HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

RONALD DE HERRERA BARRERO

Copyright © 2009-2021

Second Review

Página 0 de 62
 Author's Warning

The content of this book could contribute to the

proliferation of nuclear weapons. Therefore, it
is the sole responsibility of the reader, be it a
natural person, a group with legal status or not,
authorized or not, government or other type of
organization. The author declines all
responsibility for the use of the information
contained in this book.

The author.

_____________________________________________________________________

First Edition in Spanish, 2009 - Ronald De Herrera Barrero

First Review, 2014 - Ronald De Herrera Barrero
Second Review, 2021 - Ronald De Herrera Barrero
First English Translation, 2021 - Ronald De Herrera Barrero
Total or partial reproduction without authorization of the author is prohibited.
Copyright © 2009-2021, Ronald De Herrera Barrero
La Paz – Bolivia.

1
 Content
Author's Warning............................................................ 1
Gratitude................................................................... 3
Preface..................................................................... 4
FIRST PART.................................................................. 5
1. Introduction ........................................................ 5
2. Neutron Source ...................................................... 6
3. Nuclear Fission ..................................................... 6
4. Nuclear Fusion ...................................................... 8
SECOND PART................................................................ 12
5. Chain Reaction ..................................................... 12
6. Nuclear Resonance Fission .......................................... 14
7. Finding and Obtaining Deuterium .................................... 15
8. Reaction of Hydrocarbons ........................................... 16
THIRD PART................................................................. 18
9. Magma Producing Isotopes ........................................... 18
10. Calculation of the Critical Mass ................................... 21
11. Gamma Ray Generator ................................................ 22
12. Construction of a Nuclear Bomb ..................................... 27
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................... 31
APPENDICES................................................................. 33
A. Fundamental Constants .............................................. 33
B. Periodic Table ..................................................... 34
C. Trigger Arrays ..................................................... 35
D. Gamma Ray Emitting Device .......................................... 39
E. High Voltage Circuit ............................................... 43
F. Circuit Diagrams ................................................... 47
G. Printed Circuits ................................................... 50
H. Bill of Materials .................................................. 60

2
 Gratitude

To the Most High Creator of the Universe

Because it has given me knowledge of his works, and because

now it allows me to show that, in the same way as the story
tells when David fought against Goliath. However small one
may be considered, it is always possible to defeat a giant.

To Microsoft Corporation and its founder Bill Gates

For his negligent attitude, for his lack of ethics, honor

and respect, before my just and legitimate claim of the
intellectual property of the algorithm that makes the
Microsoft Windows Operating System possible. Algorithm that
is currently known as Multithread Processing1. Motivation
without which this book would never have been written.

1
For more information about this claim, please download the book where all the
details are narrated, from any of the following Internet addresses:

I am the inventor of Windows - The hidden truth of Microsoft

www.whoinventedwindows.com
www.scribd.com/document/475788690/I-Am-the-Inventor-of-Windows-The-hidden-
truth-of-Microsoft
www.amazon.com/dp/B08HLB5WPN
www.bubok.es/libros/265594/I-am-the-inventor-of-Windows--The-hidden-truth-of-
Microsoft

3
 Preface

Why write about this content? And why not? The answer sounds ambiguous, because
generally when we talk about weapons of mass destruction, we immediately
associate them with nuclear weapons. Which is also correct. But who associates
excessive capitalism as a weapon of mass destruction? Who associates the
continuous depredation that the planet suffers to satisfy capitalist interests?
Who associates the democratic system that tries to confer rights, when the
number one right: The right to life, is continuously trampled by the richest
over the poorest? Aren't those also weapons of mass destruction?

I could go on to point out endless aberrations and abuses committed by the

"almighty" on the weakest, but we are all aware of that. Now what is necessary
for all of us to be aware is: The why of life, the true purpose of God.

Humans apparently have not learned and apparently do not want to learn. Entire
people and societies act as if they should never die. There are no survivors on
this earth! What is the reason for fighting with each other? What is the reason
for this excessive selfishness? Wouldn't it be better to take life as an
opportunity to share on equal terms?

It is time to do justice to so much impunity that has prevailed for so many

centuries. Now, we are going to put each and every human being on an equal
footing. With the same responsibility and the same right to decide the future
of the human race.

Ronald De Herrera Barrero

4
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

FIRST PART

1. Introduction

Many nuclear processes have been observed in nature, such as cosmic ray
collisions with atoms in the Earth's atmosphere. Cosmic rays and other
particles from interstellar nuclear processes propagate at constant speeds
through space, until they collide with a body in space. The processes inside a
volcano are also of nuclear origin. The sun is another example of a nuclear
process.

Nuclear processes are studied by an area of physics, called nuclear physics. In

essence, a nuclear reaction is the result of the nuclei of two atoms colliding.
The result of a nuclear reaction is fission or nuclear fusion, depending on the
characteristics of the collision and the properties of the interacting atoms. A
nuclear process is the combination of more than one nuclear reaction at the
same time.

For the study of nuclear reactions, the tools described by Newtonian mechanics
(classical) and relativistic mechanics (modern) are required. In most cases,
the speeds of the interacting particles do not reach speeds greater than 1/3
the speed of light, so in general, Newtonian mechanics is sufficient. However,
relativistic mechanics provides concepts and tools as well as useful ones,
necessary for the study of nuclear processes.

Basically, for two nuclei to interact it is necessary that at least one of the
nuclei has a minimum energy. When the Binding Energy Eb, resulting from a
reaction is negative, there is a so-called Threshold Energy for the reaction to
occur. When the Binding Energy Eb, resulting from the reaction is positive,
sufficient energy is required to overcome the Potential Barrier, or
electrostatic repulsion energy between nuclei.

In the file RNUCLEAR.XLS (Microsoft Excel spreadsheet), everything necessary

has been programmed to calculate the parameters associated with the nuclear
reactions that are presented in this book. Different types of reactions are
provided, according to the characteristics of the shock, you can select the one
that particularly suits the case. In this way, just by entering the symbol of
the elements to be considered in a reaction in the corresponding cells, the
respective parameters are automatically obtained.

This spreadsheet also allows us to take care of the sum of the protons and mass

5
numbers, both in the reactants and in the products (principle of conservation
of baryons). On the other hand, it is important to take into account that all
atomic mass units (A.M.U.) are calculated from the equation of the nuclear
binding energy. What does not prevent, that another data of greater precision
is superimposed, in the corresponding cell.

Unless otherwise stated, all reactions discussed in this book refer to the
center of mass of the reaction. Because in practice, the whole system is in
motion. Presumably, the reader has knowledge in Physics, Chemistry and
Electronics. Reason why in this book, the necessary theoretical concepts are
not reviewed.

2. Neutron Source

It has been shown experimentally that it is possible to obtain the emission of

neutrons by bombarding Lithium, Beryllium or Boron with alpha particles.
However, for Lithium and Boron higher energies are required for alpha
particles, coming from some radioactive element such as Polonium, Radium,
Uranium or another. The energy with which alpha particles have been found to be
emitted is of the order of approximately 4.67 MeV (millions of electron volts),
a speed of more or less 15000 km/s (kilometers per second). Also, 1 gr. radio
emits about 3.57E + 10 alpha particles per second. So, considering the reaction
for Beryllium:
(2.a)
REACTION 2He4 4Be9 --> 6C12 0n1
A.M.U. 4.0027 9.0139 12.0027 1.0087
Ek (eV) 4.67E+06 0.00E+00 5.82E+06 4.89E+05
v (m/s) 1.50E+07 0.00E+00 9.67E+06 9.67E+06
P (k·m/s) 9.97E-20 0.00E+00 1.93E-19 1.62E-20
Eb (MeV) 2.82E+01 5.66E+01 8.97E+01 0.00E+00

As the resulting binding energy, equivalent to the mass balance of the reaction
is positive, there is no Energy Threshold for this reaction, but a minimum
energy is required to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between the nuclei,
this minimum energy is called Potential Barrier.

Then, for reaction (2.a) to occur, an energy of at least 1.15 MeV is required
for the incident alpha particle, such that it is possible to overcome the
electrostatic potential barrier. Then, the minimum velocity of the incident
particle is 7452 Km/s.

Applying Newtonian collision mechanics, the results shown under reaction (2.a)
are obtained. That is, the total energy released is 6.31 MeV in the form of the
kinetic energy of the product elements, 4.87 MeV by binding energy plus 1.44
MeV by the energy provided by the incident particle, after the collision.
Therefore, the speed of the emitted neutrons is 9670 km/s.

3. Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission consists of the division of a heavy nucleus into two or more

6
lighter fragments. Nuclear fission is experienced in many reactions, after
capturing a slow (thermal) neutron.

Fig. 3.1: Nuclear fission reaction.

Consider the capture reaction for the uranium isotope U235.

(3.a)
REACTION 0n1 92U235 --> 92U236
A.M.U. 1.0087 235.0425 236.0441
Ek (eV) 4.89E+05 0.00E+00 6.54E+06
v (m/s) 9.67E+06 0.00E+00 2.31E+06
P (k•m/s) 1.62E-20 0.00E+00 9.06E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 1.79E+03 1.79E+03

The energy released in the form of kinetic energy from the composite nucleus is
6.54 MeV. The energy contribution by the incident neutron is negligible,
compared to the energy resulting from the reaction. Moment later,
(3.b)
REACTION 92U236 --> 56Ba142 36Kr92 0n1 0n1
A.M.U. 236.0441 141.9222 91.9297 1.0087 1.0087
Ek (eV) 0.00E+00 6.95E+07 6.95E+07 1.19E+07 1.19E+07
v (m/s) 0.00E+00 9.72E+06 1.21E+07 4.78E+07 4.78E+07
P (k•m/s) 0.00E+00 2.29E-18 1.84E-18 8.00E-20 8.00E-20
Eb (MeV) 1.79E+03 1.17E+03 7.80E+02 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

The energy released as kinetic energy from the fragments is 162.96 MeV. The
energy contribution by the composite nucleus before fission is 6.54 MeV.
However, the kinetic energy of the composite nucleus is negligible compared to
the kinetic energy released at the instant of fission. Noting that the kinetic
energy of the composite nucleus has the effects of increasing or decreasing
according to the sense and direction of the fragment velocities.

So the total kinetic energy released is 169.5 MeV. Additionally, at the instant
of fission, energy is released in the form of gamma rays, beta rays and
neutrinos.

When U238 captures a thermal neutron, the resulting composite core is U239.
After 23 min., U239 is transmuted into Np239 (neptunium), which in turn after
2.3 days is transmuted into Pu239 (plutonium). Let us now consider the capture
and fission reactions for Pu239.

7
 (3.c)
REACTION 0n1 94Pu239 --> 94Pu240
A.M.U. 1.0087 239.0513 240.0527
Ek (eV) 4.89E+05 0.00E+00 6.71E+06
v (m/s) 9.67E+06 0.00E+00 2.32E+06
P (k•m/s) 1.62E-20 0.00E+00 9.26E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 1.81E+03 1.81E+03
(3.d)
REACTION 94Pu240 --> 57La144 37Rb94 0n1 0n1
A.M.U. 240.0527 143.9236 93.9287 1.0087 1.0087
Ek (eV) 0.00E+00 7.28E+07 7.28E+07 1.25E+07 1.25E+07
v (m/s) 0.00E+00 9.88E+06 1.22E+07 4.89E+07 4.89E+07
P (k•m/s) 0.00E+00 2.36E-18 1.91E-18 8.19E-20 8.19E-20
Eb (MeV) 1.81E+03 1.19E+03 7.96E+02 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

The kinetic energy released in (3.c) is 6.72 MeV. The kinetic energy released
in (3.d) is 170.56 MeV. The sum total is 177.28 MeV as total energy released in
the fission of Pu239.

Therefore, a kilogram of U235 releases 6.96E + 13 Joules (16.65 Kilotons, 1

gram of nitroglycerin releases 4.18E + 03 Joules). Similarly, a kilogram of
Pu239 releases 7.16E + 13 Joules (17.12 Kilotons), energies capable of lifting
more than 7 million cubic meters of water, to a height of 1 kilometer.

4. Nuclear Fusion

The reverse process of nuclear fission is nuclear fusion. This consists of the
formation of a heavier nucleus from two colliding light nuclei. There is an
innumerable amount of natural and artificial processes, which consist of the
fusion of two or more nuclei.

Fig. 4.1: Nuclear fusion reaction (4.j).

For nuclear fusion to be possible, the interacting nuclei are required to

possess a minimum of kinetic energy to overcome the coulombian repulsion
barrier. The average kinetic energy of a system of particles that have a
temperature T (in degrees kelvin), is of the order of kT or about 8.6E-05 * T
eV, a relation that gives an idea of the high temperatures that result from the
process of nuclear fusion.

8
Let us now consider one of the simplest nuclear fusion processes, the reaction
of capture of a free neutron by a hydrogen atom, to form a deuterium atom.
(4.a)
REACTION 0n1 1H1 --> 1D2
A.M.U. 1.0087 1.0078 2.0141
Ek (eV) 4.89E+05 0.00E+00 2.47E+06
v (m/s) 9.67E+06 0.00E+00 1.54E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.62E-20 0.00E+00 5.14E-20
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 0.00E+00 2.22E+00

In this reaction, there is no potential barrier since the neutron has no

electrical charge. The kinetic energy released in (4.a) is 2.47 MeV. If we
assume that we are bombarding liquid hydrogen with neutrons, the following
reactions that would occur after (4.a) occurs are the following:
(4.b)
REACTION 1D2 1H1 --> 2He3
A.M.U. 2.0141 1.0078 3.0155
Ek (eV) 2.47E+06 0.00E+00 7.67E+06
v (m/s) 1.54E+07 0.00E+00 2.22E+07
P (k•m/s) 5.14E-20 0.00E+00 1.11E-19
Eb (MeV) 2.22E+00 0.00E+00 8.25E+00
(4.c)
REACTION 2He3 1H1 --> 3Li4
A.M.U. 3.0155 1.0078 4.0551
Ek (eV) 1.19E+08 0.00E+00 8.92E+07
v (m/s) 8.81E+07 0.00E+00 6.55E+07
P (k•m/s) 4.41E-19 0.00E+00 4.41E-19
Eb (MeV) 8.25E+00 0.00E+00 2.14E+01

The cycle consists of (4.a) and (4.b). The (4.c) is not produced because its
resultant binding energy is negative, so a threshold energy of 118.86 MeV is
required, which is much higher than what (4.b) provides. So the maximum energy
released in this cycle is 10.14 MeV.

For the following incident neutrons, the previous cycle is repeated, but other
reactions also take place giving rise to other cycles, since in addition to
hydrogen there are also the other elements resulting from the primary cycle. So
other possible reactions would be the following:
(4.d)
REACTION 1D2 1D2 --> 2He4
A.M.U. 2.0141 2.0141 4.0027
Ek (eV) 1.44E+05 0.00E+00 2.38E+07
v (m/s) 3.71E+06 0.00E+00 3.39E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.24E-20 0.00E+00 2.25E-19
Eb (MeV) 2.22E+00 2.22E+00 2.82E+01

(4.e)
REACTION 1D2 1D2 --> 2He3 0n1
A.M.U. 2.0141 2.0141 3.0155 1.0087
Ek (eV) 1.44E+05 0.00E+00 2.90E+06 9.72E+05
v (m/s) 3.71E+06 0.00E+00 1.36E+07 1.36E+07

9
 P (k•m/s) 1.24E-20 0.00E+00 6.83E-20 2.28E-20
Eb (MeV) 2.22E+00 2.22E+00 8.25E+00 0.00E+00
(4.f)
REACTION 1D2 1D2 --> 1T3 1H1
A.M.U. 2.0141 2.0141 3.0147 1.0078
Ek (eV) 1.44E+05 0.00E+00 4.01E+06 1.34E+06
v (m/s) 3.71E+06 0.00E+00 1.60E+07 1.60E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.24E-20 0.00E+00 8.02E-20 2.68E-20
Eb (MeV) 2.22E+00 2.22E+00 9.73E+00 0.00E+00

In these reactions, the minimum energy necessary to overcome the potential

barrier between nuclei is considered, which makes these reactions perfectly
possible, since as can be seen in (4.a), the kinetic energy of the resulting
deuteron is much greater than the potential barrier of the corresponding
reactions. The energy released in (4.d) is 23.83 MeV, in (4.e) it is 3.88 MeV
and 5.35 MeV in (4.f). As a result of (4.d) we consider the following reaction:
(4.g)
REACTION 2He4 1H1 --> 2He3 1D2
A.M.U. 4.0027 1.0078 3.0155 2.0141
Ek (eV) 8.83E+07 0.00E+00 4.23E+07 2.83E+07
v (m/s) 6.56E+07 0.00E+00 5.22E+07 5.22E+07
P (k•m/s) 4.36E-19 0.00E+00 2.62E-19 1.75E-19
Eb (MeV) 2.82E+01 0.00E+00 8.25E+00 2.22E+00

But (4.g) is not produced because the resulting binding energy is negative and
requires a threshold energy of at least 88.33 MeV. Similarly, the triton
released in (4.f) would attempt the following reactions:
(4.h)
REACTION 1T3 1H1 --> 2He4
A.M.U. 3.0147 1.0078 4.0027
Ek (eV) 4.01E+06 0.00E+00 2.15E+07
v (m/s) 1.60E+07 0.00E+00 3.22E+07
P (k•m/s) 8.02E-20 0.00E+00 2.14E-19
Eb (MeV) 9.73E+00 0.00E+00 2.82E+01
(4.i)
REACTION 1T3 1H1 --> 1D2 1D2
A.M.U. 3.0147 1.0078 2.0141 2.0141
Ek (eV) 2.11E+07 0.00E+00 7.91E+06 7.91E+06
v (m/s) 3.68E+07 0.00E+00 2.76E+07 2.76E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.84E-19 0.00E+00 9.22E-20 9.22E-20
Eb (MeV) 9.73E+00 0.00E+00 2.22E+00 2.22E+00

The energy of the incident triton in (4.h) widely exceeds the electrostatic
repulsion barrier, which makes the reaction perfectly possible, releasing 21.48
MeV as kinetic energy from the composite nucleus. The released He4 nucleus
could try (4.g) but it does not happen, because it does not exceed the
necessary threshold energy.

The (4.i) reaction does not occur because its binding energy is negative and
requires a threshold energy of at least 21.1 MeV, which is much more than (4.f)
provides.

10
On the other hand, deuteron-deuteron reactions originate neutrons that make it
possible to continue the neutron-hydrogen cycle, but also allow more reactions,
such as those that follow:
(4.j)
REACTION 1D2 1T3 --> 2He4 0n1
A.M.U. 2.0141 3.0147 4.0027 1.0087
Ek (eV) 1.44E+05 0.00E+00 1.30E+07 3.28E+06
v (m/s) 3.71E+06 0.00E+00 2.51E+07 2.51E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.24E-20 0.00E+00 1.67E-19 4.20E-20
Eb (MeV) 2.22E+00 9.73E+00 2.82E+01 0.00E+00
(4.k)
REACTION 1D2 2He3 --> 2He4 1H1
A.M.U. 2.0141 3.0155 4.0027 1.0078
Ek (eV) 2.88E+05 0.00E+00 1.43E+07 3.59E+06
v (m/s) 5.25E+06 0.00E+00 2.62E+07 2.62E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.76E-20 0.00E+00 1.74E-19 4.39E-20
Eb (MeV) 2.22E+00 8.25E+00 2.82E+01 0.00E+00

In the same way, the minimum energy necessary for these reactions to occur is
considered. It is to be assumed, of course, that the interacting nuclei lose
part or a large part of their initial energy due to the angle of incidence and
rebound on the walls of the container.

The released energy resulting from (4.j) is 16.31 MeV and 17.85 MeV for (4.k).
The He4 particles resulting from these reactions could again try (4.g), but it
does not happen because they do not reach the necessary energy threshold. The
released neutron repeats the neutron-hydrogen cycle, but the proton released in
(4.f) and (4.k) initiates proton-proton cycles.

In principle, the problem arises when trying to sustain a neutron-hydrogen

cycle. Due to the difficulty that exists in the availability of an abundance of
neutrons, as seen in (2.a), large amounts of Be9 would be required, an element
that is not abundant in nature.

On the other hand, the problem arises that in a neutron-hydrogen cycle, as

could be appreciated and suspected, there are a number of possible secondary
reactions. Making calculations difficult and releasing unwanted residual
elements and particles.

11
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

SECOND PART

5. Chain Reaction

A chain reaction is one that can be self-sustaining, so that it propagates

until the interacting elements are extinguished. In nature there are many
processes that react in a chain, combustion is one of them. In the fission of
U235 or Pu239, there is the possibility of achieving a chain reaction. Since at
the instant of fission two or three neutrons are released per reaction,
equations (3.b) and (3.d), and of these neutrons at least one produces another
fission, a uniform chain reaction results. But if more than one of these
neutrons produces a new fission, the number of reactions grows exponentially,
giving rise to a nuclear explosion.

Fig. 5.1: Chain reaction by fission of U235.

It is also possible to achieve a chain reaction for nuclear fusion. A proton-

proton cycle is a clear example of this. However, the fundamental idea is to
get a reaction that can be self-sustaining, and is also possible in practice.
Let's consider the following cycle:
(5.a)
REACTION 2He4 1D2 --> 3Li6
A.M.U. 4.0027 2.0141 6.0149
Ek (eV) 4.67E+06 0.00E+00 4.87E+06
v (m/s) 1.50E+07 0.00E+00 1.25E+07

12
 P (k•m/s) 9.97E-20 0.00E+00 1.25E-19
Eb (MeV) 2.82E+01 2.22E+00 3.22E+01
(5.b)
REACTION 3Li6 1D2 --> 2He4 2He4
A.M.U. 6.0149 2.0141 4.0027 4.0027
Ek (eV) 4.87E+06 0.00E+00 1.28E+07 1.28E+07
v (m/s) 1.25E+07 0.00E+00 2.49E+07 2.49E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.25E-19 0.00E+00 1.65E-19 1.65E-19
Eb (MeV) 3.22E+01 2.22E+00 2.82E+01 2.82E+01

When an alpha particle, coming from a radioactive element such as U235 or

Pu239, collides with a deuterium nucleus, nuclear fusion occurs, the resulting
Li6 nucleus collides in turn with another deuterium nucleus, resulting in two
new alpha particles, which in turn propagate with greater energy and repeat the
process.

Since the energy of the alpha particles released in (5.b) is greater than the
energy of the incident alpha particle in (5.a), it suggests the idea of a
progressive energy increase in the propagation of this cycle . However, if we
iteratively calculate this cycle, a maximum propagation energy of the resulting
alpha particles is determined. This is,
(5.c)
REACTION 2He4 1D2 --> 3Li6
A.M.U. 4.0027 2.0141 6.0149
Ek (eV) 1.56E+07 0.00E+00 1.21E+07
v (m/s) 2.74E+07 0.00E+00 1.97E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.82E-19 0.00E+00 1.97E-19
Eb (MeV) 2.82E+01 2.22E+00 3.22E+01
(5.d)
REACTION 3Li6 1D2 --> 2He4 2He4
A.M.U. 6.0149 2.0141 4.0027 4.0027
Ek (eV) 1.21E+07 0.00E+00 1.55E+07 1.56E+07
v (m/s) 1.97E+07 0.00E+00 2.74E+07 2.74E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.97E-19 0.00E+00 1.82E-19 1.82E-19
Eb (MeV) 3.22E+01 2.22E+00 2.82E+01 2.82E+01

After 523 iterations, the cycle stabilizes and propagates uniformly, releasing
a total energy of 43.19 MeV for each new cycle that occurs. In this way,
neglecting the first 523 iterations, and considering that two deuterium atoms
are required for each cycle, a total of 1.03E + 15 Joules per kilogram of
deuterium consumed (247.49 Kilotons) is calculated, enough energy to raise 105
million of cubic meters of water, at a height of 1 kilometer. That is, 14.5
times more than the energy released by a kilogram of Pu239. In addition, fewer
unwanted residual particles are released in this helium-deuterium cycle.

To ensure that the helium-deuterium cycle occurs, the shape of the container is
very important. A conical shape of the container that contains liquid deuterium
(liquefaction pressure and temperature), where a radioactive element is located
in the upper part of the cone (to emit alpha particles), which at a given
moment will come into contact with the deuterium to initiate the chain
reaction.

13
6. Nuclear Resonance Fission

Three types of radiation are known, alpha, beta and gamma. Alpha radiation
refers to the emission of alpha particles equivalent to helium He4 nuclei. Beta
radiation refers to the emission of beta particles equivalent to electrons or
positrons. Gamma radiation refers to the emission of electromagnetic waves
equivalent to zero mass X particles, which are photons in the form of X-rays,
gamma rays or cosmic rays, depending on their energy. Fig. 6.1 shows the
bandwidths corresponding to the different electromagnetic radiation.

Fig. 6.1: Electromagnetic radiation spectrum.

In nature, every body has a resonance frequency. In a similar way to the

breaking of a crystal, when a certain frequency is vibrated in its proximity,
nuclear fission is also possible, due to the effect of nuclear resonance in
relation to the length of the electromagnetic wave to which an atom is exposed.
In this way, the following reaction would be produced by the collision of X
particles (photons), against deuterium nuclei.
(6.a)
REACTION 0X0 1D2 --> 1H1 0n1
A.M.U. 0.0000 2.0141 1.0078 1.0087
Ek (eV) 2.22E+06 0.00E+00 6.57E+02 6.58E+02
v (m/s) 3.00E+08 0.00E+00 3.55E+05 3.55E+05
P (k•m/s) 1.19E-21 0.00E+00 5.94E-22 5.94E-22
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 2.22E+00 0.00E+00 0.00E+00

Reaction (6.a) is possible provided that the energy of the incident X particles
is greater than or equal to the binding energy Eb of the deuterium nuclei. So,
the Threshold Energy for this reaction is 2.22 MeV.

Hence, the minimum X-ray wavelength for reaction (6.a) to occur is calculated
from the following relationship:

λ = hc/EU = 1.99E-25/EU (6.1)

Where h is Planck's constant, c is the speed of light and EU is the required

Threshold Energy. Then for EU = 3.56E-13 Joules = 2.22 MeV, we have λ = 5.59E-

14
13 meters, which corresponds to the gamma ray band.

Assuming that we are radiating deuterium, at liquefaction pressure and

temperature, after reaction (6.a) occurs, a slow proton and neutron are
released. The released products would attempt the following capture reactions.

(6.b)
REACTION 1H1 1D2 --> 2He3
A.M.U. 1.0078 2.0141 3.0155
Ek (eV) 1.44E+05 0.00E+00 6.07E+06
v (m/s) 5.25E+06 0.00E+00 1.97E+07
P (k•m/s) 8.79E-21 0.00E+00 9.87E-20
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 2.22E+00 8.25E+00
(6.c)
REACTION 0n1 1D2 --> 1T3
A.M.U. 1.0087 2.0141 3.0147
Ek (eV) 6.58E+02 0.00E+00 7.50E+06
v (m/s) 3.55E+05 0.00E+00 2.19E+07
P (k•m/s) 5.94E-22 0.00E+00 1.10E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 2.22E+00 9.73E+00

Reaction (6.b) does not occur because the energy of the incident proton is not
sufficient to overcome the electrostatic potential barrier of 143.99 KeV. On
the other hand, reaction (6.c) is perfectly possible, in the absence of
electric charge of the neutron there is no electrostatic potential barrier.
Then the tritium nucleus released in reaction (6.c), would produce the
following reaction.
(6.d)
REACTION 1T3 1D2 --> 2He4 0n1
A.M.U. 3.0147 2.0141 4.0027 1.0087
Ek (eV) 7.50E+06 0.00E+00 1.66E+07 4.18E+06
v (m/s) 2.19E+07 0.00E+00 2.83E+07 2.83E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.10E-19 0.00E+00 1.88E-19 4.74E-20
Eb (MeV) 9.73E+00 2.22E+00 2.82E+01 0.00E+00

The energy of the incident Triton easily overcomes the potential barrier of the
reaction, releasing a total energy of 20.77 MeV. The released neutron repeats
neutron-deuterium cycles again and the released helium nucleus will initiate
helium-deuterium cycles, such as reactions (5.c) and (5.d), producing a
thermonuclear chain reaction.

7. Finding and Obtaining Deuterium

Deuterium is the second isotope of hydrogen and exists relatively abundantly in

nature. Among other methods, it is obtained by electrolysis of heavy water,
water obtained from the depths of the ocean, lakes and swamps, from places
where there is not much or no movement of water in its depths. Heavy water can
also be obtained from ordinary water, by evaporation of the lighter molecules.
However, from common water, large volumes are required and the cost of
obtaining is much higher.

15
Ordinary water molecules, popularly known as H2O, are not the only naturally
occurring molecular combination. There are also other combinations between the
different isotopes of hydrogen with oxygen. These combinations are as follows:

Molecular Name Formula Density gr/cm3

Protio Protoxide HOH o H2O 1.0000
Deuterium Protoxide DOH 1.0559
Tritium Protoxide TOH 1.1114
Deuterium Deuteroxide DOD 1.1117
Tritium Deuteroxide TOD 1.1673
Tritium Tritoxide TOT 1.2228
Table 7.1: Relative density of heavy water molecules.

In the natural state, it is unlikely to find very heavy molecular combinations.

Since Tritium, being an unstable isotope, decays into helium after a half-life
of 12 years. Therefore, very heavy molecular combinations are generally found
artificially, as products or waste in nuclear reactors.

In general, HOH, DOH and DOD molecules are usually found in heavy water. If we
take into account only Deuterium Protoxide (DOH) molecules, to obtain one
kilogram of deuterium it would be required to process a volume of 894.36 liters
of heavy water. It is logical that 100% pure deuterium will not be obtained,
but hydrogen molecules will be present in their first and second isotopes.
However, it is possible to separate each isotope, using tiny porous membranes
or ionization and magnetism techniques.

On the other hand, naturally and in the gaseous state, there is approximately
one deuterium atom for every seven thousand hydrogen atoms. That is, to obtain
one kilogram of deuterium, it would be required to process 559485.26 liters of
common water.

8. Reaction of Hydrocarbons

Hydrogen is an element that is found abundantly in various organic compounds.

Among other compounds, the most common turn out to be hydrocarbons. That being
composed of natural hydrogen, they also have a deuterium share in a ratio of 1
in 7000.

In general, those lighter hydrocarbons turn out to be those that contain the
highest share of natural hydrogen. For example methane (CH4), ethanol (H5C2OH),
naphtha, gasoline and especially liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) for domestic
use, which is composed of propane (C3H8) and butane (C4H10).

Attempting a chain reaction using compound molecules is unlikely to occur. This

is the case of hydrocarbons, in a liquid state to reduce the mean interatomic
free path. Suppose LPG is exposed to the action of alpha particles. In this
case, C12 and H1 atoms would be considered for the different possible
reactions, such as those that follow:

16
 2He4 1H1 --> 1D2 2He3 Threshold exists

2He4 1H1 --> 3Li5 Threshold exists

2He4 6C12 --> 3Li6 5B10 Threshold exists

2He4 6C12 --> 8O16 Possible

8O16 6C12 --> 14Si28 Possible

8O16 6C12 --> 4Be8 10Ne20 Possible

8O16 1H1 --> 9F17 Possible

14Si28 1H1 --> 15P29 Possible

14Si28 1H1 --> 7N13 8O16 Threshold exists

14Si28 6C12 --> 20Ca40 Possible

14Si28 6C12 --> 10Ne20 10Ne20 Possible

20Ca40 6C12 --> 26Fe52 Possible

20Ca40 6C12 --> 13Al26 13Al26 Threshold exists

20Ca40 6C12 --> 12Mg24 14Si28 Possible

14Si28 6C12 --> 20Ca40 Possible

20Ca40 1H1 --> 21Sc41 Possible

20Ca40 1H1 --> 10Ne20 11Na21 Threshold exists

It can be verified then, that as the resulting products become increasingly

heavy, their propagation systematically loses energy, which makes a chain
reaction impossible. At most there will be an increase in temperature, causing
an exothermic explosion due to the expansion of the gases. But by no means will
a nuclear explosion take place from some hydrocarbon.

17
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

THIRD PART

9. Magma Producing Isotopes

Everything that exists in the Universe is the result of nuclear interactions.

Most of the phenomena observed in nature are nuclear in nature. Telluric
movements originate from nuclear processes, without which it would be
impossible to release such amounts of energy. Volcanoes are also nuclear in
nature. Volcanic lava, called magma (molten rock matter), is actually nuclear
plasma. Result of the nuclear fusion of a number of elements that interact. The
Sun is actually made up of magma, not just helium and hydrogen, as is currently
believed. Magma is a self-sustaining nuclear chain process.

The most significant question is: How does it start and what elements
participate in the formation of magma?

It is necessarily a very complex nuclear process. However, it should start with

common elements and of relative abundance in nature.

Lithium is a relatively abundant element. In a natural way, it is composed of

two stable isotopes, Li6 in a proportion of 7.42% and Li7 in the remaining
92.58%. However, in mineral state it is not pure. The minerals from which it is
extracted are lepidolite, petalite, spodumene and amblygonite, among the most
common.

From lithium, by means of gamma radiation, it is possible to obtain the

heaviest isotopes of hydrogen. Let us then consider the following reactions:
(9.a)
REACTION 0X0 3Li6 --> 2He4 1D2
A.M.U. 0.0000 6.0149 4.0027 2.0141
Ek (eV) 1.76E+06 0.00E+00 1.85E+02 9.29E+01
v (m/s) 3.00E+08 0.00E+00 9.43E+04 9.43E+04
P (k•m/s) 9.42E-22 0.00E+00 6.27E-22 3.15E-22
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 3.22E+01 2.82E+01 2.22E+00
(9.b)
REACTION 0X0 3Li7 --> 2He4 1T3
A.M.U. 0.0000 7.0169 4.0027 3.0147
Ek (eV) 4.39E+05 0.00E+00 8.40E+00 6.34E+00
v (m/s) 3.00E+08 0.00E+00 2.01E+04 2.01E+04
P (k•m/s) 2.35E-22 0.00E+00 1.34E-22 1.01E-22

18
 Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 3.84E+01 2.82E+01 9.73E+00

Reaction (9.a) requires a threshold energy of 1.76 MeV, equivalent to a

wavelength of 7.06E-13 meters, corresponding to the gamma ray band. The
reaction (9.b) requires a threshold energy of 438.98 KeV, equivalent to a
wavelength of 2.83E-12 meters, also corresponding to the gamma ray band.

If we assume that lithium is exposed to gamma radiation of at least 2.22 MeV,

so that (6.a) and consequently (9.a) and (9.b) are satisfied. Then neutrons
with a kinetic energy of 658 eV would be released. Then (6.c) and (6.d) would
be possible. Also, these slow neutrons could try the following reactions.
(9.c)
REACTION 0n1 3Li6 --> 3Li7
A.M.U. 1.0087 6.0149 7.0169
Ek (eV) 6.58E+02 0.00E+00 6.18E+06
v (m/s) 3.55E+05 0.00E+00 1.30E+07
P (k•m/s) 5.94E-22 0.00E+00 1.52E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 3.22E+01 3.84E+01
(9.d)
REACTION 0n1 3Li6 --> 2He4 1T3
A.M.U. 1.0087 6.0149 4.0027 3.0147
Ek (eV) 6.58E+02 0.00E+00 3.27E+06 2.47E+06
v (m/s) 3.55E+05 0.00E+00 1.26E+07 1.26E+07
P (k•m/s) 5.94E-22 0.00E+00 8.35E-20 6.29E-20
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 3.22E+01 2.82E+01 9.73E+00

In the absence of electrostatic charge of the incident neutron, (9.c) and (9.d)
are perfectly possible. It is then observed that fast particles begin to be
produced, making helium-deuterium cycles possible, such as reactions (5.c) and
(5.d). The triton released in (9.d) would make (6.d) possible, releasing new
alpha particles and fast neutrons, making it possible to repeat this cycle. But
apart from the triton released in (9.d) a fast nucleus of Li7 is released in
(9.c). Also making the following reactions perfectly possible,
(9.e)
REACTION 1T3 3Li6 --> 4Be9
A.M.U. 3.0147 6.0149 9.0139
Ek (eV) 2.47E+06 0.00E+00 1.55E+07
v (m/s) 1.26E+07 0.00E+00 1.82E+07
P (k•m/s) 6.29E-20 0.00E+00 2.73E-19
Eb (MeV) 9.73E+00 3.22E+01 5.66E+01
(9.f)
REACTION 1T3 3Li7 --> 4Be9 0n1
A.M.U. 3.0147 7.0169 9.0139 1.0087
Ek (eV) 2.47E+06 0.00E+00 8.32E+06 9.31E+05
v (m/s) 1.26E+07 0.00E+00 1.33E+07 1.33E+07
P (k•m/s) 6.29E-20 0.00E+00 2.00E-19 2.24E-20
Eb (MeV) 9.73E+00 3.84E+01 5.66E+01 0.00E+00
(9.g)
REACTION 3Li7 3Li6 --> 6C13
A.M.U. 7.0169 6.0149 13.0071
Ek (eV) 6.18E+06 0.00E+00 2.64E+07

19
 v (m/s) 1.30E+07 0.00E+00 1.98E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.52E-19 0.00E+00 4.27E-19
Eb (MeV) 3.84E+01 3.22E+01 9.36E+01
(9.h)
REACTION 3Li7 3Li7 --> 6C14
A.M.U. 7.0169 7.0169 14.0043
Ek (eV) 6.18E+06 0.00E+00 3.07E+07
v (m/s) 1.30E+07 0.00E+00 2.06E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.52E-19 0.00E+00 4.78E-19
Eb (MeV) 3.84E+01 3.84E+01 1.04E+02
(9.i)
REACTION 3Li7 3Li6 --> 6C12 0n1
A.M.U. 7.0169 6.0149 12.0027 1.0087
Ek (eV) 6.18E+06 0.00E+00 2.07E+07 1.74E+06
v (m/s) 1.30E+07 0.00E+00 1.82E+07 1.82E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.52E-19 0.00E+00 3.64E-19 3.06E-20
Eb (MeV) 3.84E+01 3.22E+01 8.97E+01 0.00E+00
(9.j)
REACTION 3Li7 3Li7 --> 6C13 0n1
A.M.U. 7.0169 7.0169 13.0071 1.0087
Ek (eV) 6.18E+06 0.00E+00 1.85E+07 1.44E+06
v (m/s) 1.30E+07 0.00E+00 1.66E+07 1.66E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.52E-19 0.00E+00 3.58E-19 2.78E-20
Eb (MeV) 3.84E+01 3.84E+01 9.36E+01 0.00E+00

It is evident then, that the neutron-lithium cycle produces increasingly fast

particles, making possible a high number of reactions, which in the worst case
will give rise to a chain reaction of a uniform type, and in the best case ,
will lead to a nuclear explosion.

These reactions strongly confirm that the most important element in the
formation of magma is lithium. However, there are other isotopes that are also
involved in magma formation. Boron is also another very important element. It
does not exist freely in nature, it is extracted from minerals such as borax,
colemanite and pegmatite. The isotopes obtained are B10 in a proportion of
19.9% and B11 in the remaining 80.1%. Consider the following reactions for
boron:
(9.k)
REACTION 0x0 5B10 --> 5B9 0n1
A.M.U. 0.0000 10.0174 9.0163 1.0087
Ek (eV) 7.10E+06 0.00E+00 2.43E+03 2.72E+02
v (m/s) 3.00E+08 0.00E+00 2.28E+05 2.28E+05
P (k•m/s) 3.80E-21 0.00E+00 3.41E-21 3.82E-22
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 6.06E+01 5.35E+01 0.00E+00
(9.l)
REACTION 0n1 5B10 --> 5B11
A.M.U. 1.0087 10.0174 11.0106
Ek (eV) 2.72E+02 0.00E+00 1.44E+07
v (m/s) 2.28E+05 0.00E+00 1.59E+07
P (k•m/s) 3.82E-22 0.00E+00 2.90E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 6.06E+01 7.50E+01

20
 (9.m)
REACTION 5B11 5B10 --> 10Ne20 0n1
A.M.U. 11.0106 10.0174 19.9919 1.0087
Ek (eV) 1.44E+07 0.00E+00 3.14E+07 1.59E+06
v (m/s) 1.59E+07 0.00E+00 1.74E+07 1.74E+07
P (k•m/s) 2.90E-19 0.00E+00 5.78E-19 2.92E-20
Eb (MeV) 7.50E+01 6.06E+01 1.61E+02 0.00E+00
(9.n)
REACTION 10Ne20 5B10 --> 7N14 8O16
A.M.U. 19.9919 10.0174 14.0103 15.9977
Ek (eV) 3.15E+07 0.00E+00 1.04E+07 1.19E+07
v (m/s) 1.74E+07 0.00E+00 1.20E+07 1.20E+07
P (k•m/s) 5.79E-19 0.00E+00 2.78E-19 3.18E-19
Eb (MeV) 1.61E+02 6.06E+01 9.80E+01 1.25E+02

The reaction (9.k) requires a threshold energy of 7.1 MeV equivalent to a

wavelength of 1.75E-13 meters, corresponding to the gamma ray band. The
reactions (9.l), (9.m) and (9.n) are perfectly possible. The neutron released
in (9.m) repeats (9.l) but with higher energy, releasing a total of 33.08 MeV.

It is evident then, similar to the reactions with lithium, the reactions with
boron also denote the proliferation of fast particles. Fact that contributes to
the elevated temperatures of magma.

Other reactions that are also possible and that are not shown here, release
products that, because they are heavy, lose energy and do not make nuclear
interaction possible. However, they allow chemical bonds resulting in the
formation of different molecules. Such as carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide
(CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), etc. This explains the accumulation and emission of
gases of different nature when volcanic eruptions occur.

In either case, for this natural phenomenon to take place, the participation of
alpha or gamma radioactivity is required. Which is perfectly possible due to
natural phenomena, such as erosion by the effect of surface and underground
water currents, so that they carry many minerals, allowing the interaction of
the elements.

10. Calculation of the Critical Mass

The concept of critical mass is of utmost importance when conducting laboratory

experiments. Critical mass, is the maximum mass quantity of an element or
compound that could be used without danger of collateral damage in the event of
a nuclear explosion.

So, critical mass is the maximum amount of mass that must be used to release an
amount of energy that can be controlled or tolerated in the event of a nuclear
explosion.

As an example, let us assume that the maximum energy that could be tolerated in
a laboratory in the event of an explosion is equal to 1 g. nitroglycerin

21
equivalent to 4.18E+03 Joules. The following table summarizes the critical mass
value for the elements considered.

Element Energy/gr. Critical Mass

Uranium U235 6.96E+10 Joules 6.01E-08 gr.
Plutonium Pu239 7.16E+10 Joules 5.84E-08 gr.
Deuterium D2 1.03E+12 Joules 4.04E-09 gr.
Table 10.1: Mass needed to release 4.18E+03 Joules.

We then observe the variation of the mass that would be necessary to release
the same amount of energy, depending on the element with which we are
experimenting.

Therefore, it is extremely important to make precise calculations of the energy

that is released with a certain element or compound, because from there the
results obtained in the laboratory are derived.

It is clear that manipulating masses in the nanogram order is indeed very

complicated. This is why in most experiments an open space is required instead
of a laboratory. Since, the quantities of mass that can be manipulated release
a lot of energy (in the order of the tons of nitroglycerin). These amounts of
energy are impossible to control in a laboratory. Therefore, in general,
nuclear tests in open spaces are indispensable.

11. Gamma Ray Generator

Naturally, there are many radioactive elements that emit gamma rays, such as
Radium, Uranium, Cobalt and others. In essence, wavelength determines the
nature of electromagnetic rays.

Fig. 11.1: Old X-ray emitting tube.

The radiation produced by the "bremsstrahlung" effect are called X-rays. Due to
the braking effect of electrons when they collide with some material, the
kinetic energy of the electrons is converted into radioactive energy.

Then, the kinetic energy with which the electrons collide with the anode
depends on the potential difference with which the electrons accelerate from
the cathode to the anode, according to the following relationship:

22
 Vak = Ek/e (11.1)

Where Vak is the potential difference measured in volts, Ek is the kinetic

energy of the electron in Joules, and e is the electric charge of the electron
in coulombs.

A cathode ray tube, such as the one used in a common television or computer
monitor, uses a potential difference of 25.00E+03 volts. What produces a
radiation of 25 KeV, that is, a wavelength of 4.96E-11 meters, which
corresponds to the X-ray band.

So, to generate radiation by the "bremsstrahlung" effect, such that reaction

(6.a) occurs, a potential difference of 2.22E+06 volts is required, equivalent
to the energy of 2.22 MeV.

Fig. 11.2: Cooling of an X-ray tube.

Considering the high voltages that are required to obtain X-rays in the gamma
ray band, some method of cooling the anode must be considered. Fig. 11.2
schematizes the cooling method by circulating cold water behind the anode.

On the other hand, it is necessary to use thick shields of lead and concrete,
to avoid the dispersion of radiation towards other unwanted directions. These
shields should be used to prevent damage to the health of people in the
vicinity and also to avoid interference signals and detection at long distances
from satellites.

Generally, to generate gamma rays for long periods of time, a train of high
voltage pulses must be applied and the anode of the emitter tube kept cool.
Other applications will require just a single pulse as we will see later.

The design of a high voltage source is the crucial and decisive point.
Generating 2.22 mega volts or more is a challenge. There are several possible

23
designs that can be used, some simpler and cheaper than others.

A widely used model is the so-called Van de Graaff Generator. Van de Graaff
invented the generator named after him in 1931, with the purpose of producing a
very high potential difference (of the order of 20 million volts).

The Van de Graaff generator is very simple, it consists of a motor, two

pulleys, a belt, two combs or terminals made of fine copper wires and a hollow
sphere where the electrical charge carried by the belt accumulates.

Fig. 11.3: Schematic diagram of the Van de Graff generator.

In Fig. 11.3, the scheme of the Van de Graaff generator is shown. A hollow
metallic conductor A of approximately spherical shape, is supported by
insulating plastic or wooden supports, screwed into a metallic base C connected
to earth. A rubber or leather (non-conductive) belt or tape D moves between two
pulleys E and F. The pulley F is driven by an electric motor.

Two combs G and H are made of very fine conductor wires, they are located at
the height of the axis of the pulleys. The tips of the combs are very close but
do not touch the belt.

When the motor is driven, the lower pulley surface F is electrified because the
pulley surface and the belt are made of different materials. The belt and the
surface of the lower roller F acquire equal and opposite loads. The conveyor
belt moves upward, carrying a continuous flow of cargo into the hollow
conductor A.

The upper pulley E acts in the opposite direction to the lower one F. It will
have to have an opposite load or be neutral (a pulley whose surface is
metallic).

There is the possibility of changing the polarity of the loads carried by the

24
belt by changing the materials of the lower pulley and the belt. If the belt is
made of rubber, and the lower pulley is made of nylon covered with a plastic
layer, a negative charge is created on the pulley and a positive charge on the
rubber. The belt carries the positive charge upwards. This charge passes to the
surface of the hollow conductor.

If a neutral material is used in the upper pulley E the belt does not carry
loads downwards. If nylon is used in the upper pulley, the belt carries
negative charge downwards, this charge comes from the hollow conductor. In this
way, the belt positively charges the hollow conductor both in its upward and
downward motion.

If a material tends to lose some of its electrons when it comes into contact
with another, it is said to be more positive in the triboelectric series. If a
material tends to capture electrons when it comes into contact with another
material, that material is more negative in the triboelectric series.

The following are some examples of materials ordered from most positive to most
negative: rabbit fur, glass, human hair, nylon, wool, silk, paper, cotton,
wood, amber, polyester, polyurethane, vinyl (PVC), teflon.

Theoretically, the load on the hollow conductor could be increased

indefinitely. However, there is a limit due to load isolation difficulties.
When the potential rises, the air that surrounds it becomes conductive and
begins to lose charge due to the so-called dielectric breakdown.

The intensity of the electric field E that is produced in the sphere will be
given by the following equation:

E = Q/(4πε0r2) (11.2)

Where Q is the total charge that the sphere stores in coulombs, ε0 is the
permittivity in vacuum equal to 8.85E-12 and r is the radius of the sphere. The
generator stops accumulating charge when the air becomes conductive. The
intensity of the maximum electric field Em is approximately 3.00E+06 V/m. So we
have to:

Q = 4πEmε0r2 (11.3)

Then, the maximum potential difference V that occurs between the hollow
conductor A and the metallic foot C, is given by:

V = Q/(4πε0r) = Emr (11.4)

The capacity C of the sphere in farads is:

C = Q/V = 4πε0r (11.5)

The characteristics of the Van de Graaff Generator are conditioned by its

25
dimensions. Therefore, to generate a potential difference of 2.50 mega volts,
applying equation (11.4), a sphere with a radius of 83.33 centimeters is
required.

It is true that a 1.66 meter diameter metal sphere is not very easy to build.
However, the hollow conductor A does not necessarily have to be spherical. You
can opt for a cylindrical geometry, using aluminum pots as a hollow conductor
for example (note that aluminum and copper are good electrical conductors and
iron is not). In this case, two or more of these cylindrical conductors can be
interconnected in cascade, until the required potential is reached.

Special care must be taken with the Van de Graaff Generator, on the one hand
due to the high voltages that can be generated, an accidental discharge would
be fatal. On the other hand, at the instant of the so-called dielectric
breakdown, very penetrating X-rays are produced, which are susceptible to being
detected at very long distances from satellites. In addition to that they could
affect the health of people in the immediate vicinity. For this reason, lead
shields and insulating covers must be used around the generator and concrete
walls and ceilings in the facilities. Better in any case, if the tests are
carried out in a basement or other type of underground installation.

Fig. 11.4: Electroshock basic circuit.

Another less dangerous model is to use electroshock circuits. These are those
devices used for personal defense, which are sold in bazaars of articles in
this area. These are voltage multiplier circuits. Fig. 11.4 shows a circuit
corresponding to this type, it is a lift from 9V to 13.5kv. Same that can be
modified to reach the required voltage.

This high voltage source is formed by an inverter, around the transistor, which
provides 150v pulses to the converter formed by the thyristor and the capacitor
in series with the transformer 2. Its output presents 4.5kv pulses that are
multiplied by the voltage tripler network thus achieving 13.5kV at its output.
Neon lamps (marked LN) make up the thyristor firing pulses (SCR).

Transformer T1 has a 3000: 500 ohm ratio of the type used for transistorized
audio output. T2 is a flash lamp trigger transformer with a 6kV secondary.

26
A modification of the previous circuit (see the electronic designs in the
appendices), consists of using fly-back transformers that are used in common
televisions and computer monitors. These high voltage transformers have an
output voltage of 25kv. With what would quadruple the output of the previous
circuit. However, if instead of feeding the circuit with 9V we use for example
30V, we would raise the output proportionally. But if we also interconnect a
third and fourth transformer in cascade to T2, we will be able to raise the
output voltage in proportions to what is required. That is, in the order of
units and up to several tens of mega volts.

Fig. 11.5: 3D view of the electronic designs in the appendices.

12. Construction of a Nuclear Bomb

The study of the previous sections provides us with the necessary knowledge to
get to this point. It is clear then, that there are many ways to achieve a
nuclear explosion. The only condition is that the corresponding cycle must be
repeated exponentially.

The isotopes U235, Pu239 and D2 are not the only ones that can achieve an
exponential chain reaction. In fact, a cycle can include many by-products and
these in turn lead to other cycles, such as magma production. Process in which
many elements are involved.

Consider the case of beryllium. It is composed of Be9 which is its only stable
isotope. Beryllium is found in 30 different minerals, the most important being

27
beryl, bertrandite, chrysoberyl, and phenakite. Currently most of the metal is
obtained by reducing beryllium fluoride with magnesium. The precious forms of
beryl are aquamarine and emerald.

Beryllium is an element whose particular nature allows the emission of neutrons

by alpha radiation, as demonstrated when studying the reaction (2.a). The
problem faced is the difficulty of obtaining radioactive isotopes with relative
ease. However, beryllium can also emit neutrons through gamma radiation.
Consider next the following reactions.
(12.a)
REACTION 0x0 4Be9 --> 4Be8 0n1
A.M.U. 0.0000 9.0139 8.0057 1.0087
Ek (eV) 4.69E+05 0.00E+00 1.16E+01 1.47E+00
v (m/s) 3.00E+08 0.00E+00 1.68E+04 1.68E+04
P (k•m/s) 2.51E-22 0.00E+00 2.23E-22 2.81E-23
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 5.66E+01 5.61E+01 0.00E+00
(12.b)
REACTION 0n1 4Be9 --> 4Be10
A.M.U. 1.0087 9.0139 10.0124
Ek (eV) 1.47E+00 0.00E+00 9.46E+06
v (m/s) 1.68E+04 0.00E+00 1.35E+07
P (k•m/s) 2.81E-23 0.00E+00 2.24E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 5.66E+01 6.61E+01
(12.c)
REACTION 4Be10 4Be9 --> 8O18 0n1
A.M.U. 10.0124 9.0139 17.9964 1.0087
Ek (eV) 9.46E+06 0.00E+00 2.34E+07 1.31E+06
v (m/s) 1.35E+07 0.00E+00 1.58E+07 1.58E+07
P (k•m/s) 2.24E-19 0.00E+00 4.73E-19 2.65E-20
Eb (MeV) 6.61E+01 5.66E+01 1.42E+02 0.00E+00
(12.d)
REACTION 4Be10 4Be9 --> 8O17 0n2
A.M.U. 10.0124 9.0139 17.0000 2.0138
Ek (eV) 9.46E+06 0.00E+00 1.47E+07 1.74E+06
v (m/s) 1.35E+07 0.00E+00 1.29E+07 1.29E+07
P (k•m/s) 2.24E-19 0.00E+00 3.65E-19 4.32E-20
Eb (MeV) 6.61E+01 5.66E+01 1.31E+02 3.24E+00
(12.e)
REACTION 4Be10 4Be9 --> 8O16 0n3
A.M.U. 10.0124 9.0139 15.9977 3.0150
Ek (eV) 9.46E+06 0.00E+00 1.48E+07 2.79E+06
v (m/s) 1.35E+07 0.00E+00 1.34E+07 1.34E+07
P (k•m/s) 2.24E-19 0.00E+00 3.55E-19 6.69E-20
Eb (MeV) 6.61E+01 5.66E+01 1.25E+02 1.02E+01

Reaction (12.a) requires a threshold energy of 469.3 KeV equivalent to a

wavelength of 2.65E-12 meters, corresponding to the gamma ray band. The slow
neutron capture reaction in (12.b) releases 9.46 MeV as kinetic energy from the
nucleus formed by Be10. This nucleus of Be10 impacts against another nucleus of
Be9, making the reactions (12.c), (12.d) and (12.e) perfectly possible. Which
in turn, adding the energy released in (12.b), release a total energy of 34.16

28
MeV, 25.92 MeV and 27.04 MeV respectively.

We can then observe the emission of neutrons that make it possible to repeat
the neutron-beryllium cycle. Since O16 is the most abundant isotope in nature,
reaction (12.e) is the most likely to occur after (12.b) occurs. Therefore, an
exponential chain reaction could occur when Be9 is irradiated with gamma rays,
such that the reaction (12.a).

Furthermore, the O16 released in (12.e) would initiate an oxygen-beryllium

secondary cycle, such as the following reactions:
(12.f)
REACTION 8O16 4Be9 --> 12Mg25
A.M.U. 15.9977 9.0139 24.9859
Ek (eV) 1.48E+07 0.00E+00 3.33E+07
v (m/s) 1.34E+07 0.00E+00 1.60E+07
P (k•m/s) 3.55E-19 0.00E+00 6.65E-19
Eb (MeV) 1.25E+02 5.66E+01 2.05E+02
(12.g)
REACTION 12Mg25 4Be9 --> 8O16 8O18
A.M.U. 24.9859 9.0139 15.9977 17.9964
Ek (eV) 3.33E+07 0.00E+00 1.40E+07 1.58E+07
v (m/s) 1.60E+07 0.00E+00 1.30E+07 1.30E+07
P (k•m/s) 6.65E-19 0.00E+00 3.46E-19 3.89E-19
Eb (MeV) 2.05E+02 5.66E+01 1.25E+02 1.42E+02

The proliferation of fast particles is evident, which, as can be suspected in

(12.g), could even release 2 neutrons instead of O18. This cycle would further
enable the exponential type reaction.

However, there are also other possible reactions that proliferate lower-energy
particles that are not shown here. These other reactions could moderate the
reaction to the point of extinguishing the Be9 without reaching the explosion.
The only way to check whether this neutron-beryllium cycle can be explosive or
not is by performing laboratory tests.

Fig. 12.1: General diagram for the construction of a nuclear bomb.

A trigger arrangement. B reactive element. C safety explosive.
D control circuits. E battery compartment. F container.

Now, with a suitable arrangement of elements, such that the released products
are combined, it is of course possible to achieve the exponential chain
reaction, which is typical of a nuclear bomb. Fig. 12.1 outlines the general
idea for the arrangement of the components in a nuclear bomb.

29
There are many resources to assemble a high-powered artifact. Although it may
seem complicated on the surface, the solution is simpler than imaginable. In
the appendices I propose several simplified and very effective ideas. For more
details or to request specialized advice, contact the author at the addresses
indicated below.

For a world where Justice, Ethics, Honor and Respect prevail.

Ronald De Herrera Barrero

Electronic and IT Engineer
Email: rondeher@yahoo.es
Email: gigabyte41@hotmail.com
LA PAZ – BOLIVIA

30
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. B. Arons - Development of Concepts of physics, Addison Wesley, (1965).

Alonso M., Finn E. - Física, Fondo Educativo Interamericano, (1971).

Armstrong H. L. - Collision which are not readily calculated by conservation.

Am. J. Phys. 33 (1965).

Bohren C. F. - Comment on "Newton's law of cooling- A critical assessment" by

Colm T. O'Sullivan, Am. J. Phys. 59 (11) November 1991.

C.L. Squires - Física Práctica, McGraw-Hill.

Crawford Jr. Ondas - Berkeley Physics Course, Editorial Reverté, (1977).

D. Ewen, LR. Heaton - Physics for Technical Education, Prentice Hall, 1981.

Donges A. - A simple derivation of the acoustic Doppler shift formulas, Eur. J.

Phys. 19 (1998).

Donnelly D, Diamond J. - Slow collisions in the ballistic pendulum: A

computational study. Am. J. Phys. 71 (6) June 2003.

Fakhruddin H. - Maximizing imparted speed in elastic collisions, The Physics

Teacher, Vol 41, September 2003.

Feynman, Leighton, Sands - The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Fondo Educativo

Interamericano, (1971).

Greenberg L.H. - Discovery in Physics. W.V. Saunders, 1968.

Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. CRG.

Harman P. M. - Maxwell and Faraday, European Journal of Physics V-14, 1993.

Ingar V., Kraushaar W.L. - Introduction to Mechanics, Addison Wesley, 1964.

Jain P. - On blackbody radiation, Physics Education 25 (1991).

Jones R. - The Millikan oil drop experiment. Making it worthwhile, Am. J. Phys.
63 (11) November 1995.

Landau L. D., Lifshitz E. M. - Teoría de la elasticidad, Edt. Reverté, (1969).

Layton B., Simon M. - A different twist on the Lorentz force and Faraday's law,
The Physics Teacher Vol 36, November 1998.

Lyman G. Paratt - Probability and experimental errors in Science, Wiley, 1961.

31
MacIsaac D, Kanner G, Anderson G - Basic physics of the incasdescent lamp
(lightbulb), The Physics Teacher, vol 37, December 1999.

Mielenz K. - Algorithms for Fresnel diffraction at Rectangular and Circular

apertures, J. Res. Natl. Stand. Technol. (1998).

Paniagua, Sánchez, Moreno, Rufo - Rutherford simple and multiple scattering by

computer simulation, Eur. J. Phys. 22 (2001).

Pfeffer J I. - An alternative derivation of kinetic theory of gases. Phys.

Educ. 4 (4) July 1999.

Resnick R., Halliday D. - Física, Continental, México 1974.

Sears Francis W., Zemansky Mark W. – Física General, Aguilar, Madrid 1966.

Sears Francis W., Zemansky Mark W., Young Hugh D. – Física Universitaria,
Addison-Wesley Iberoamericana, México 1988.

Tarasov L. V. - Basic Concepts of Quantum Mechanics, Editorial Mir (1980).

32
 APPENDICES

A. Fundamental Constants

Constant Symbol Value

Speed of light c 2.9979·108 m·s-1

Elemental charge e 1.6021·10-19 C

Electron resting mass me 9.1091·10-31 kg

Proton resting mass mp 1.6725·10-27 kg

Neutron resting mass mn 1.6748·10-27 kg

Planck constant h 6.6256·10-34 J·s

Avogadro constant NA 6.0225·1023 mol-1

Boltzmann constant k 1.3805·10-23 J·K-1

Gas constant R 8.3143 J·K-1·mol-1

Normal volume ideal gas V0 2.2414·10-2 m3·mol-1

Vacuum permittivity ε0 8.8544·10-12 N-1·m-2·C2

Vacuum permeability µ0 1.2566·10-6 m·kg·C-2

Gravitation constant G 6.670·10-11 N·m2·kg-2

Acceleration of gravity
g 9.7805 m·s-2
at sea level

Source: Alonso M., Finn E., Física, Fondo Educativo Interamericano (1971).

33
B. Periodic Table

34
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

APPENDIX C

C. Trigger Arrays

The set of reactions that has been studied, makes it possible to understand and
apply this knowledge to artificially reproduce phenomena that occur in nature.
Talking about an array of elements is the case.

A trigger arrangement consists of a certain arrangement of elements, such that

it makes possible the emission of particles to start a chain reaction. These
particles are called causers or triggers. It is clear then, that the key for a
chain reaction to occur, the firing conditions must be adequate.

The simplest arrangement is that of the so-called hydrogen bomb, as studied in

section 5, from reactions (5.a) to (5.d). In this case, the trigger is the
alpha particle from some natural radioactive element, such as radium, uranium
or another. However, it is possible to configure more complex arrangements.

Fig. C.1: Be9 powder between radiation and Li6.

For example, the Be9-Li6 arrangement could be forceful. The arrangement of this
arrangement is shown in Fig. C.1. A thick lead shield covers the radioactive
element or radiation emitting device (alpha or gamma). The aluminum or glass
window (preferably quartz) is coated with a thin layer of Be9 powder, which in
turn makes direct contact with the Li6.

Due to the effect of alpha or gamma radiation, Be9 emits neutrons according to
(2.a) and (12.a). The released neutrons would have to be captured by Li6 nuclei
such as (9.c). Then, the released Li7 product would make (9.g) or (9.i)
possible. Producing, in this way, fast C12 and C13 particles, which are
precisely the triggers. Evaluating then, after (12.a) occurs, the following
reactions would be possible:
(C.a)
REACTION 0n1 3Li6 --> 3Li7
A.M.U. 1.0087 6.0149 7.0169
Ek (eV) 1.47E+00 0.00E+00 6.18E+06
v (m/s) 1.68E+04 0.00E+00 1.30E+07
P (k•m/s) 2.81E-23 0.00E+00 1.52E-19
Eb (MeV) 0.00E+00 3.22E+01 3.84E+01

35
 (C.b)
REACTION 3Li7 3Li6 --> 6C12 0n1
A.M.U. 7.0169 6.0149 12.0027 1.0087
Ek (eV) 6.18E+06 0.00E+00 2.07E+07 1.74E+06
v (m/s) 1.30E+07 0.00E+00 1.82E+07 1.82E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.52E-19 0.00E+00 3.64E-19 3.06E-20
Eb (MeV) 3.84E+01 3.22E+01 8.97E+01 0.00E+00
(C.c)
REACTION 6C12 3Li6 --> 9F18
A.M.U. 12.0027 6.0149 18.0031
Ek (eV) 2.07E+07 0.00E+00 2.73E+07
v (m/s) 1.82E+07 0.00E+00 1.71E+07
P (k•m/s) 3.64E-19 0.00E+00 5.11E-19
Eb (MeV) 8.97E+01 3.22E+01 1.35E+02
(C.d)
REACTION 9F18 3Li6 --> 6C12 6C12
A.M.U. 18.0031 6.0149 12.0027 12.0027
Ek (eV) 2.73E+07 0.00E+00 1.61E+07 1.61E+07
v (m/s) 1.71E+07 0.00E+00 1.61E+07 1.61E+07
P (k•m/s) 5.11E-19 0.00E+00 3.21E-19 3.21E-19
Eb (MeV) 1.35E+02 3.22E+01 8.97E+01 8.97E+01

It is then observed that, in this carbon-lithium cycle, two new C12 particles
are released, thus enabling an exponential chain reaction. As can be seen in
Fig. C.2, the primary neutron-lithium cycle leads to the proliferation of the
secondary carbon-lithium cycle.

Fig. C.2: Diagram of propagation and proliferation of the carbon-lithium cycle.

Then, neglecting the energy released by the primary cycle, reaction (C.c)

36
releases 27.29 MeV and (C.d) releases 32.28 MeV. However, it is observed that
the energy of the products in (C.d) is less than the firing energy, so that by
carrying out an iterative calculation the following reactions are obtained:
(C.e)
REACTION 6C12 3Li6 --> 9F18
A.M.U. 12.0027 6.0149 18.0031
Ek (eV) 1.46E+07 0.00E+00 2.32E+07
v (m/s) 1.53E+07 0.00E+00 1.58E+07
P (k•m/s) 3.06E-19 0.00E+00 4.72E-19
Eb (MeV) 8.97E+01 3.22E+01 1.35E+02
(C.f)
REACTION 9F18 3Li6 --> 6C12 6C12
A.M.U. 18.0031 6.0149 12.0027 12.0027
Ek (eV) 2.32E+07 0.00E+00 1.46E+07 1.46E+07
v (m/s) 1.58E+07 0.00E+00 1.53E+07 1.53E+07
P (k•m/s) 4.72E-19 0.00E+00 3.06E-19 3.06E-19
Eb (MeV) 1.35E+02 3.22E+01 8.97E+01 8.97E+01

After 108 iterations, the reactions stabilize and (C.e) releases 23.23 MeV and
(C.f) releases 29.23 MeV. Thus, disregarding the first 108 iterations, and
considering that two Li6 atoms are required for each cycle, a total of 4.21E+14
Joules per kilogram of Li6 consumed (100.66 Kilotons) is calculated.

In the event that (9.g) occurs, a C13 core is released as a trigger. The
analysis is very similar as for the C12 and leads to the same result. That is,
evaluating the following reactions:
(C.g)
REACTION 3Li7 3Li6 --> 6C13
A.M.U. 7.0169 6.0149 13.0071
Ek (eV) 6.18E+06 0.00E+00 2.64E+07
v (m/s) 1.30E+07 0.00E+00 1.98E+07
P (k•m/s) 1.52E-19 0.00E+00 4.27E-19
Eb (MeV) 3.84E+01 3.22E+01 9.36E+01
(C.h)
REACTION 6C13 3Li6 --> 9F19
A.M.U. 13.0071 6.0149 18.9965
Ek (eV) 2.64E+07 0.00E+00 4.19E+07
v (m/s) 1.98E+07 0.00E+00 2.06E+07
P (k•m/s) 4.27E-19 0.00E+00 6.50E-19
Eb (MeV) 9.36E+01 3.22E+01 1.50E+02
(C.i)
REACTION 9F19 3Li6 --> 6C12 6C13
A.M.U. 18.9965 6.0149 12.0027 13.0071
Ek (eV) 4.19E+07 0.00E+00 1.60E+07 1.73E+07
v (m/s) 2.06E+07 0.00E+00 1.60E+07 1.60E+07
P (k•m/s) 6.50E-19 0.00E+00 3.19E-19 3.46E-19
Eb (MeV) 1.50E+02 3.22E+01 8.97E+01 9.36E+01

Reactions (C.h) and (C.i) after 108 iterations stabilize. Therefore, it is

proven that the carbon-lithium cycle turns out to be explosive.

37
It can be deduced then, that it is possible to configure an endless number of
triggering arrangements, so that it is possible to achieve chain reactions of
different magnitudes and consequences. Therefore, if the arrangement is
correct, all elements, including compounds, turn out to be explosive. That is,
any substance is explosive if the shooting conditions are adequate.

In this sense, to date trigger arrangements are known that make possible the
exponential reaction of liquid helium, liquid oxygen, liquid nitrogen and even
heavy water.

38
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

APPENDIX D

D. Gamma Ray Emitting Device

The model shown in Fig. 11.2 would turn out to be of the indicated type, since
considering the trigger arrangement proposed in Appendix C, this model already
has a beryllium window (Be9) incorporated. However, it is also possible to use
other devices in an attempt to generate radiation comprised in the gamma ray
band. For this purpose, it will be necessary to carry out tests of different
models and materials to be used.

Fig. D.1: Principle of operation of an X-ray tube.

Considering the basic principle of operation of X-ray tubes. It is possible to

use or devise other devices that use the same principle.

Fig. D.2: Old vacuum diode.

The model shown in Fig. D.2 corresponds to the old vacuum diodes, whose
principle of operation is thermionic emission, exactly that used by X-ray
tubes. The difference consists only in the anode arrangement, which would
influence nothing else in the direction of the resulting radiation. Which would
not be an inconvenience for the purposes pursued here.

The tubes shown in Fig. D.3 are those used in crystallography laboratories,

39
they typically work with a voltage of 50kv which allows the generation of
radiation with a wavelength of 2.48E-11 meters, which corresponds to the band
of rays. X, although they are very close to gamma rays. Applying higher
voltages, it can be assumed that the expected results would be obtained.

Fig. D.3: X-ray tubes used in crystallography.

A simple idea to generate high-energy radiation is to use the model proposed in

Fig. D.4. The idea is to fix a small copper foil on top of a car electric light
bulb or similar. This copper foil acts as the anode and the filament as the
cathode. The lamp must be lit with a voltage of 6 or 12 volts, in order to
facilitate the emission of electrons (thermionic effect).

Fig. D.4: Electric bulb with overlapping anode.

As soon as the potential difference between anode and cathode is applied, the
electrons emitted from the cathode (filament) will collide with the glass
surface interposed between the anode, which will allow the generation of high
energy radiation. To avoid sparks due to dielectric breakdown, all metal
surfaces used as electrical contacts must be covered with a thick layer of
insulating material, such as epoxy or other similar adhesives.

In this model or in any other, the refraction of the X-rays generated through
the glass pane must be taken into account. The soda-lime glass used in the
manufacture of bulbs and common uses, could absorb part of the irradiated

40
spectrum. This possibility can be eliminated, using quartz glass or aluminum
foil as windows.

It is to be assumed that, due to the high temperatures generated by the braking

effect of the electrons, the model proposed in Fig. D.4 is not designed for a
very long useful life. But it will be enough to generate a few radioactive
pulses.

It is emphasized that in all tests, lead shields and covers of at least 1 inch
or more thick must be used around these devices. In addition, thick concrete
walls and ceiling in the facility.

Additionally, it is convenient to take into account the radiation spectrum of

the X-rays generated, by virtue of the material where the electrons collide.

Fig. D.5: Characteristic radiation spectrum of materials.

In Fig. D.5 we observe the distribution of X-ray wavelengths that are produced
in conventional X-ray tubes, where the anodic material is copper (Cu),
molybdenum (Mo), chromium (Cr) and tungsten (W). On the so-called continuous
spectrum appear the so-called characteristic lines K-alpha (Kα) and K-beta
(Kβ), which is equivalent to the characteristic radiation of the respective
material.

The beginning of the continuous spectra appears at a wavelength λ which is

approximately 12.4/V (in anglestrom Å), where V represents the potential
difference (in kV) between filament and anode. Also, from (6.1) we have:

λ = hc/EU = 1.24E-6/V (D.1)

Where v is the potential difference between anode and cathode measured in volts
and λ is obtained in meters.

In other words, the highest intensity of irradiated energy occurs at the

characteristic wavelength of the material from which the electron braking
surface is made.

41
 Fig. D.6: Same beginning of the spectra of different materials using
the same potential difference between anode and cathode.

It can be concluded that, to generate X-rays comprised in the gamma ray band
(hard X-rays), according to the curves shown in Fig. D.6, the best response
would be for tungsten anodes.

Although in reality, the material from which the surface where the electrons
collide is made is not a limitation. This consideration allows us to have a
clear idea of the continuous radiation spectra and their corresponding
response.

42
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

APPENDIX E

E. High Voltage Circuit

Definitely designing a high voltage source is quite an elaborate job. The Van
de Graaff generator is simpler to build, but is very bulky. Therefore, an
electronic design is in any case of much smaller volume.

Fig. E.1: Block diagram of a high voltage source.

Fig. E.1 shows the general idea for the design of a high voltage source. The
voltage regulation stage must be used for the purpose of modifying the final
voltage at the source output.

Fig. E.2: Base circuit for the high voltage source.

In Fig. E.2 the stages of regulation and conversion from direct current to
alternating current are shown. This circuit works with a frequency of 10KHz
that is generated with the LM555 multivibrator. A T-type Flip-Flop is used at
the output of the LM555 to enable a 5KHz totally square wave on its two
outputs. The frequency of 5KHz has been selected. because the circuit has a
better response in the load time of the multiplier stage.

43
At the output of the Flip-Flop there are two AND gates that are used to zero
the transistor inputs and are activated by the ACT signal together with the
LM555. Darlington transistors are used as current amplifiers for the input of
the transformer T1.

Fig. E.3: Dimensions of the plates that make up the core of the transformer.
A = 3cm, a = 4mm, B = 1cm, b = 5mm, C = 2cm, D = 1cm, E = 1cm, e = 0.5mm.

In Fig. E.3 the dimensions of the transformer T1 are defined. Dimensions a and
b refer to the maximum total thickness that will be occupied by the insulators.
The number of plates required is 38. This transformer is designed for a
frequency of 1Khz which reduces its size significantly. The current in the low
voltage winding is calculated for 3A and the number of turns is 14 to the
midpoint and another 14 turns to the other end, 28 turns in total of number 19
enameled wire (23.3gr, 0.1ohms). The number of turns of the high voltage
winding is 7071 and number 40 enameled wire must be used (41.2gr, 3033.3ohms).
The total efficiency that is calculated is 98.38%. With a maximum power of
40watts.

Fig. E.4: N-stage voltage multiplier circuit.

Fig. E.4 shows the circuit of the voltage multiplier network. In this network,
special care must be taken, because as the number of stages increases, the risk
of dielectric breakdown is greater. Therefore, 100-stage printed cards must be
implemented, duly coated with a thick paint or varnish, to isolate all metallic
connections. So if 10 multiplier cards are interconnected, it results in a
multiplier network with a factor of 1E+03.

That is, if the output of the transformer T1 delivers a voltage of 4kv peak to
peak, multiplied by the factor of 1E+03, there will be an output of 4Mv (four
million volts).

In Fig. E.5 the waveforms for the input and output of an 8-stage multiplier
network are shown. In the simulation of this circuit, the frequency of 5KHz and
a voltage of 9kv peak to peak have been used.

44
 Fig. E.5: Charging time for an 8-stage multiplier network.

Although the behavior is similar, the input peak-to-peak voltage must not be
greater than the maximum allowed by the capacitors and diodes that make up the
network, typically 5kv maximum in ceramic capacitors and up to 12.5kV in BY509
diodes.

Fig. E.6: Charging time for the same network but with a 100MOhms load.

In Fig. E.6, the effect of a 100MOhms load on the circuit output can be
observed. Presumably then, the necessary voltage must be adjusted for when the
circuit is activated, using the potentiometer on the LM317 variable voltage
regulator used to power the transformer.

45
46
 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

APPENDIX F

F. Circuit Diagrams

Fig. F.1: Control Circuit

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Fig. F.2: Elevator circuit

Fig. F.3: Multiplier network

Fig. F.4: Control Panel

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Fig. F.5: PBC control

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 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

APPENDIX G

G. Printed Circuits

Fig. G.1: Printed Front Control PBC 21x15cm.

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Fig. G.2: Printed Top Control PBC 21x15cm.

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Fig. G.3: Printed Bottom Control PBC 21x15cm.

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Fig. G.4: PBC control 21x15cm - 3D

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 Fig. G.5: Control Panel Front PBC 12x4cm.

Fig. G.6: Control Panel Back PBC 12x4cm.

Fig. G.7: Printed Top Control Panel PBC 12x4cm.

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Fig. G.8: Printed Bottom Control Panel PBC 12x4cm.

Fig. G.9: Control Panel PBC 12x4cm - 3D

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Fig. G.10: Top 100X Network PBC 21x15cm.

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Fig. G.11: Printed Front 100X Network PBC 21x15cm.

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Fig. G.12: Printed Bottom 100X Network PBC 21x15cm.

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Fig. G.13: 100X Network Card PBC 21x15cm - 3D

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 HIGH ENERGY REACTIONS

APPENDIX H

H. Bill of Materials

Materials Control PBC

Quantity Description RefDes Package
4 74LS, 74LS48N U2, U4, U6, U8 IPC-2221A/2222\NO16
4 74LS, 74LS190N U1, U3, U5, U7 IPC-2221A/2222\NO16
3 RPACK_VARIABLE_2X7, 180 Ohm R1, R2, R4 Generic\DIP-14
1 RPACK_VARIABLE_2X8, 180 Ohm R3 IPC-2221A/2222\DIP-16
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
2 RESISTOR, 10Ohm R5, R6
700X250
1 74LS, 74LS32N U11 IPC-2221A/2222\NO14
2 74LS, 74LS02N U10, U13 IPC-2221A/2222\NO14
1 BJT_NPN, 2N2222A Q1 Generic\TO-18
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
1 RESISTOR, 15kOhm R8
700X250
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
1 RESISTOR, 100Ohm R11
700X250
1 RELAY, EMR011A12 K1 REED\EMR01
3 CONNECTORS, HDR1X2 J2, J3, J4 Generic\HDR1X2
2 TIMER, LM555CN U14, U15 IPC-2221A/2222\N08E
1 POTENTIOMETER, 5kOhm R9 Generic\LIN_POT Carbon
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
3 RESISTOR, 1kOhm R7, R13, R14
700X250
1 74LS, 74LS08N U12 IPC-2221A/2222\NO14
2 DARLINGTON_NPN, 2N6038 Q2, Q3 Generic\TO-225AA
2 HEATSINK HS1, HS2 Generic\TO-225AA\HS
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
1 RESISTOR, 2.7kOhm R18
700X250
2 Varios, HDR1X1 J5, J6 Generic\HDR1X2
Transformers,
1 T1 Generic\TRX1_6X6
TS_POWER_6k_TO_12
1 POTENTIOMETER, 2kOhm R17 Generic\LIN_POT
1 VOLTAGE_REGULATOR, LM7805KC U19 Generic\TO-3(KC)
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
2 RESISTOR, 240Ohm 5% R15, R16
700X250
1 VOLTAGE_REGULATOR, LM317K U18 Generic\TO-3(K02A)
IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
1 RESISTOR, 2.7kOhm 5% R12
700X250

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 IPC-2221A/2222\RES1300-
1 RESISTOR, 68kOhm R10
700X250
IPC-2221A/2222\CAPR508-
5 CAPACITOR, 10nF C4,C5,C6,C10,C11
381X254X584
IPC-2221A/2222\CAPR500-
1 CAPACITOR, 100nF C8
700X300X600
IPC-2221A/2222\CAPPR200-
3 CAP_ELECTROLIT, 10uF C1, C2, C3
500X1100
IPC-2221A/2222\CAPPR250-
2 CAP_ELECTROLIT, 100uF C7, C9
800X1150
1 74LS, 74LS73N U9 IPC-2221A/2222\NO14
1 CONNECTORS, RIBBON_40V J1 Generic\RIBBON40V

Materials PBC Control Panel

Quantity Description RefDes Package
DISP0, DISP1,
4 MAN74A Generic\DISP74A
DISP2, DISP3
1 CONNECTORS, HDR1X2 J2 Generic\HDR1X2
2 SWITCH, PB_DPST J4, J5 Ultiboard\DIGTAS1B
1 SWITCH, SPST J3 Generic\SPST
1 CONNECTORS, RIBBON_40H J1 Generic\RIBBON40H

Materials 100X Multiplier Network

Quantity Description RefDes Package
D1, D2, D3,...
200 HighVoltage, BY509 Generic\SOD-61
D200
IPC-
C1, C2, C3,...
200 CAPACITOR, 1nF 2221A/2222\CAPPA3600-
C200
3000X1500
3 Varios, HDR1X1 INPUT, OUTPUT Generic\HDR1X2

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