Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

Let A=¿ is a square matrix. A non-zero vector V in Rn is called an eigenvector of A if A V is a
scalar multiple of V ; that is A V = λV for some scalar λ. The scalar λis called an eigenvalue of A and
V is called the eigenvector of A corresponding toλ.

Example: The vector V = [ 12] is an eigenvector of A=[ 38 −10 ] corresponding to the eigenvalue λ=3.
A V =[ 3 0 ][ 1 ]=[ 3 ]=3 [ 1 ]=λ V .
8 −1 2 6 2

Characteristic matrix:
Provided that A is a square matrix of order n × n. Then the matrix A−λI is called the characteristic
matrix where λ is scalar and I is the unit matrix.

Example:
2 2 1

[ ]
A= 1 3 1
1 2 2
2 2 1 1 0 0

[ ][ ]
A−λI = 1 3 1 −λ 0 1 0
1 2 2 0 0 1
2−λ 2 1
¿
[1
1 ]
3−λ
2
1
2− λ
is the characteristic matrix.

Characteristic polynomial:
The determinant | A−λI | results a polynomial of λ, which is called characteristic polynomial of
matrix A. Following is an example of characteristic polynomial of λ of degree 3, the order of the
matrix A,

2−λ 2 1
|
| A−λI |= 1
1
3− λ
2
1
2−λ |
¿ ( 2−λ ) ( 6−5 λ+ λ2 )−2 ( 1− λ ) +1(2−3+ λ)
¿ λ3 −7 λ2 +11 λ−5.

Characteristic equation:
The equation | A−λI |=0 is called characteristic equation for matrix A.
For example, λ 3−7 λ2 +11 λ−5=0 is characteristic polynomial for the above matrix A.

Characteristic roots or eigenvalues:

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

The roots of the characteristic equation | A−λI |=0 are called characteristic roots of matrix A.

∴ λ3−7 λ 2+ 11 λ−5=0
⟹ ( λ−1 )( λ−1 ) ( λ−5 )=0
⟹ λ=1,1,5
So, the characteristic roots or eigenvalues are 1,1 and 5

Example:
1 2 −1

Solution:
0 5 [
Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the matrix A= 0 −2 0
2 ]
The characteristic matrix of A is,
1 2 −1 1 0 0

0 5 [
A−λI = 0 −2 0 −λ 0 1 0
2 ][ ]
0 0 1
1−λ 2 −1
¿
[ 0
0
−2−λ
5
0
2−λ ]
1−λ 2 −1
|
The characteristic polynomial of A is | A−λI |= 0
0
−2−λ
5 |
0
2−λ
The characteristic equation of A is ( λ−1 )( λ+2 ) ( λ−2 ) =0
So, the characteristic roots or the Eigenvalues of A is λ=1 ,−2,2
v1

[]
Now by definition V = v 2 is an Eigenvector of A corresponding to the Eigenvalue λ if and only if V
v3
is a non-trivial solution of ( A−λI ) V =0
MatLab command for finding eigenvalues and
eigenvectors:
>> A=[1 2 -1;0 -2 0;0 5 2];
1−λ 2 v

][ ]
−1
So, 0
0 [ −2− λ
5
0
2−λ v 3
1
v 2 =0
>> [v,d]=eig(sym(A));
>> eigenvalues=eig(A)'
eigenvalues =
When λ=1, then 1 2 -2
0 2 −1 v 1 >> eigenvectors=double(v)

[0 −3 0 v 2 =0
0 5 1 v3 ][ ] eigenvectors =
1.0000 -1.0000
0 0
0.8667
-0.8000
Forming a linear system, we have
0 ⋅ v +2 ⋅v −1⋅ v =0 0 1.0000 1.0000
1 2 3
0 ⋅ v1 −3⋅ v 2 +0 ⋅v 3 =0
0 ⋅ v1 +5 ⋅ v 2+1 ⋅v 3 =0
Solving we get v 2=v 3=0

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

Hence v1 is a free variable. Let, v1 =a, where a is any real number. Therefore, the eigenvector of A
a
corresponding to the eigenvalue λ=1 are the non-zero vectors of the form V =
0 []
0 . In particular, if

1
a=1, then V =
0[]
0 is an Eigenvector corresponding to the Eigenvalue of λ=1

Again, when λ=−2, we find

3 2 −1 v 1
[ ][ ]
0 0 0 v 2 =0
0 5 4 v3
Forming a linear system, we have
3 ⋅v 1 +2 ⋅v 2−1 ⋅ v3 =0
0 ⋅ v1 −0 ⋅v 2 +0 ⋅ v3 =0
0 ⋅ v1 +5 ⋅ v 2+ 4 ⋅ v3 =0

This system has one free variable. Let v3 =b .

−4 b −13 b
∴ v 2= and ∴ v 1=
5 15
−13 b

Therefore, V =
[ ]
15
−4
5
b
b .

In particular, let b=−15

13
[ ]
So, V = 12 is an eigenvector corresponding to the eigenvalue λ=−2
−15
When λ=2,

−1 2 −1 v 1
[ 0 5 0 v3 ][ ]
0 −4 0 v 2 =0

Forming a linear system, we have

−1 ⋅v 1 +2⋅ v 2−1 ⋅v 3 =0
0 ⋅ v1 −4 ⋅ v 2+ 0 ⋅v 3=0
0 ⋅ v1 +5 ⋅ v 2+ 0⋅ v 3=0

Hence, v 2=0 and v3 is free variable. Let v3 =c then we have v1 =−c

−c
Therefore, V =
[]
0
c

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

−1
In particular, if c=1 we have V = 0 .
1 []
Example: Solve the following system of differential equation using eigenvalue and eigenvector.
{ x˙1 (t)=−1.5 x 1 ( t ) +0.5 x 2 (t )∧¿ x˙2 (t )=x 1 ( t ) −x2 ( t )with x 1 ( 0 )=5 , x 2 ( 0 )=4.
dx dx
where x˙1 ( t )= 1 and x˙2 ( t )= 2 .
dt dt
Solution:
x1 ( t ) ˙ ẋ (t )
Let, X (
( )
t ) =
x2 ( t ) ( )
and X (¿ t)= 1
ẋ 2(t )
¿

x1 ( 0)
= 5 .
( )()
So, X ( 0 ) =
x2 ( 0) 4
−1.5 0.5 .
We write, A= (
1 −1 )
Now the system of differential equation can be written as
X (¿ t)=˙ AX (t)¿
Let λ and V be the eigenvalue and eigenvector of A respectively and C is an integral constant then
we have the solution of the form,
X ( t )=CV e λt .
−1.5 0.5 − λ 1 0
The characteristic matrix of A is A−λI =
1 (−1 ) ( )
0 1
0.5
¿ −1.5−λ
( )
1 −1− λ
0.5
The characteristic polynomial of A is | A−λI |= |−1.5−λ
1 −1− λ |
The characteristic equation of A is ( λ+1.5 )( λ+ 1 )−0.5=0
⟹ ( λ2 +2.5 λ+1 ) =0
⟹ ( λ+0.5 )( λ+ 2 )=0
So the characteristic roots or the eigenvalues of A is λ=−0.5 ,−2
v1
Now by definition V =
v2 ()
is an eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ if and only if V

is a non-trivial solution of ( A−λI ) V =0

−1.5−λ 0.5 v1
So, ( 1 −1−λ v 2
=0)( )
−1 0.5 v1 =0
When λ=−0.5, then (1 −0.5 v2 )( )
Forming a linear system, we have
−v 1+0.5 v 2=0
v1 −0.5 v 2=0
Solving the above system, we get −v 1+0.5 v 2=0 .

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

Here v 2 is a free variable. Let v 2=a

v1 =a and v 2=2 a.
Therefore, the eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ=−0.5 are the non-zero vectors of
a
the formV 1=
2a
.( )
0.5 0.5 v 1 =0
Again, when λ=−2 , then
1 1 v2 ( )( )
Forming a linear system, we have
0.5 v 1 +0.5 v 2=0
v1 + v 2=0
Solving the above system, we get 0.5 v 1 +0.5 v 2=0.
Here v 2 is a free variable. Let v 2=b
Thus, we get v1 =−b and v 2=b.
Therefore, the eigenvector of A corresponding to the eigenvalue λ=−2 are the non-zero vectors of

the form V 2= (−bb) .

So, the solution of the system of differential equation can be written as,
X ( t )=C 1 V 1 e λ t + C2 V 2 e λ t
1 2

x1 ( t )
=C 1 a e−0.5 t + C2 −b e−2 t
⟹
( ) ( ) ( )
x2 ( t ) 2a b
x1 ( 0)
=C1 a +C 2 −b
⟹
( ) ( ) ( )
x2 ( 0) 2a b

⟹ ( 54)=C (2aa )+C (−bb)

1 2

We can write,
a C 1−bC 2=5
2 aC 1+b C 2=4
Solving the system for C 1 and C 2, we have, C 1=3/a and C 2=−2/b . Therefore,
x 1 (t ) 3 a −0.5 t 2 −b −2 t
( ) ( ) =
x 2 (t ) a 2 a
e −
b b
e ( )
In particular, if a=1 ,b=1 then
x 1 (t )
=3 1 e−0.5 t −2 −1 e−2 t
( ) () ( )
x 2 (t ) 2 1
x1 ( t ) 3 e−0.5t −2 e−2 t
⇒
( )( )( )
x2 ( t )
= −0.5 t −
6e 2 e−2 t
x 1 ( t )=3 e−0.5t + 2e−2 t
x 2 ( t )=6 e−0.5t −2 e−2 t

Sample Exercise-4.1

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

1. Find the eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the following matrices

T T
1 2 Ans: λ 1=−1, λ 2=3, V 1=(−a , a ) , V 2=( b ,b )
a. [ ] 2 1 V 1|a=1=(−1 , 1 )T , V 2|b=1=( 1 , 1 )T
T T
Ans: λ 1=2, λ 2=−1, V 1=(−a , a ) , V 2=( 0 ,b )
b. [−13 02] V 1|a=1=(−1 , 1 )T , V 2|b=1=( 0 , 1 )T
T T
Ans: λ 1=−1, λ 2=5, V 1=(−2 a , a ) , V 2=( b ,b )
c. [ 12 34] V 1|a=1=(−2 , 1 )T , V 2|b=1=( 1 , 1 )T

Ans: λ 1=1, λ 2=2, λ 3=−2

1 2 −1
d.
[ 0 −2 0
0 −5 2 ] V 1=( a ,0 , 0 )T , V 2=(−b , 0 ,b )T , V 3= (−0.2 c , 0.8 c ,c )T
V 1|a=1=( 1,0,0 )T , V 2|b=1=(−1 , 0,1 )T ,V 2|c=1=(−0.2 , 0.8,1 )T

Ans: λ 1=2, λ 2=1, λ 3=−1

T
2 3 3 −2 c c
e.
[ 1 3 2
]
T
V 1=( 0 ,−a , a ) , V 2=(−b ,−b ,b ) , V 3=
3
T
,− ,c
3 ( )
−1 −4 −3 −2 1 T
V 1|a=1=( 0 ,−1,1 )T , V 2|b=1=(−1 ,−1,1 )T ,V 2|c=1= ( 3
,− , 1
3 )
2. Solve the following system of differential equations using eigenvalue and eigenvector where
d x1 dx
x˙1 ( t )= and x˙2 ( t )= 2 .
dt dt
Ans.
a.
( ) x 1 ( t ) = −8 e−t
{ x˙1 (t)=x1 ( t ) +2 x 2 (t)∧¿ x˙2 ( t )=3 x 1 ( t ) +2 x 2 (t)x 2 (t ) 5 a (−aa )− 54b e (32bb)
4t

with x 1 ( 0 )=0 , x 2 ( 0 ) =−4 .

( ) x 1 ( t ) = −8 e−t
x 2 (t ) 5 (−11)− 45 e (23).
4t

b. Ans.
{ x˙1 (t )=−5 x 1 ( t ) + x 2 (t)∧¿ x˙2 (t )=4 x 1 ( t )−2 x 2x(t1 (t)
) 3 2
= e−t 1 − e−6 t −1
with x 1 ( 0 )=1 , x 2 ( 0 )=2. ( )x 2 (t) 5 ()
4 5 1 ( )
c. Ans.
{ x˙1 (t )=x 2 ( t ) ∧¿ x˙2 ( t ) =1.5 x 1 ( t )−2.5 x 2 (t) x 1 (t) = −22 e−3 t 1 − 3 e 0.5 t 2
with x 1 ( 0 )=−4 , x 2 ( 0 )=9. ( )x 2 (t) 7 −3 7 ( ) 1 ()

Cayley-Hamilton Theorem:
Every square matrix is a zero of its characteristic polynomial.

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

Or,
Every square matrix satisfies its characteristic equation

i. e A n +an−1 A n−1 +an−2 A n−2 +… … ..++a1 A +a0 I =0

1 2 3

[
Example: Verify the Cayley-Hamilton theorem for the matrix A= 2 −1 1
3 1 1 ]
1 2 3 1 0 0

[ ][ ]
Solution: The characteristic matrix of A is A−λI = 2 −1 1 −λ 0 1 0
3 1 1 0 0 1
1−λ 2 3
¿ 2
3 [−1−λ
1
1
1−λ ]
Therefore, the characteristic equation of the matrix A is | A−λI |=0
1−λ 2 3
| 2
3
−1−λ
1
1 =0
1−λ |
⟹ λ3− λ2−15 λ−15=0

Now in order to verify Cayley –Hamilton theorem we have to show that

A3 −A 2−15 A−15 I =0
1 2 3
So, A=
[
2 −1 1
3 1 1 ]
1 2 3 1 2 3 14 3 8

[ ][
A2= 2 −1 1 2 −1 1 = 3 6 6
3 1 1 3 1 1 8 6 11 ][ ]
14 3 8 1 2 3 44 33 53

[ ][ ] [
A3 =A 2 A= 3 6 6 2 −1 1 = 33 6 21
8 6 11 3 1 1 53 21 41 ]
∴ A 3− A2 −15 A−15 I
44 33 53 14 3 8 1 2 3 1 0 0

[
53 21 41 ][ ] [
¿ 33 6 21 − 3 6 6 −15 2 −1 1 −15 0 1 0
8 6 11 3 1 1 0 0 1 ] [ ]
0 0 0

[ ]
¿ 0 0 0 =0
0 0 0
∴ A 3− A2 −15 A−15 I =0
Hence Cayley-Hamilton theorem is verified.

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

1 2 3

[
Example: Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find the inverse of the matrix A= 2 −1 1
3 1 1 ]
1 2 3 1 0 0

[ ][ ]
Solution: The characteristic matrix of A is A−λI = 2 −1 1 −λ 0 1 0
3 1 1 0 0 1

1−λ 2 3
¿
[ 2
3
−1−λ
1
1
1−λ ]
Therefore, the characteristic equation of the matrix A is | A−λI |=0
1−λ 2 3
| 2
3
−1−λ
1
1 =0
1−λ |
⟹ λ3− λ2−15 λ−15=0

Now according to the Cayley –Hamilton theorem, we have

A3 −A 2−15 A−15 I =0
⟹ A 2− A−15 I −15 A−1=0
1
⟹ A−1= [ A 2− A−15 I ]
15
Here,
1 2 3 1 2 3 14 3 8

[ ][
A2= 2 −1 1 2 −1 1 = 3 6 6
3 1 1 3 1 1 8 6 11 ][ ]
14 3 8 1 2 3 1 0 0
∴ A−1=
1
15 [ ][
3 6 6 − 2 −1 1 −15 0 1 0
8 6 11 3 1 1 0 0 1] [ ]
1 −2 1 5
¿
[
15
1 −8 5 .
5 5 −5 ]
1 2 2

[ ]
Example: Using Cayley-Hamilton theorem find the inverse of the matrix A= 3 1 0
1 1 1
1 2 2 1 0 0

1 1 1 [ ][ ]
The characteristic matrix of A is A−λI = 3 1 0 −λ 0 1 0
0 0 1
1−λ 2 2

[
¿ 3
1
1−λ
1 ]
0 .
1−λ
Therefore, the characteristic equation of the matrix A is | A−λI |=0

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

1−λ 2 2
|3
1
1−λ
1
0 =0
1−λ |
⟹ λ3−3 λ 2−5 λ+1=0
Now according to the Cayley –Hamilton theorem, we have
A3 −3 A 2−5 A + I =0
⟹ A 2−3 A−5 I + A−1=0
A−1=3 A +5 I −A 2
1 2 2
A= 3 1 0
1 1 1[ ]
1 2 2 1 2 2 9 6 4
2

[ ][ ] [ ]
A=3 1 0 3 1 0=6 7 6
1 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 3

1 2 2 1 0 0 9 6 4 −1 0 2

[ ] [ ][ ][
∴ A−1=3 3 1 0 +5 0 1 0 − 6 7 6 = 3
1 1 1 0 0 1 3 4 3
1 −6
−2 −1 5 ]
Sample Exercise-4.2
State the Cayley-Hamilton theorem. Hence find the inverse of the following matrices using Cayley –
Hamilton theorem and verify your result.

A= 2 5
1 3[ ] Ans.
−1
A = [−13 −52 ]
a.

1 2 2  −1 0 2

b.
A  3 1 0 
1 1 1 
Ans. A−1= 3
[
1 −6
−2 −1 5 ]
2 0 1 −2 5 −3

[
c. A= −2 3 4
−5 5 6 ] Ans.
[
A−1= −8 17 −10
5 −10 6 ]
1 2 3 −40 16 9

[ ]
d. A= 2 5 3
1 0 8
−1

[
Ans. A = 13 −5 −3
5 −2 −1 ]
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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

1 −1 1 0 1 −1
e. A=
[
2 −1 0
1 −1 0 ] Ans.
[
A−1= 0 1 −2
1 0 −1 ]
Vector
Vector Spaces
Vectors in R2:
The set of all ordered pairs of real numbers is called two-dimensional vector space and is denoted by
R2.
R2= { ( x , y ) : x , y ∈ R } , where R2 =R× R
Example:( 1,2 ) ; ( 2,−1 ) ; ( 3,4 ) ; ( √3 , 5 ) ;(0 , e )∈ R 2
Vectors in R3:
The set of all ordered triplets of real numbers is called three-dimensional vector space and is denoted
by R3
R3= { ( x , y , z ) : x , y , z ∈ R } , where R3=R × R × R
Vectors in Rn :
Ifn is a positive integer then the set of all ordered n triplets of real numbers is called vector n-space
and is denoted by Rn and if u ∈ R n; u=(u1 , u2 ,… … , un ), then u is called a n-dimensional vector in Rn .
A particular n triplets in Rn is called co-ordinates of point.
Addition of two vectors in R2:
If a¿ ( a 1 , a2 )and b=( b 1 , b2 ) be two vectors in R2 then a+ b=(a1 +b 1 , a2 +b 2)

Fig: addition of two vectors.

2
Subtraction of two vectors in R :
If a¿ ( a 1 , a2 )and b=( b 1 , b2 ) be two vectors in R2 then a−b=(a1−b1 , a2−b2)

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

Fig: Subtraction of two vectors.

Scalar multiplication of vectors in R2:
Let k ∈ R be a scalar and u ∈ R2 where u=(u1 , u2) is a vector in R2 then
k u=k ( u1 ,u 2 )=( k u 1 , k u2 )

Zero Vector:
The vector whose components are all zero is called the zero vector and is denoted by 0 and defined
by 0=(0,0 ,… .. , 0)
Dot or Inner product of two non-zero vectors:
Let u(u 1 , u2 ) and v(v 1 , v 2) are two non-zero vectors and θ be the angle between. The dot product of u
and v is denoted by u , v and defined by u . v=‖u‖‖v‖cos θ ¿ u1 v 1 +u2 v 2
Parallel vectors in R2 :
Let u , v ϵ R2, then the vector u is called parallel vector of v if u=k v. If the non-zero scalar k > 0 then
they are in the same directed and if k < 0 then they are in opposite directed.
Perpendicular vectors in R2 :
Let u , v ∈ R2 then u and v are said to be perpendicular (or orthogonal) if u . v=0
Example: Let u , v ∈ R2 where u=( 3 ,−4 ) , v= ( 8,6 ) ; u ∙ v=3 ∙ 8+ (−4 ) ∙6=0
Hence u and v are perpendicular vector.
Distance between two vectors in R2 :
Let u , v ∈ R2 where u(u 1 , u2 ) and v(v 1 , v 2), then the distance between u and v, denoted by d (u , v) are
2 2
√
defined by d ( u , v )= ( u1−v 1 ) + ( u2−v 2 )
Example: If u=( 5,4 ) , v=(1,1) then d ( u , v )=√ ( 5−1 )2 + ( 4−1 )2=√ 16+9=5

Norm or Length in R2 :
Let u ∈ R2 , where u=(u1 , u2) then the norm or length or modulus of u denoted by ‖u‖ and is defined
by ‖u‖= √u ∙u=√ u21 + u22

Example: Let u , v ∈ R3 ; where u=(1,0 ,−1), v=(2 ,−3,1) then find

( i ) 2 u+3 v ( ii ) u ∙ v (iii)‖v‖ (iv) ‖u−v‖ ( v ) d (u , v )
Solution:
( i ) 2 u+3 v=2 (1,0 ,−1 ) +3 ( 2,−3,1 )=( 2,0 ,−2 )+ ( 6 ,−9,3 )=(8 ,−9,1)
( ii ) u ∙ v=1 ∙2+0 ∙ (−3 ) + (−1 ) ∙1=2−1=1
( iii )‖v‖=√ 4+ 9+1= √14
( iv ) u−v= (1−2,0+3 ,−1−1 )=(−1,3 ,−2 )

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

2 2 2
∴‖u−v‖=√ (−1 ) +3 + (−2 ) =√ 14
2
( v ) d ( u , v )=√ ( 1−2 ) +¿ ¿ .
Vector Spaces:
Let F be a field of scalars and V be a non-empty set of vectors. If V contains the following rules of
vector addition and scalar multiplication, then V is called vector space over F.
In vector addition:
A1 :u , v ∈ V ⇒ ( u+v ) ∈V
A2 :u , v , w ∈V ⇒ ( u+ v )+ w=u+(v +w)
A3 :u , 0∈ V ⇒ ( u+0 ) =( 0+u )=u ,here 0 is the zero vector
A 4 :u , v ∈V ⇒ u+ v=v +u
A5 :u ∈V ⇒−u∈ V ⇒u+ (−u ) =(−u ) +u=0
In scalar multiplication:
M 1 : a∈ F∧u∈ V ⇒ a u ∈V
M 2 : a∈ F∧u , v ∈ V ⇒ a ( u+v ) =a u+a v
M 3 : a ,b ∈ F∧u ∈V ⇒ ( a+b ) u=a u+b u
M 4 :a , b ∈ F∧u ∈V ⇒ ( ab ) u=a (b u)
M 3 :1 ∈ F ⇒ 1.u=u .1=u ; u ∈ F
Subspace:
Let W be a non empty subset of a vector space V over the fieldF. We call W a subspace of V if and
only if W is a vector space over the field F under the laws of vector addition and scalar
multiplication defined on V , or equivalently, W is a subspace of V wherever w 1 , w 2 ∈ W and
α , β ∈ F implies that α w1 + β w2 ∈ W .
Example: Show that S={( a , b , c)∣ a , b , c ∊ R∧a+b+ c=0 } is a subspace of the vector space R3.
Solution: Here 0 ∊ R 3 ,0=( 0,0,0) ∊ S ∴ 0+0+0=0
Hence S is non empty set. Again, let u=(a 1 , b1 , c 1) ∊ S and v=(a2 ,b 2 , c 2)∊ S
a 1+b 1+ c 1=0 and a 2+b 2+ c 2=0
For any scalars α, β we get α u+ β v=α ( a1 , b 1 , c 1 ) + β ( a2 ,b 2 , c 2 )
¿( α a1 + β a2 , α b1 + β b 2 , α c1 + β c 2)
Now, a+ b+c=( α a1 + β a2 +α b 1+ β b2 +α c 1+ β c 2 )
¿ α ( a1 +b1 +c 1 ) + β ( a2 +b2 +c 2 ) =α .0+ β .0=0
∴ α u+ β v ∈ S. Hence S is a subspace of R3 .

Linear combination, Dependency and Independency of Vector

Linear combination:
Let V (F) be a vector space, where v1 , v 2 , v 3 … v n ∊V and α 1 , α 2 , α 3 … αn ∊ F . If
α 1 v 1+ α 2 v 2 +α 3 v 3+ …+α n v n=u ∊V , then u is called linear combination of v1 , v 2 , v 3 … v n .

Linear dependency of vectors:

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

Let V (F) be a vector space, where v1 , v 2 , v 3 … v n ∊V and α 1 , α 2 , α 3 … α n ∊ F . If

α 1 v 1+ α 2 v 2 +α 3 v 3+ …+α n v n=0, and at least one of the element of the set {α 1 , α 2 , α 3 … α n } is not zero,
then the vectors v1 , v 2 , v 3 … v n are linearly dependent.

Linear independency of vectors:

Let V (F) be a vector space and v1 , v 2 , v 3 , … v n ∊ V and α 1 , α 2 , α 3 ,… α n ∊ F . If
α 1 v 1+ α 2 v 2 +α 3 v 3+ …+α n v n=0, and all of the elements of the set {α 1 , α 2 , α 3 … α n } are zero , then the
vectors v1 , v 2 , v 3 … v n are linearly independent.

Example: Write the vector u=(1 ,−2,5) as a linear combination of the vectors
u1= (1,1,1 ) , u2=( 1,2,3 ) ∧u3=(2 ,−1,1) .
Solution: Let α 1 u1 +α 2 u 2+ α 3 u3=u ; where α 1 , α 2 , α 3 are scalars.
α 1 ( 1,1,1 ) +α 2 ( 1,2,3 ) +α 3 (2 ,−1,1 )=(1 ,−2,5)
(α ¿ ¿ 1+ α 2 +2 α 3 , α 1+2 α 2−α 3 ,α 1+ 3 α 2 +α 3)=(1 ,−2,5) ¿
Equating corresponding components
α 1+ α 2 +2 α 3 =1
α 1+ 2α 2−α 3=−2
α 1+ 3 α 2 +α 3=5
Solving using elementary row operation, we get α 1=−6 , α 2=3∧α 3=2.
∴−6 u1 +3 u2 +2 u3=u
Hence u is a linear combination of the vectors u1 ,u 2∧u3.

Example: Test whether the vectors u1= (1 , 0 , 1 ) , u2= (−3 ,2 , 6 ) ∧u3=( 4 , 5 ,−2) are linearly dependent
or independent.
Solution: Let α 1 u1 +α 2 u 2+ α 3 u3=0 ; where α 1 , α 2 , α 3 are scalars.
α 1 ( 1 , 0 ,1 ) + α 2 (−3 ,2 , 6 ) +α 3 ( 4 , 5 ,−2 ) =(0 , 0 , 0)
(α ¿ ¿ 1−3 α 2+ 4 α 3 ,0+ 2α 2 +5 α 3 , α 1 +6 α 2−2 α 3 )=(0 , 0 , 0)¿

We can write from above equation

α 1−3 α 2+ 4 α 3=0
0+2 α 2+ 5 α 3=0
α 1+ 6 α 2−2α 3=0
Solving the above linear system, we get α 1=0 , α 2=0∧α 3=0.
Hence the vectors u1 ,u 2∧u3 are linearly independent

Sample Exercise-4.3
Write the vector uas a linear combination of the vectors u1 ,u 2∧u3 , where
1. u=(5 , 9 , 5) ,u1= (1 ,−1, 3 ) , u2=( 2 , 1, 4 ) , u3=(3 ,2 , 5).

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Matrices, Vectors & Fourier analysis Fall 20-21

2. u=(6 , 20 , 2) ,u1= (1 , 2 ,3 ) , u2= (1 , 3 ,−2 ) , u3=(1 , 4,1).

3. u=( 4 , 2 ,1 , 0) ,u1= (3 , 1 , 0 ,1 ) , u2=( 1 , 2, 3 , 1 ) ,u3 =(0 , 3 , 6 , 6).

Test whether the following vectors are linearly independent or dependent.

4. u1= (2 ,−1 , 4 ) , u2=( 3 , 6 , 2 ) , u3 =(2 , 10 ,−4 )
5. u1= (3 , 0 , 1 ,−1 ) , u2=( 2 ,−1 , 0 ,1 ) , u3=(1 ,1 , 1 ,−2)
6. u1= (1 ,−1, 2 ) ,u 2=( 3 ,−5 , 1 ) ,u 3=( 2 ,7,8 ) , u 4=(−1 ,1 , 1)
7. u1= (2 , 1 ,2 ) , u2=( 0 , 1 ,−1 ) , u3=(4 ,3 , 3) .
8. u1= (2 , 0 ,−1 ) , u2=( 1 , 1 ,0 ) , u3=(0 ,−1, 1)

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