using a ridge-furrow and
plastic mulching technique, but this approach was shown to provide the
potential to substantially increase crop yields in semi-arid rainfed regions
(Zhou et al., 2012). The residual nitrate-N content in the 0–200 cm soil
profile was approximately 170 kg ha 1 after 3 years of mulching and the
application of nitrogen fertilizer at a rate of 240 kg ha 1 in a dryland area
of China (Gao et al., 2009). Furthermore, the application of farmyard
manure and mulch was shown to increase soil fertility through a reduction
in N2 fixation (Hatch et al., 2007). The fluorescent pseudomonad and
culturable heterotrophic bacteria populations in the rhizosphere were signif-
icantly greater in plots treated with composted yard waste as a nitrogen
source than in bare soil plots that had been treated with chemical fertilizer
and mulch (Tiquia et al., 2002). The application of mulch alone significantly
increased the soil C and N in the top 20 cm in comparison to a no-mulch
treatment in a shaded coffee agroecosystem (Youkhana and Idol, 2009). In
general, organic mulches significantly enhance soil fertility, while nitrogen
application also has a significant positive effect on soil fertility in both mulch
and no-mulch treatments (Chakraborty et al., 2010).
The nitrogen fertilizer application rate is an important factor affecting soil
fertility; for example, biological nitrogen fixation was shown to decrease
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with increasing nitrogen fertilizer application rates (Chu et al., 2004), while
the total fraction of mineralized nitrogen increased (Rasmussen et al., 1998).
The long-term combined application of inorganic fertilizers and farmyard
manure significantly enhanced the soil total nitrogen, available nitrogen,
phosphorus, and potassium concentrations in comparison to the application
of inorganic fertilizer alone during a 23-year period (Su et al., 2006). The
application of nitrogen fertilizer at a rate of 200 kg ha 1 significantly
increased the soil fertility in mulched plots over that in unmulched plots
in a sandy loam soil (Ram et al., 2006). Mulching was also found to signif-
icantly increase the soil exchangeable K and Olsen P compared with tradi-
tional flooding in rice–wheat cropping systems (Liu et al., 2003), while
higher soil gross nitrogen immobilization rates and gross nitrogen mineral-
ization were observed in response to treatment with mulch treatment com-
pared to a no-mulch treatment (Huang et al., 2008). Furthermore, a plastic
film mulching treatment with no flooding resulted in significantly higher soil
fertility than that observed in a no-mulch treatment (Li et al., 2006).
2.7 Soil Emissions

In recent years, there has been rapidly increasing interest among researchers
regarding the environmental effects of NH3 emissions from agricultural eco-
systems. High rates of N2O emissions and NH3 volatilization have been
demonstrated in many studies, especially in areas receiving additional nitro-
gen through the application of chemical fertilizers or manures, which con-
tain urea or ammonium phosphate salts. Denitrification and nitrification are
the main sources of N2O, and surface mulching significantly enhances N2O
emissions (Larsson et al., 1998). In addition, the application of nitrogen fer-
tilizer may contribute to NH3 volatilization. Indeed, a field experiment
using mulch indicated that ammonia volatilization was positively related
to the nitrogen fertilizer rates (de Ruijter et al., 2010). Losses of NH3
through volatilization were estimated to range from 17% to 39% at high
nitrogen fertilizer application rates for grass and alfalfa and from 0.9% to
3% at low application rates (Larsson et al., 1998; Thompson et al., 1990;
Whitehead and Lockyer, 1989). A negative relationship between nitrogen
application and season-long cumulative CO2 emissions from the soil was
also detected during the soybean growing season (Al-Kaisi et al., 2008).
In general, the source of nitrogen fertilizer has been shown to significantly
affect ammonia volatilization, and such volatilization has been shown to be
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higher under biogas fertilization than under chemical fertilization (M€ oller
and Stinner, 2009). Another study showed that the application of nitrogen
fertilizer significantly enhanced N2O emissions in comparison to a
no-fertilizer treatment and that mulching with crop residues is an effective
measure for decreasing N2O emissions through the comparison of mulched
and non-mulched plots (Malhi et al., 2006). In addition, N2O emission rates
and cumulative N2O emissions were found to be closely related to the soil
nitrogen content (Singh et al., 2010).
No significant difference in N2O emissions was found between mulched
and non-mulched treatments in the absence of nitrogen fertilizer, but such
emissions continuously increased with increasing nitrogen fertilizer rates in
semi-arid farmland (Liu et al., 2014d). In dryland Mediterranean areas, a
long-term experiment showed that the nitrogen fertilizer rates did not affect
the average N2O emission rates, while the N2O emissions increased with the
nitrogen application rate over the short term (Plaza-Bonilla et al., 2014).
Near the North Pacific Ocean, the mean N2O emission amounts were
higher in a no-mulch treatment than when mulch was applied (Okuda
et al., 2007). Furthermore, the use of red clover/grass biomass as mulch
reduced the amount of fixed N2 by up to 60 kg ha 1 in comparison to
non-mulched plots following the application of nitrogen fertilizer (Flessa
et al., 2002; Hatch et al., 2007). The type of nitrogen fertilizer significantly
affects the cumulative N2O emissions; for example, the average percentage
of N2O emissions was 6.6% when mineral fertilizer was applied, which was
higher than that observed following the application of liquid swine manure
(4.1%) (Chantigny et al., 2010). A global meta-analysis showed that the
application of organic fertilizer significantly increases N2O emissions by
an average of 32.7% in comparison to the application of synthetic nitrogen
fertilizer alone (Zhou et al., 2017). The total cumulative N2O fluxes from
injected cattle slurry were similar to those from surface-broadcasted mineral
fertilizer, but the total cumulative CH4 fluxes were greater from mineral fer-
tilizer than injected cattle slurry (Louro et al., 2016). The ability to reduce
N2O emissions from nitrogen fertilizer has been demonstrated through the
use of the right source, right rate, right time and right placement (Snyder
et al., 2009; Venterea et al., 2016). The fertilization method may also affect
N2O emissions, as the cumulative N2O emissions from nitrogen fertilizer
applied in bands was lower (Gao et al., 2015; Nash et al., 2012), higher
(Halvorson and Del Grosso, 2013; Soon et al., 2011) or similar (Burton
et al., 2008; Venterea et al., 2010) to that when fertilizer was applied using
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broadcasting methods. Meanwhile, soil type is an important factor affecting

N2O emissions; a field experiment indicated that the N2O emission rates and
cumulative amount increased in loamy fine sandy soil compared to a site
with clay loam soil (Gao et al., 2017).
2.8 Other Indirect Effects

2.8.1 Insect Pests
The color of plastic mulch has also been demonstrated to have important
effects in vegetable cultivation, for example, by decreasing insect pest quan-
tities and increasing the species richness of useful insects, which can both
also influence insect behavior by decreasing insect pest quantities, increasing
the species richness of useful insects, and influencing the behavior of certain
insects (Lament, 1993; Steinmetz et al., 2016). Mulches composed of
synthetic materials, rice hulls, or rice straw can reduce the abundance of win-
ged aphids due to their color and heat reflection (Greer and Dole, 2003;
Kasirajan and Ngouajio, 2012; Sarangi et al., 2010). In three seasons of
tomato cultivation, experimental results showed that aphid quantities were
lower when yellow mulch was used in comparison to the use of blue mulch
and that the lowest abundances of whiteflies were observed in association
with the use of yellow and orange mulches before they became shaded
by plant foliage (Csizinszky et al., 1995). Mulches that are yellow, orange
and green in color attract green peach aphids (Broadbent, 1948), while those
that are silver in color repel certain aphids and reduce the incidence of
aphid-borne viruses in summer squash (Lamont et al., 1990; Summers
et al., 1995). Smaller quantities of Frankliniella sp. and other thrips were
observed when aluminum mulches were used in comparison to bare soil
or black mulches at the early growth stages before tomatoes covered the
mulch (Scott et al., 1989).
Straw mulches increase the number of parasitoid Hymenoptera, ground
beetles and spiders ( Johnson et al., 2004; Magagnoli et al., 2017; Thomson
and Hoffmann, 2007), while living mulches significantly decrease insect
damage in cabbage, buckwheat and yellow mustard (Brandsæter et al.,
1998; Hooks et al., 1998), and plant residue mulches significantly change
the pest and disease spectrum (Farooq et al., 2011; Stirling and Eden,
2008). In apple orchards, migrating woolly apple aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum)
nymph and spotted tentiform leafminer (Phyllonorycter blancardella)
populations were higher in plots in which compost had been used as mulch
than in bare plots (Brown and Tworkoski, 2004). In addition, the mean
aphid density in zucchini significantly decreased with the use of living
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mulches (Hooks et al., 1998). Karungi et al. (2006) reported that the use of
market crop waste as nitrogen fertilizer is a key component in the compre-
hensive management of insect pests and depleted soils in sub-Saharan Africa.
Furthermore, the numbers of Cicadellidae, Formicidae and Orthoptera
were significantly higher in non-mulched plots of sunn hemp, sorghum
and Sudan grass than in plots treated with mulch (Pullaro et al., 2006;
Silva-Filho et al., 2014), while the number of Heterorhabditis zealandica
increased with the use of mulch and greater amounts of soil nutrients
(Campos-Herrera et al., 2015).
2.8.2 Weeds
Mulches typically control the growth of weeds through the principle of
resource limitation, limiting the available light and smothering them
(Erenstein, 2002; Ghimire et al., 2017; Teasdale and Mohler, 2000). Some
studies have supported the view that mulches significantly reduce weed
growth. Rahman et al. (2005) reported that the use of rice straw as mulch
obviously reduced the growth of weeds, while Ilnicki and Enache (1992)
reported that living mulch treatments significantly reduced weed
biomass. Furthermore, the weed biomass was significantly lower in plots
of vetch treated with oat mulch and grazing in comparison to bare plots
(Murungu et al., 2011). Regardless of the mulch material used, the sensitiv-
ity of weed species decreases in the sequence of Amaranthus retroflexus >
Chenopodium album > Setaria faberi > Abutilon theophrasti (Teasdale and
Mohler, 2000). Moreover, different mulching materials have different
effects on weed growth; for example, polythene and straw mulch have been
found to be useful in suppressing weed growth (Anzalone et al., 2010;
Ramakrishna et al., 2006; Wayman et al., 2015; Wells et al., 2013), while
other types have a neutral effect. However, another study showed no regular
pattern in the effect of straw mulch on the aboveground biomass or number
of weeds (D€ oring et al., 2005).
The application of nitrogen fertilizer necessarily promotes weed growth,
and the competition between weeds and rice has been shown to lead to a
decline in yield (Liu et al., 2005). No study has shown an effect of the
placement of nitrogen fertilizer on the number of weeds (Broschat, 2007).
2.8.3 Soil Erosion

Mulching effectively controls erosion in hilly and rainfed areas (Chakraborty
et al., 2008; Sharma and Acharya, 2000; Sharma et al., 1990). Mulching
techniques have been evaluated to improve soil humidity during periods
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of great evaporation capacity to stabilize the topsoil and reduce wind erosion
(Li, 2003; Liu et al., 2009a). The main ways mulching reduces water erosion
are by (i) increasing water infiltration, (ii) reducing the impact of raindrops,
(iii) decreasing the runoff velocity, (iv) increasing surface storage,
(v) improving the soil structure and porosity, and (vi) improving the soil
biota in the topsoil (Prosdocimi et al., 2016a; Shi et al., 2013; Smets
et al., 2008; Xu et al., 2017; Zhao et al., 2017). However, the use of mulch
does not mean that wind/water erosion will not occur. The efficiency of
mulching in reducing soil erosion by water and wind depends on many
factors, with the main factors being rainfall erosivity, wind speed, slope
steepness, soil type and mulch type (Fernández-Raga et al., 2017; Lal,
1976; Shakesby, 2011; Smets et al., 2008). Based on the discussion above,
the effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer on the soil environment are
shown in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer on the soil environment.

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3. EFFECTS OF MULCHING AND NITROGEN FERTILIZER

ON WUE, NUE AND GRAIN YIELD
3.1 Water Use Efficiency
Water use efficiency (WUE) is usually calculated based on the grain yield or
total biomass produced per unit of water consumed by crops. The quantity
of water consumed by crops is estimated according to the total amount of
water used from the plant and soil surfaces in addition to that retained within
plant structures. However, the total amount of water retained within plant
structures is less than 1% of the total water consumed during the growing
season in a normal year. Hence, water consumption mainly pertains to plant
transpiration and soil evaporation. As drought conditions worsen and the
global population increases, the continued increase in WUE is a topic of
great concern to guarantee food security and sustainability (Bu et al.,
2013). There has long been great interest in developing an understanding
of how to improve WUE and modify farming systems in both rainfed
and irrigated agriculture. Mulching has proved to be effective in improving
yield and WUE (Zhou et al., 2009), particularly because mulching reduces
soil evaporation and increases crop transpiration ( Jia et al., 2006). The direct
inhibition of soil water evaporation by mulching maintains a relatively stable
level of soil water content in the topsoil and occurs by diminishing water
movement from deeper soil layers to the topsoil through vapor transfer
and capillarity (Tian et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2009, 2011b). Another reason
mulching improves yield and WUE is because it increases water harvesting.
Mulching directs the infiltration of precipitation to low-lying areas through
capillaries, which provides good soil moisture near the plants (Arora et al.,
2011; Kar and Kumar, 2007; Wang et al., 2005). Furthermore, nitrogen fer-
tilizer application is also beneficial in improving WUE.
In general, an increase in WUE enhances the response of grain yield to
the rate of nitrogen fertilizer application. Nitrogen uptake by plants is
strongly affected by the soil water supply (Martin et al., 1982; Walsh
et al., 2012). A proper water supply and nitrogen application rate are also
major contributors to high grain yield and WUE (Fan et al., 2005b;
Zhang et al., 2004). The optimum nitrogen application rate increases
WUE in nitrogen-deficient soils where the soil water is at an appropriate
level. When the nitrogen application rate is higher than the optimum
required by crops, the WUE may increase, but the risk of nitrate-N leaching
and the amount that accumulates below the root zone may increase as well
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(Al-Kaisi and Yin, 2003; Zotarelli et al., 2008). However, it is unclear which
nitrogen fertilizer application rates are optimal. The several studies that have
investigated optimal rates need to consider the interactive effects of water
and nitrogen on grain yield and WUE.
Here, we collected 1406 WUE values from mulching and no-mulching
treatments in maize, wheat and rice. Each WUE value was calculated as the
average for the same nitrogen fertilizer rate in a single article, and the mul-
ching and no-mulching treatments were calculated separately. The results
show that the mean WUE values in the mulching treatments were
6.73%, 24.31% and 8.27% higher than those in the no-mulching treatments
for rice, maize and wheat, respectively, and the application of nitrogen fer-
tilizer significantly increased the WUE. However, mulching did not
improve the WUE at a constant rate, and the WUE was higher in the
no-mulching treatment than in the mulching treatment at low levels of
nitrogen fertilization in maize and wheat. Increased WUE in response to
mulch application has been associated with high soil water depletion in
the 140–200 cm soil layer, which indicates that the higher WUE might
not occur continuously over long periods of time, particularly in dry seasons
(Liu et al., 2009a; Zhang et al., 2011). The WUE was greater in response to
mulching than in the no-mulching treatments for all three crops, particularly
wheat. One reason for this observation was the disparity between soil water
availability and evapotranspiration, resulting in an imbalance between the
water supply in soils and crop water requirements (Huang et al., 2005;
Zhang et al., 2009), leading to low crop yields and WUE under nitrogen
fertilizer application rates greater than 100 kg ha 1 for rice, maize and wheat
(Fig. 3). Another reason is that mulch can store rainwater in winter, enhance
soil moisture and obviously increase wheat yields in dryland farming
(Passioura, 2006; Vohland and Barry, 2009). Sharma et al. (2010) reported
that mulching is very effective in improving the soil water content
(2.1–2.3%), grain yield (15.1%), and WUE over no-mulching treatments.
The soil moisture in the soil profile increased because greater quantities
of mulch were applied in response to the application of greater amounts
of nitrogen fertilizer (Gao et al., 2009; Hai et al., 2015). In this review,
increase in WUE in wheat after mulching was 1.67 times higher than that
in the no-mulching treatments.
3.2 Nitrogen Use Efficiency

Mulching and the application of nitrogen fertilizer have been widely used to
increase agricultural productivity in arid and semi-arid regions. However,
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Fig. 3 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer application rate on WUE.

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the excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer combined with low nitrogen

use efficiency has had negative consequences for the environment, such as
environmental pollution, soil acidification and decreased soil microbial
activity (Cui et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2010). Mulching improves crop
production (Giller et al., 2009). Thus, understanding the effects of mulching
and nitrogen application on nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is important for
optimizing nitrogen management strategies. We collected and analyzed
1263 NUE values for maize, wheat and rice. The results indicate that the
mean NUE was lower in fertilized than non-fertilized treatments and that
the NUE decreased with an increase in the nitrogen fertilizer application
rate. The reason for this observation might be that higher nitrogen applica-
tion rates often cause crop roots to secrete more sugar alcohols, sugars and
phenolics, changing the structure and abundance of the soil microbial com-
munity. Furthermore, the activities of denitrifying and ammonia-oxidizing
bacteria increase with an increase in nitrogen application rates, leading to
decreased NUE (Alonso-Ayuso et al., 2016; Zhu et al., 2016). In this
review, we collected 1261 NUE values from mulching and no-mulching
treatments in maize, wheat and rice. The mean NUE values in the mulching
treatments were 4.9%, 17.69% and 3.98% higher than those in the
no-mulching treatments for rice, maize and wheat, respectively (Fig. 4).
We can conclude that mulching and nitrogen application effectively increase
NUE in arid and semi-arid farmland. This phenomenon might occur
because high nitrogen application rates have been shown to indirectly affect
members of the diazotrophic community, while mulching has positive
effects on the microbial communities inhabiting the rhizosphere (Allison
and Martiny, 2008; Tiquia et al., 2002).
Our analysis examined the effects of mulching and nitrogen application
at different rates on NUE. In both large-scale and small-scale systems of field
nitrogen management, the optimized combination of nitrogen supply and
crop demand with no excesses or shortages is represented by the kernel point
for optimal tradeoffs among yield, environmental protection and economic
benefit. To achieve the goal of optimization, an extremely effective measure
is to improve the current NUE levels, mulching and nitrogen application
rates, and field management practices to decrease environmental influences.
A field experiment demonstrated that mulching notably maintained higher
N uptake rates and promoted plant N accumulation over the no-mulching
treatment during the vigorous growth stage (Cassman et al., 2002; Liu
et al., 2015).
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Fig. 4 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer rate on NUE.

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The application of nitrogen fertilizer can markedly improve soil fertility

and water utilization (Li et al., 2009). The addition of nitrogen benefits crop
plants through higher grain yields and lower NUE, which have environ-
mental costs. Large quantities of nitrogen fertilizer are often applied by
farmers to obtain higher yields in many crops, while these high inputs of
nitrogen are always accompanied by the release of excess N compounds,
threatening the quality of the air, water, and soil. For example, the nitrogen
fertilizer application rates are as high as 240–330 kg ha 1 in northwestern
China farmland (Liu et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2012), which is higher than
that required by maize (Hou et al., 2012). The excessive use of nitrogen fer-
tilizer results in low NUE, and the excess nitrogen fertilizer leaches into the
deep soil layers or is emitted into the atmosphere. Furthermore, the leaching
of nitrogen into drainage water and the release of atmospheric nitrous oxide
and reactive nitrogen gases into the troposphere increase, accelerating the
eutrophication of waterways and the acidification of soils (Fan et al.,
2009; Robertson and Vitousek, 2009; Xu et al., 2012). The impacts of
the release of excess nitrogen from agricultural fertilizers into the environ-
ment also need to be reduced (Oita et al., 2016; Sutton et al., 2011; Zhang
et al., 2013). Improving the NUE is the simplest and most effective way to
lower these environmental impacts but represents a significant challenge.
The general definition of NUE is complex, and there are several ways it
can be calculated. This review mainly addresses NUE, nitrogen uptake effi-
ciency, nitrogen utilization efficiency and the apparent nitrogen recovery
rate. The NUE is the total biomass produced or grain yield per unit of nitro-
gen fertilizer applied and involves nitrogen uptake efficiency and nitrogen
utilization efficiency. The nitrogen uptake efficiency is the capacity of plant
roots to acquire nitrogen from the soil and therefore does not take into
account nitrogen supplied during foliar fertilization. The nitrogen utiliza-
tion efficiency is the fraction of plant-acquired N that is converted into total
plant biomass or grain yield. Finally, the apparent nitrogen recovery rate is
the ratio of the net increase in total nitrogen uptake by the plant with and
without nitrogen fertilization to the total amount of nitrogen in the fertil-
izer. Owing to the effects that the addition of external nitrogen has on the
complex forms of nitrogen and their interconversions governed by soil
microbial activity, the different mobilities of soil nitrogen forms, and the loss
of gaseous nitrogen from the soil/plant canopy, it is difficult to quantify the
“real” amount of fertilizer nitrogen that is available or actually acquired by
plants.
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In practice, farmers often apply large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer

(45–100% of the total nitrogen application) before planting or during the
early growing seasons (Liu et al., 2011; Zhou et al., 2012), which is obvi-
ously unfavorable to the NUE. Some studies have indicated that applying
nitrogen fertilizer at a rate that matches crop demand can dramatically
increase NUE and simultaneously reduce the loss of this element
(Cassman et al., 2002). This principle implies that there are still great oppor-
tunities to further increase the NUE of mulched maize systems by optimiz-
ing nitrogen management.
3.3 Grain Yield

Mulching is an important agricultural practice used in arid or semi-arid
regions to improve crop productivity by changing soil properties. For exam-
ple, mulching can reduce water evaporation and increase the water available
to crops. Additionally, in cool areas, mulching can increase the topsoil
temperature to facilitate crop growth. In terms of plastic mulch, one study
demonstrated that a small canopy allowed the most solar energy to pass
through the plastic film and heat up the air and soil beneath it (Liu et al.,
2009a), while another study showed that the topsoil warmed up faster during
the day because of the “greenhouse effect” (Wang et al., 2005). Meanwhile,
another study showed that the water underneath the film reduced the
longwave radiation, leading to slower cooling at night (Li et al., 2013;
Liu et al., 2009a). Furthermore, the use of plastic film has been shown to
strongly reduce the latent heat flux and the exchange of sensible heat
between the soil and air (Bu et al., 2013; Ham and Kluitenberg, 1994). Dif-
ferent mulching materials have different effects on soils; for example, straw
mulch has been shown to improve soil quality by reducing water evapora-
tion and the temperature of the topsoil and by increasing the soil organic
matter content, while the retention of stubble residues increases water avail-
ability and grain yield. However, the application of straw mulch is restricted
in the semi-arid areas of the Loess Plateau in northwest China, since it is
likely to lower the soil surface temperature, leading to a reduction in grain
yield. To overcome this problem, plastic film mulching techniques have
been demonstrated to be effective in increasing the grain yield in these areas
(Li et al., 2004b).
Grain yield is higher under mulching than in bare fields because of the
remarkable efficiency of mulch in maintaining soil moisture and improving
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nutrient transformations and availability; however, mulching is expensive

and laborious for farmers (Qin et al., 2006). Therefore, the selection of mul-
ching materials should be considered in combination with the economic
benefits of crops and environmental costs. Higher soil temperatures during
the early growth season caused by film mulching promote crop growth and
development, but higher soil temperatures during the later growth season
may accelerate crop senescence and reduce dry matter accumulation, con-
sequently decreasing crop yields (Liu et al., 2014c; Yi et al., 2010). Further-
more, different crops in different growth stages require different soil
temperature conditions, and it may therefore be necessary to consider the
mulching period during the development of new mulching technologies.
For example, microbial degradation methods have been adopted by farmers
when they can control when decomposition occurs.
Dryland areas compose nearly 45% of the world’s land area and are essen-
tial to global food production (Schimel, 2010). Therefore, optimizing field
management to improve crop productivity and yield in dryland agriculture is
of crucial importance to ensure food security around the world (Cassman,
1999; Lele, 2010). To achieve this goal, an extremely effective measure is
to increase current grain yields, identify optimal mulching and nitrogen
application rates, and improve management practices. Our analysis exam-
ined the effects of mulching and nitrogen application on yield by collecting
1516 values describing grain yield in maize, wheat and rice. The results indi-
cate that the mean grain yield was significantly higher when fertilizer was
applied in comparison to no-fertilizer treatments. Overall, the application
of nitrogen fertilizer increased the grain yield of all three crops. We collected
1516 grain yield values from mulching and no-mulching treatments in
maize, wheat and rice. The mean grain yields in mulching treatments were
2.6%, 28.5% and 9.6% higher than those in no-mulching treatments for rice,
maize and wheat, respectively (Fig. 5). We also found that the mulched
maize yield was 28.5% higher than that of non-mulched maize, while the
mulched rice yield was only 2.6% higher than that of non-mulched rice.
We provide two possible explanations for the high value of yield increase
in maize and the low value for rice. First, the high yield increase in maize
mainly occurred due to the higher soil moisture and temperature caused
by mulching, which promote vigorous belowground growth and root sys-
tem development in this crop during the early growing season. Second, the
growth of the roots of mulched rice is controlled by the anaerobic decom-
position of soil organic matter and microbial respiration and excretion,
which are also affected by the soil moisture, nutrients and temperature.
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Fig. 5 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer rate on grain yield.

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4. SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

In regard to the environmentally and economically friendly use of
valuable nitrogen fertilizer resources, improving the NUE is more chal-
lenging than attaining high yields through the application of additional
nitrogen as a component of integrated nutrient resource management.
For all crops, the NUE decreases with increased nitrogen fertilizer appli-
cation. On one hand, the effects of different nitrogen fertilizer application
levels on NUE are closely affected by variation in absorption ability and
nitrogen utilization efficiency among different crops. On the other hand,
the accumulation of nitrate-N in the root zone and the degree to which it
leaches into the deeper soil layers increase significantly with an increase in
nitrogen application.
Mulching has many advantages in agricultural production, including
reducing the loss of soil water through evaporation, improving the topsoil
temperature, altering the microbial biomass, maintaining the soil organic
carbon balance, increasing mineral nutrient cycling, promoting soil enzyme
activity, suppressing weed infestation and enhancing the stability of soil
aggregates. Many practices involve the use of crop residues on the soil sur-
face as mulch as an effective measure to reduce soil erosion and surface run-
off. In addition, mulching using crop residues increases water infiltration and
prevents the crusting and sealing of surface soil caused by rainfall. Mulching
with crop residue has also been found to be particularly effective on slopes in
semi-arid areas. Thus, we conclude that the practice of mulching together
with nitrogen application at an appropriate rate is the best approach to
improve NUE and grain yield and simultaneously minimizes direct N2O
emissions and other pathways of N loss in agriculture.
The choice of mulching materials and nitrogen application rates is com-
plicated and generates diversified problems in scientific field management.
The optimal nitrogen fertilizer type, fertilization method, fertilization depth,
mulching material and mulching amount vary for different crops. We are
very excited that much effective research has been carried out by agricultural
scientists around the world, and these research results can help us identify the
best mulching materials and nitrogen application rates for different crops. In
the future, precise nitrogen fertilizer application management on farms and
the development of relatively high-NUE and high-yielding crops will be
highly feasible.
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4.1 Fertilization Combined With Mulching Technologies

The main goal of successful agriculture is to increase field productivity and
maintain healthy soil, especially in rainfed agricultural areas. Smallholder
farmers make up most of the population in many parts of the world, and
the development of innovative measures that combine easy operation, low
costs and high efficiency is a realistic demand for them. An effective method
of nitrogen fertilizer application involves banded basal fertilization and top-
dressing, in which basal fertilizer is applied in bands in rows beside the seeds
during planting or in rows below the seeds during sowing, while topdressing
and side-dressing occur by injecting the proper quantity of nitrogen fertilizer
into the subsurface soil during postemergence. The effects of this method will
be optimized if it is combined with mulch application; however, the optimal
nitrogen fertilizer application rates, mulch materials, and timing of mulch
application need to be further studied in different regions.
4.2 Legume Mulching and Precise Fertilization

The global increase in the mean temperature on land due to the continued
increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has caused sig-
nificant changes to the climate that have directly or indirectly affected water
and energy consumption in agricultural fields. Legume mulching is a highly
effective means for enhancing soil moisture and nutrient conservation, lead-
ing to increased production and soil health in maize-wheat cropping systems
in plain, valley and hilly areas of arid and semi-arid regions. Legume mul-
ching in close coordination with precise fertilization and the determination
of the critical and optimum values of spectral diagnosis indexes at different
crop growth stages are new developments in the efficient use of nitrogen
resources in precision agriculture.
4.3 The Combination of Fertilizer Application and

Ridge-Furrow Mulching
On the basis of the information provided in published papers, the introduc-
tion of improved nitrogen management and crop practices coupled with the
adaptive application of mulch could have very significant impacts on agri-
culture. Such management approaches should create favorable environmen-
tal conditions for crop growth, leading to higher N uptake and utilization
and consequently higher yields. According to our review, good sources
of nitrogen fertilizer are often combined with other organic and inorganic
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fertilizers, which can significantly increase the soil organic matter and grain
yield. Meanwhile, the new technology of ridge-furrow mulching coupled
with the application of film mulch has been widely used by farmers in recent
years, and high crop yields have been attained in dryland areas where
this technique has been used. Future research should focus on the ideal
organic-inorganic nitrogen fertilizer ratios for different crops, and the appli-
cation of fertilizer should also be combined with ridge-furrow mulching.
4.4 Mechanisms of NUE Enhancement

Understanding the mechanisms of the effects of mulching and nitrogen
fertilizer application on crop yield is not only essential for understanding
the nitrogen uptake, utilization, translocation, accumulation and leaching
associated with mulching but also provides theoretical and practical informa-
tion for the development of high-yield and high-NUE techniques that
could be used successfully around the world. The effects of mulching and
nitrogen fertilizer application on the physiological demand for nitrogen
require more in-depth research, and determining the optimal method for
mulching and nitrogen fertilizer application would be more scientific, effi-
cient and valuable for agricultural producers.
4.5 The Effects of Nitrogen Fertilizer Application on

Microorganisms
The long-term use of chemical and organic fertilizers to improve soil fertility
and crop production often results in unexpected damage to biogeochemical
cycles. Integrated soil nutrient management systems are required to ensure
sustainable agricultural production and to protect the environment. Further-
more, soil microorganisms are an important component of the soil, and the
interactions between the soil microbial community in terms of its size and
structure and the application of nitrogenous fertilizer are complex. The use
of different mulching materials to improve the NUE may not only simply
increase grain yield or biomass accumulation but may also change the col-
lective activity of the microorganism community, which could result in an
increase in the quantity of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria and
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi or other functions. The mechanisms of the
effects of nitrogen fertilizer application on soils and the changes in soil
microbial community structure, soil microbial biomass, soil respiration,
and soil enzyme activities in response to different mulching materials should
be studied further in different regions.
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4.6 Evaluation of Micronutrients

Some researchers believe that the accumulation of beneficial microelements
in plant organs depends upon the concentration of these microelements in
water and/or the sediments. However, the relationship between the accu-
mulation of beneficial microelements and the application of mulch or nitro-
gen fertilizer is little known. Therefore, we hope that future research will
focus on plant interactions with micronutrients and their genetic responses
in terms of NUE, which have applications in food security. However, the
first questions that should be addressed in future studies pertain to the effects
of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer application on microelement accumula-
tion and concentrations in farmland. Additionally, it is necessary to study the
effects of the application of mulch and nitrogen fertilizer during field man-
agement on microelement concentrations.
4.7 Risk of Soil Pollution

At present, the increasing use of plastic films for mulching in agriculture has
caused soil environmental pollution concerns due to their non-
biodegradability nature. Although some biologically degradable materials
as agricultural mulching films are being used in the experiments, the actual
practice and operability are still very limited. Ideally, degradable polymer
film should be fully biodegradable, leaving no harmful substances in the soil
environment. The potential negative environmental impacts of using plastic
films may be minimized by using crop residue mulch before degradable
polymer films can be widely used. No doubt, eventually bio-based polymers
and biodegradable polymers mulch materials will be highly preferred in the
future.
5. CONCLUDING REMARKS
High-NUE plants will play a more important role in enhancing crop
yields in this century compared to the last century, mainly due to lack of
arable land and limited water resources for crop production and increasing
environmental concerns. Nitrogen fertilizer and mulch application are
already often used to increase grain output, but environmental pollution
is a major concern due to excess nitrogen fertilizer inputs. However, because
of the continuously increasing world population and living standards, the
demands for fiber and food also continue to grow, indicating that
the increasing the pace of crop production cannot be stopped. However,
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the improvement of crop management practices can increase NUE in crops.

Such improved practices include creating favorable environmental condi-
tions for crops, which can lead to higher nitrogen uptake and utilization
and consequently higher yields. Practices that include precise nitrogen appli-
cation rates, efficient nitrogen application methods, appropriate nitrogen
sources, and the timing of nitrogen application to the period when crop
absorption is maximal are important nitrogen management strategies. Rec-
ommendations based on field trials that determine crop responses to various
rates of fertilizer application are highly efficient and effective.
The application of mulch conserves soil moisture, reduces soil evapora-
tion, suppresses weed growth, influences soil microorganisms, controls soil
structure and temperature and can be aesthetically pleasing. It is necessary to
understand the effects of various mulching materials on the soil environ-
ment, crop yield, NUE and WUE. These issues pertaining to mulching
materials are some of the main foci of this review. Plastic mulching materials
are more efficient than organic mulching materials in terms of altering the
soil environment and increasing WUE, NUE and crop yield. However,
organic mulching materials are environmentally friendly, beneficial to soil
microorganisms and inexpensive. The selection of appropriate mulching
materials should be combined with effective nitrogen management strate-
gies. Furthermore, the crop species, crop management practices and climatic
conditions are also important factors affecting the appropriate mulching
materials and nitrogen management strategies. The mitigation of diseases,
insects, and weeds is crucial in field crop management and can further
improve NUE. A better understanding of the interactions between nitrogen
and other nutrients and mulching may be useful in understanding the impor-
tance of the balanced supply of fertilizers and consequently the improvement
of plant growth, WUE, NUE and yield.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by the National Key Research and Development Program of
China (Grant No. 2017YFC0504704), and the National Natural Science Foundation
(51669034, 51879226, 51809224).
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ARTICLE IN PRESS

The Effects of Mulch and Nitrogen

Advances in Agronomy # 2018 Elsevier Inc. 1

2 Xiukang Wang et al.

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 3

In recent years, mulching has been widely used in the cultivation

4 Xiukang Wang et al.

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 5

Fig. 1 The fates of nitrogen fertilizer applied to an ordinary crop field.

6 Xiukang Wang et al.

related to nitrogen management practices, tillage systems and drainage

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 7

physiological traits in the rhizosphere. Based on the current knowledge, we

2. EFFECTS OF MULCHING AND NITROGEN FERTILIZER

8 Xiukang Wang et al.

2.2 Soil Temperature

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 9

materials influences the soil temperature. Crop residue mulch significantly

10 Xiukang Wang et al.

temperatures because they can absorb and re-emit infrared radiation as

2.3 Soil Moisture

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 11

Based on field experiments, straw mulching has been shown to reduce

12 Xiukang Wang et al.

2.4 Soil Microorganisms

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 13

and activity being greater following the application of a low amount of

2.5 Soil Enzymes

14 Xiukang Wang et al.

2.6 Soil Fertility

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 15

and nitrogen fertilizer as compost benefits soil management by increasing the

16 Xiukang Wang et al.

2.7 Soil Emissions

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 17

18 Xiukang Wang et al.

broadcasting methods. Meanwhile, soil type is an important factor affecting

2.8 Other Indirect Effects

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 19

2.8.3 Soil Erosion

20 Xiukang Wang et al.

Fig. 2 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer on the soil environment.

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 21

3. EFFECTS OF MULCHING AND NITROGEN FERTILIZER

22 Xiukang Wang et al.

3.2 Nitrogen Use Efficiency

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 23

Fig. 3 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer application rate on WUE.

24 Xiukang Wang et al.

the excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer combined with low nitrogen

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 25

Fig. 4 Effects of mulching and nitrogen fertilizer rate on NUE.

26 Xiukang Wang et al.

The application of nitrogen fertilizer can markedly improve soil fertility

Mulch and Nitrogen Fertilizer on the Soil Environment 27

In practice, farmers often apply large amounts of nitrogen fertilizer

3.3 Grain Yield

28 Xiukang Wang et al.