QUATERNARY RESEARCH 37, 117-124 (1992)

Obsidian Hydration Dating and Temperature Controls in the Punta

Negra Region of Northern Chile
THOMAS F. LYNCH*

AND

CHRISTOPHERM. STEVENSON-t
*Departmeni of Anthropology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853; and TDiffusion Laboratories,
Archaeological Services Con.sultants, Box 02095. Columbus, Ohio 42302
Received August 7. 1990
Effective hydration temperature (EHT) is essential for the computation of obsidian hydration
dates. In the Atacama Desert, the scarcity of air-temperature records combines with extremes of
elevation and local temperature to encourage, or even require, the use of buried thermal cells to
record on-‘site mean annual temperatures. Compositional analysis (sourcing) and hydration rate
development in the laboratory are also necessary, especially where other dating methods are
unavailable to confirm the hydration rate. Paleoindian or Early Archaic through modern obsidian
dates support a human settlement pattern history derived from archaeological/geomorphological
studies of climatological and hydrological change. ia 1992 Umversity of Washington.

INTRODUCTION THE OBSIDIAN DATING PROCESS

The specimens and dates reported here
result from am investigation of the settle-
ment and climate history of the Punta
Negra basin and two nearby salt lakes of
the North Chilean Gran Despoblado
(Lynch, 1984, 1986, 1990). There, changing
temperature, precipitation, glaciation, veg-
etation, and human adaptation patterns all
interact in an interdependent manner that is
especially noliceable in the delicately bal-
anced ecology of the Atacama Desert and
Salt Puna.
In this article we discuss an experiment
in obsidian hydration dating initiated by the
senior author in 1985. The purpose of ob-
taining obsidian hydration dates was not
strictly archaeological. Rather, collaborat-
ing archaeologists and geomorphologists
wished to dat’e changing lake levels, strand-
lines, stream terrace sequences, and spring
activity cycles through the numerous, and
mostly suficial, human activity sites and
settlement pattern associated with the geo-
morphologic evidence of climate and hy-
drological change.
To calculate an absolute date for an ob-
sidian artifact four analytical procedures
needed to be completed. First, the amount
of surface hydration, or the thickness of the
hydration rim, was measured. Second, the
geological origin of the artifact was ascer-
tained in order that the appropriate set of
rate constants, particular to each glass
type, could be applied. Third, the hydration
rate constants for each compositionally dis-
tinct natural glass were determined at ele-
vated temperature within the laboratory.
Lastly, the soil temperature at the archae-
ological site was measured so that the rate
of hydration developed at high temperature
might be adjusted to reflect the hydration
temperature at the prehistoric site.
HYDRATION RIM MEASUREMENT
A thin section was prepared for each
sample under the guidelines presented by
Michels and Bebrich (1971). Hydration rim
width measurements were made at 800x
using a Watson image-splitting measure-
ment instrument (Scheetz and Stevenson,

117
0033-5894/92 $3.00
Copyright 0 1992 by the University of Washington.
All rights of reproduction in any form reserved.
118 LYNCH AND SlbVtNSON

1988). Seven independent measurements
were made and a mean value and standard
deviation were calculated (Table I ). The
standard deviations represented the preci-
sion errors associated with the measure-
ment process and were used to determine
the uncertainty factor for each age determi-
nation. Within the set of 26 samples from I1
sites. two thin sections did not possess hy-
dration rims. In addition, these materials
appeared to have a fine crystalline struc-
ture. These attributes suggest that two sam-
ples (89-124 and 89-126) are possibly chert
or flint.
COMPOSITIONAL ANALYSIS
The specific obsidian quarries used by
the prehistoric inhabitants of the Punta
Negra region have not been located. Visual
inspection of the archaeological collections
revealed a variety of different colored
glasses that indicate diverse \OLII-ccs were
utilized in this volcanically active area.
Some obsidian may have come from a pri-
mary source near Meniques-Miscanti in the
eastern catchment of the Salar de Atacama
(Niemeyer and Schiappacasse. IY76). but
the considerable diversity within the Punta
Negra collections suggests that several
sources were in common use. To determine
the number of glasses represented in the
remaining sample of 24 pieces. a subset of
12 was chemically analyzed using X-ray flu-
orescence (XRF).
Prior to the analysis, the microscopic at-
tributes of each thin section had been ex-
amined. This resulted in the recognition of
three distinct types of glass: (a) clear obsid-
ian with few inclusions, (b) obsidian with
high densities of small phenocrysts and dis-
persed crystals, and (cl obsidian with
spherical inclusions. At the end of the de-

TABLE I. OBSIDIAN HYDRATION DATES FOR ATACAMA DESERT OBSIDIANS

Laboratory Rim width

number Provenience Group (pm) 1 Date IV

89-108 PN 71 I 5.5 0.1 7177 B.C. 337

89-109 PN 71 I 5.x 0.1 8204 B.C. 355
89-l IO PN 71 3 3.9 0. I
89-111 PN 115” I 4.0 0. I 6011 B.C’ 405
89-l I2 PN II(” 2 3.0 0.1 - -
89-l I3 PN 115” , ‘,>‘I 4.4 0. I 7619 B.C. 445
89-l 14 PN 112 I? 2.9 0. I 2437 B.C. 310
89-115 PN 99 I? 4.5 0.1 7653 B.C. 434
89-116 PN 99 I? 3.7 0.1 4234 B.C. 341
89-117 PN 99 I 5.3 0.1 10301 B.C. 478
89-l 18 PN II5 2 4.6 0. I - -
89-l 19 PN 72 1 1.5 0. I 1307 A.D. 93
89-120 PN 93 3 I.9 0. I -
89-121 PN 101 I ‘? 4.9 0.1 8925 B.C 450
89-122 PN 102 I 2.6 0.1 1230 B.C. 2.52
89- I23 PN 105 4 1.4 0.1
89-124 PN 105 - - CHERT -
89-125 PN 105 2 2.7 0.1
89-126 PN 105 - - CHERT - -
89-127 PN 105 ?? 1.7 0. I
89-128 PN 105 I? 2.5 0.1 1136 B.C. 255
89-129 PN 105 I? 2.2 0.1 431 B.C. 225
89-130 PN 36 2! 1.2 0.1 -
89-131 PN 36 I :’ 1.3 0.1 1100 A.D. 142
89-132 PN 36 1? I.0 0.1 1463 A.D. III
89-133 PN 115f I? 2.8 0.1 1931 B.C. 285

u ? indicates obsidian source assignment was made on the basis of visual analysis.
 CHILEAN OBSIDIAN AGES 119

scriptive process, specimens from each cat-
egory were selected for chemical analysis.
The 12 specimens from the archaeological
assemblage were first ground to a 325-mesh
powder in an agate mortar and pestle and
mixed with methyl cellulose in a constant
ratio of 0..5.5/0..45 (sample/cellulose). Then
the mixture was formed into a pellet 3.2 cm
in diameter at 1680 psi.
Analytical standards NBS 278 Obsidian
Rock and USGS RGM-1 were prepared in
the same manner as the archaeological sam-
ples and were used to calibrate the XRF
system. During analysis, the archaeological
samples and thle standards were placed un-
der vacuum in an auto sample chamber of a
Kevex 0700 X-,ray fluorescence subsystem.
The equipment consisted of a rhodium X-
ray tube, with ,a programmable high-voltage
power supply, a 15-position sample drive
module, and the X-ray detector.
X-ray spectra were acquired over 500 set
of live counting time using the solid state
Si(Li) detector which recorded characteris-
tic X-rays for elements with an atomic num-
ber greater than 10. The spectrum for ele-
ments with an energy range of 1.00 to 40.0
keV were collected under five excitation
conditions. The geochemical data gener-
ated under these conditions are presented
on Table 2.
An inspection of the trace element data
(Table 2) indicates that four distinct obsid-
ians were present within the assemblage.
Chemical Group 1 corresponded with the
clear obsidian and formed the largest set.
Group 2 corresponded to the obsidian with
high densities of small phenocrysts and dis-
persed crystals, while Group 3 correlated
with the obsidian containing spherical bod-
ies. In all but one case there was a perfect
correspondence between the visual sourc-
ing and the groups defined using the trace
element data. A Group-4 specimen (89-l 23)
was also a clear obsidian that could not be
visually distinguished from the Group- 1
specimens.
These preliminary data suggest that
many of the Punta Negra obsidians can be
sourced using simple petrographic analysis.
The inability to distinguish between Groups
1 and 4, however, indicated that errors can
be made. Additional tests of the method are
needed, but for the moment the remaining
samples in the assemblage have been as-
signed to a chemical group based upon vi-

TABLE 2. TRACE ELEMENTCONCENTRATIONS FORATACAMA DESERTOBSIDIANS

.~
Laboratory
number CU Zn Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Ba

Chemical Group I

89-108 19 29 220 125 6 56 15 700

89-109 - 34 214 112 2 51 9 693
89-111 17 26 215 130 4 55 21 655
89-117 - 27 209 112 4 56 14 662
89-119 15 30 210 118 3 55 15 659
89-122 - 23 217 124 3 57 IS 678

Chemical Group 2
89-l 12 39 63 86 220 - 28 19 1290
89-l 18 7 52 103 222 21 13 1180
89-125 17 61 92 221 - - IS 1210

Chemical Group 3

89-110 - 55 195 111 58 224 18 854

89-120 60 194 118 - 206 22 825

Chemical Group 4
89-123 II 20 644 17 7 17 64
 120 I.YN(‘H AND STt.VtNSON

sual examination. In Table I chemical

group numbers. determined by visual ex-
amination, are accompanied by a question
mark to indicate that some uncertainty in
the group assignment remained.
HYDRATION RATE DEVELOPMENT
A hydration rate for Chemical Group I
was developed in the laboratory under con-
ditions of high temperature and pressure.
i .’
L
Seven freshly fractured flakes were hy- -i
drated in a vapor environment at IOO% rel-
1/11
J

ative humidity at temperatures ranging be-

tween 150” and 180°C for durations of up to 0 1 2 3 4 5

26 days. At the end of the reaction periods Time l&(~ays)

each sample was thin sectioned and the hy- FIG. I. Preexponential plot at 16oY ti)r Chemical
dration rim measured (Table 3). The in- Group I obsidian.

duced rims were then used to calculate (Ta-

ble 3, Figs. I and 2) the activation energy (E:
= 83712 J/mol) and the preexponential
(1.25 pm’/day at 160°C). With these vari-
ables known, chronometric ages for the
Chemical Group 1 obsidian artifacts could
be calculated once the effective hydration
temperature of the archaeological sites had
been estimated.
SOIL TEMPERATURE ESTIMATION
In the past, EHT usually has been
crudely estimated from mean annual air
temperature recorded at a weather station
in the region of the sites under study. Ide-
ally, at the other extreme, we would deter-
mine an EHT at each site and for every
depth and provenience unit from which we
wished to date obsidian artifacts. As this
would be a very expensive and nearly im-
possible task, we tried in this experiment to
move forward by establishing direct tem-
perature controls at a constant depth in
three critical sites. At 20 cm below the sur-
face the temperature measuring cells arc
protected from most natural hazards. Ex-
perience shows that in some cases EHT in
archaeological sites changes by a fraction
of a degree with greater depth of burial, but
to study this factor and assess its signifi-
cance we will need a much more elaborate

TABLE 3. TEMPERATURES. EXPOSURE PERIOD, AND

HYDRATION RIM MEASURFMENTS FOR CHEMI~AI.
GROUP 1 OBSIDIAN

Kim
Laboratory Temperature Duration width
number VT) (days) (pm) I (T

89-157 160 4 2.3 0. I

89-616 160 I’ 3.‘) 0. I
89-140 160 IX 4.6 0.1
89-618 160 26 5.8 0. I
89-365 150 12 3.0 0.1
89-364 170 I’ 5.2 0. I
FIG. 2. Activation energy plot for Chemical Group I
89-29 1 180 I:! 6.6 0. I
obsidian.
 CHILEAN OBSIDIAN AGES 121

and expensive. research design. In the in-
terim, for this experiment we attempted to
date only specimens found on the surface,
except for 89.-133 (PN 11X) which came
from 10 cm be:low the surface.
There is no way of knowing whether all
of these artifacts have lain on the surface
through their entire history since manufac-
ture. In fact, it is unlikely, in that most of
the sites studied are blowouts or have been
churned thoroughly by burrowing rodents
(especially Ctcnomys robustus and C. fill-
VUS) to a dep,th of about 30 cm. Average
depth of burial, through time, may well ap-
proach 20 cm. The effect of diurnal temper-
ature extremes on the hydration of surface
specimens, as opposed to more steady sub-
surface temperatures of essentially the
same mean value, should be questioned,
but there is no way to quantify the error
factor in this experiment.
Another uncontrolled variable, usually
ignored in obsidian hydration dating, is the
inevitable slight change in mean annual
temperature over the millennia probably
covered by thie experiment. Nevertheless,
our EHT values calculated for the Punta
Negra region have yielded hydration ages
that are unusually consistent with, and in
all but one case fall within, the expected
span of settlement history.
Soil temperatures were calculated from
Ambrose-type: cells (Table 4). Three pairs
of thermal cells were buried in sites PN 89
(elevation 30210m), PN 71 (3560 m), and PN
36 (3730 m) in order to measure accurately
the effective hydration temperature (EHT)
and establish a local temperature gradient
or altitudinal lapse rate (Trembour et al.,
1986). The six cells were retrieved a year
later, after the capsule of polycarbonate
resin had absorbed part of the distilled wa-
ter in which it was submerged. The rate of
water diffusion through the capsule wall
was dependent on soil temperature, which,
at 20 cm depth, may approximate an EHT
computed from air temperature. Shipped in
desiccator cylinders to the laboratory, the
capsules were reweighed, and the increase
in weight was converted to an integrated
temperature value (or EHT), using con-
stants derived from experimentally deter-
mined values (Ambrose, 1980). It was felt
that these values should more accurately
reflect the soil temperatures in which these
shallow sites’ artifacts have hydrated than
would air temperatures from distant
weather stations.’ The variance within the
pairs of cells was cO.O6”C, and all results
(9.47” to 13.89”C) were expected for the lat-
itude and altitudes of the project area. (For
the purposes of this paper, the significance
of these measurements is reduced to 0. I’C.)
These EHTs are considered reliable and
were applied to the archaeological sites at
which they were determined.
’ Accurate, long-term air temperature records are
not available in the unpopulated project area. Never-
theless. the mean annual temperatures for the cities of
Oruro (10°C) and Cochabamba (16”(Z), nearly 500 km
to the north and slightly east, compare well (Rudloff,
1981). At 3706 m elevation. the station at Oruro is
equivalent to PN 36 at 3730 m, while Cochabamba, 450
m lower than PN 89, is the expected 2°C warmer.

TABLE4. SOILTEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS FORTHEATACAMA DESERT

Site Altitude Depth Duration Measured Adjusted EHT

Cell location Cm) (cm) (days) EHT (“K) EHT (“K)” (“Cl
131 PN 71 3560 20 387 286.1 287.0 13.9
132 PN 71 3560 20 387 286.0 287.0 13.8
135 PN 89 3020 20 379 286.2 286.9 13.7
136 PN 89 3020 20 379 286.3 286.9 13.8
153 PN 36 3730 20 365 282.6 9.5
I54 PN 36 3730 20 365 282.6 9.5

n Adjusted EHT values reflect a 365day burial period.

122 l.YNC-H AND S.1 EVkNSOk

Elsewhere, few published obsidian hy- I ABII 5. HYDRATION KAI t r OH ( HIMAS

(q~~,~~~‘~~ GROUP I. ADJUSTED FOR EFFECTIW
dration dates have been obtained with com-
HYDRATION TEMPF.RATL~Rf
position and temperature controls compa-
rable to those from PN 36 and PN 71172 Sile Altitude Temperature Kate
(Pino, 1976). In most cases, no on-site tem- number (rn) ("K) I~rn’ilOOO yrl

perature records have been available, with XY 3020

source often determined in an entirely vi- 101 3545
sual manner. YY 3580
The difference of 4.3”C between PN 89 at 102 3600
I05 3670
3020 m (13.8”C) and PN 36 at 3730 (9.5”C) IIS 3700
yielded a lapse rate or temperature gradient VI 3730
of 6.06Wkm. This agrees extremely well 117 3750
with the accepted “standard lapse rate” of 71171 35hO
6Wkm used for comparing glacial age and
modern snowlines (e.g., Flint, 1971, p. 71).
For the Bolivian Andes, Graf (198 1) found a AGE DETERMINATION
modern summer lapse rate of 6.5”C/km Using the estimated EHTs. hydration
from 2500 to 3600 m. Johnson (1976) also ages for the specimens of Chemical Group 1
calculates 6.5Wkm between 2500 and 4500 obsidian were determined. For example,
m in Peru and Ecuador. Geoffry Seltzer the hydration rate developed at 160°C was
(personal communication, 1990) reported extrapolated to the hydration rate at 13.7”C
that the University of Minnesota Limnolog- (286.9”K) using the Arrhenius equation:
ical Research Center had derived a similar
rate (6.3”C/km) for the Peruvian Andes, K = K' exp EIRT
while Fox and Strecker (1991) calculated = K' exp EIR (I/T' ~ l/T)
S”C/km for the eastern slopes of the Argen- = 1.25 exp 83712/8.317
tine Andes. This last rate, unfortunately, (11433.16 - 11286.91)
had to be derived almost entirely from low- = 3.3 p,m’/lOOO yr,
altitude stations, so it may not be applicable
where K = archaeological hydration rate
to the western. Chilean slopes at high ele-
(~m’/lOOO yr)
vations.
K' = preexponential (km’/day at
All things considered, if we had only
160°C)
the temperature records from PN 36 and
E = activation energy (J/mole)
PN 89, it would seem completely safe to
R = universal gas constant
extrapolate those temperatures along
T’ = experimental temperature in
the local, empirically derived lapse rate
degrees Kelvin (160°C)
(6.06Wkm) to the other nearby sites at in-
T = effective hydration tempera-
termediate elevations. These EHTs are ex-
ture in degrees Kelvin
pressed in Table 5 for all sites except PN
(13.75”C).
71/72, which had its own EHT derived from
The hydration rates of 1 .Y to 3.3
two thermal cells. This temperature
~m”/lOOO yr, as shown on Table 5, were
(13.8”C) is essentially the same as that from
used to calculate the absolute ages of ob-
PN 89, which is 540 m lower in altitude.
sidian samples belonging to Chemical
Similarly, an impossibly high lapse rate
Group I (Table 1).
(3 1.TC/km) would be required to bring it
into agreement with the temperature cell at DISCUSSION
PN 36. Local, idiosyncratic factors may be
effecting soil temperature at site PN 7 1. This temperature-controlled, obsidian
 CHILEAN
hydration experiment yielded very reason-
able results, even though it was based on a
small number d specimens of a single ob-
sidian type. In a report written before the
results from this hydration analysis were
available, Lynch (1990) had concluded that
middle Archaic (6000-3500 B.C.) sites, to
judge from the types represented in surface
collections, were scarce in the Punta Negra
region. After reviewing late glacial lake-
level records, changes in vegetation, and
evidence of glacier advance and retreat in
the south-central Andes, he proposed hu-
man entry of the area by the early Archaic
(9000-6000 B.C.), subsequent depopulation
and perhaps abandonment, then readapta-
tion to more localized resources after 3500
B.C. In apparent support of the hypothesis,
only one of the 16 dates obtained from the
experimental hydration rate constants (89-
116 from PN 99: 4234 B.C.) falls in the mid-
dle Archaic pleriod. At the upper end, the
latest date of A.D. 1463 (89-132 from PN
36) conforms well to the depopulation
the zone after the Spanish invasion. Also,
late projectile: point types and numerous
potsherds were found on the surface of
PN 36.
In general, t.he dates in Table 1 agree well
with what is known of the chronology of
projectile point types in the Atacama Des-
ert. Only the (extraordinarily early determi-
nation of lo,3101 B.C. (89-l 17 from PN 99),
which was associated with early Archaic
triangular points, is seriously out of line.
Even if human beings were present in
South America at that time, the high-
altitude locale: (3580 m) was probably either
exceedingly cold, barren, and arid or quite
possibly under the waters of a higher La-
guna de Pajonales.
What, then, is the explanation for the ex-
cessively late date at PN 99? One possibil-
ity is that we have selected the wrong tem-
perature cells from which to extrapolate the
EHTs for the sites that did not have on-site
temperature controls. Stevenson at first
was inclined 1.0 average the results from PN
OBSIDIAN AGES 123
71 and PN 89, and use that single EHT for
all sites except PN 36. That procedure
would have yielded a date of only 7278 B.C.
for specimen 89-117. Finally, and perhaps
most significantly, it should be noted that
PN 99 is 80 to 110 km south of the temper-
ature-controlled sites. Obsidian hydration
dating is extremely temperature-sensitive.
To complete this project satisfactorily we
will need more closely spaced temperature
controls, more subsurface specimens to
date, hydration dates directly on chrono-
logically sensitive artifact types, and con-
firmation dates by the radiocarbon or other
techniques.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Ambrose-design thermal cells were provided by Jo-
seph Michels. whose advice is gratefully acknowl-
edged. MOHLAB determined the EHT values. Cor-
nell University geologists Arthur Bloom and Andrew
Fox collaborated in geomorphological aspects of the
project, while Lynch thanks especially Sergio Valen-
zuela and Dennis Stansbury, of Minera Escondida, for
of their aid in burial and recovery of the thermal cells.
Support was provided by the National Science Foun-
dation (BNS-8418815), the Jacob and Hedwig Hirsch
Fund, and Minera Escondida.
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