MODULE IN SCIENCE 10

THIRD QUARTER
Lesson 3
 Explain how protein is made using information from amino
acid; and
 Explain how mutations may cause changes in the structure
and function of a protein.

Learner’s Information
Name: _________________________________________________
Grade Level and Section: _________________________________
Address: _______________________________________________
Contact Number: ________________________________________
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Teacher’s Information

CRISTINE JOY G. RAQUEDAN

Saint Anne Academy of Piddig, Ilocos Norte Inc.
cristinejoygalo9@gmail.com
www.facebook.com/cristine.raquedan
(0951) 073 9020
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 HEREDITY: INHERITANCE AND VARIATION

LESSON 1. HOW PROTEIN IS MADE USING INFORMATION FROM DNA?

Different types of proteins exist in every living

organism. Protein is the most varied molecule in which
the human body contains at least 10,000 different kinds
of proteins. Since the human body are made up of cells,
their unique characteristics are determined by the type of
proteins they possess. For example, the red blood cells
are able to carry oxygen throughout the body because
they contain a protein that is not found in other cells.
Another example is that the muscle cells are made up of
fibrous protein which allows the movement of the muscle
to contract and relax. Body covering of the body such as
the skin, nail, and hair contain a kind of protein that
makes them tough and horny.
The proteins that occur in the body are large, complex molecules composed
mainly oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, and nitrogen. Proteins are essential part structure of
cells. It acts as an enzyme or catalyst for chemical reactions in cells.

AMINO ACID
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, which are made up of long
chains of chemical units. There are 20 different amino acids. Our body system can
synthesize non-essential amino acids through metabolic process from simple organic
molecules and the nine essential amino acids must be obtained from the dietary food
we intake.
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IMPORTANCE OF PROTEINS IN THE BODY

1. Protein hormones regulate many physiological

processes, like insulin, that affects glucose transport into
cells.
2. Proteins in the blood help as blood clotting factor and
transport molecule. For instance, hemoglobin transports
oxygen in the blood.
3. Protein acts as ion channels, carrier, and receptor
molecules in the cell membrane.

The Three Kinds of RNA in Protein Synthesis

There are three kinds of RNA in which cells build proteins. This process is called
protein synthesis.
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a type of molecule of
RNA that travels from the nucleus to the ribosomes in
the cytoplasm, where the information in the copy is
used for a protein product.
2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is the RNA component of
the ribosome and a cell's protein factory in all living
cells. It provides a mechanism for decoding mRNA
into amino acid and interacts with tRNA.
3. Transfer RNA (tRNA) is an adaptor molecule
composed of RNA, typically 73 to 93 nucleotides in
length that brings amino acids from the cytoplasm to
a ribosome to help the make the growing protein.

The genetic code is shared by all organisms. For instance, you want to
determine which amino acid is encoded by CAU codon. First, find the first base C from
the first nucleotides in the left part of the Genetic Code. Then, find the second base A
from the second nucleotides on the upper part. Finally, find the third base U from the
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third nucleotides in the right side of the Genetic Code. Hence, we find the amino acid
histidine as encoded by codon CAU.

DNA POLYMERASE
Enzymes and other proteins are responsible for the process of replication. An
enzyme begins the process by unzipping the double helix to separate the strands of
DNA. Some proteins hold the strands apart, which serve as the template. The floating
free nucleotides in the nucleus will be paired with the nucleotide of the existing DNA
strand. The DNA polymerase (group of enzymes) is responsible in bonding the new
nucleotide together. When the process is done, it forms two complete molecules of
DNA, each exactly the same the original double strand.

THE REPLICATION PROCESS

Before the cell of an organism can reproduce, it must first replicate or make a
copy of their DNA. Copy of the DNA happens whether the cell is prokaryote or a
eukaryote. The following steps describe the replication of DNA in both eukaryotic and
prokaryotic cells:
1. DNA replication takes place in the cytoplasm of prokaryotes and in the nucleus of
eukaryotes. The enzymes start to unzip the double helix as the nucleotide base
pairs separate. Each side of the double helix runs in opposite directions. At same
time, replication begins on both strands of the molecules.
2. Free nucleotides pair with the base exposed as the template strand continuously
unzip, an enzyme complex-DNA polymerase attaches the nucleotide together to
form a new strand similar to each template.
3. A sub-unit of the DNA polymerase proofreads the new DNA and the DNA ligase
(enzyme) seals up the fragments into one long strand.
4. Two similar double-stranded molecules of DNA result from replication. The new
copies automatically wind up again. According to Nowick, "DNA replication is
semi-conservative because one old strand is conserved, and a new strand is
made."

PROCESSES OF PRODUCING PROTEIN FROM DNA

1. TRANSCRIPTION
The DNA is found inside
the nucleus of the cells which
are embedded in the
chromosomes. The genetic
information within the DNA
must be transported to the
ribosome in the cytoplasm
where protein synthesis takes
place. The genetic information
or code is copied into the
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 mRNA through the process of transcription. The transcription process occurs
when the nucleotide sequence along the DNA is copied into a strand of mRNA.
The DNA strand will be exposed once the DNA molecule uncoils. The RNA
polymerase is responsible for the alignment and binding together of the
ribonucleotides that will create the single strand of RNA molecule. The mRNA
molecule, as the complimentary ribonucleotides, attach to the exposed bases of
the DNA strand.
2. TRANSLATION
Translation is the final step in the synthesis of a small protein through the
help of the mRNA. The transfer of code from the mRNA to a small protein begins
when the mRNA molecule attaches to the ribosome, which forms the mRNA-
ribosome complex. The different amino acids found in the cytoplasm must first be
transferred in the mRNA-ribosome complex by another RNA. An amino acid is
then attached to a specific transfer RNA (tRNA). There are as plenty of tRNA as
to the presence of amino acids because it is intended that each tRNA is coded to
specific kind of amino acid. Translation is the converting the information from the
RNA into a protein. Each tRNA with its attached specific amino acid moves to the
mRNA-ribosome complex.

The ribosome changes its position by three nucleotides. The tRNA without
the amino acid is detached from the ribosome. The ribosome now shifts to the
next codon, ready to bind another tRNA with its specific amino acid. The mRNA
codon recognizes which tRNA is next, as a result, specifying which amino acid
will be next in the polypeptide (addition of amino acids to the protein) chain. The
process is repeated as the ribosomes goes along the mRNA chain. A codon in
the mRNA stops when the ribosome encounters the addition of amino acids to
the protein.

LESSON 2: MUTATIONS THAT OCCUR IN SEX CELLS AS BEING HERITABLE

Many types of mutation can occur in an organism's DNA. Biologically, mutation

is the change in genetic material. It can be a source of beneficial genetic variation or it
may have dangerous effects. Mutations can result from DNA copying mistakes made
during cell division, and exposure to ionizing radiation like gamma rays from
radioactive elements such as uranium and plutonium. Another cause of DNA copying
mistakes is direct exposure to chemicals or through infection by bacteria and viruses.

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The different types of agents, whether they are in the form of physical or chemical that
can cause the alteration of the structure or sequence of DNA, are called mutagens.

MUTATIONS OCCURRING IN SEX CELLS

How are genetic traits or characteristics
passed on from parents to their child? What do
you think can determine the combination of traits
that are passed on? Mutations that occur in sex
cells can be passed from parent to their children.
Since the chromosomes carry information
about the characteristics inherited from parents, it
is better to have a clear understanding on the
structure of a chromosome.
Chromosome is made up of a chemical
substance called deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA
(see figure 7.6). Most of the cells in the body
contain 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 sets of
chromosomes). The sex cells contain half this
number. When a sperm and egg cell unite, the
fertilized egg ends up with 46 chromosomes, which are 23 chromosomes from each
parent. The chromosome contains many genes, a section of a chromosome that
determines a single trait. Genes are the basic unit of heredity. Once the egg is fertilized,
it may now contain two genes for each trait-one from the father and one from the
mother. This is how hereditary information is passed from one generation to the next.
Do you think defective genes can be inherited?

SOMATIC AND GERMINAL MUTATION

Eukaryotic organisms, such as mammals,
humans, amphibians, avians, and vascular plants,
have two primary cell types: the germ and the
somatic. Mutations can occur in either of the two cell
types. Mutation in somatic cells is called somatic
mutation. It occurs in non-reproductive cells and will
not be passed onto the offspring. They do not occur
in cells that give rise to sex cells (sperm and egg
cell). Therefore, mutation will not passed along to
the next offspring by sexual means.
Germinal mutation is an alteration of the
nucleotide sequence of the DNA that makes up a
gene. The germ cells give rise to sex cells that will carry the mutations that will be
passed on to the next generation, when a successful mating happened. Generally, this
type of mutation is not expressed in the individual offspring containing the mutation, but
it would be expressed in either negative or positive affected sex cell production. For
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instance, Queen Victoria of England introduced the hemophilia allele into a few number
of the royal families of Europe. The germ line mutation carried by the queen was
passed to their generation.

CHROMOSOME MUTATIONS
Chromosome mutations are departures from what is normal or desirable set of
chromosomes either for an individual or from a species. It refers also to changes in the
number sets of chromosome (-ploidy) and changes in the number of individual
chromosomes (-somy) and its appearance. There are several kinds of chromosomal
mutations which are enumerated below.
 Insertion is a gen etic material added from another
chromosome.

 Translocation happens when part of a chromosome

breaks off and combined to another chromosome. This
type of disorder is due to translocation chromosomal-
level mutation.

 Deletion happens when there is loss of part of a

chromosome.

 Duplication happens if there are extra copies of a part of

a chromosome.

 Inversion happened when the direction of a part of a

chromosome is reversed.

GENETIC DISORDERS
1. RECESSIVE DISORDERS
Recessive disorders happen when a child receives two defective genes
from each parent. A person who receives one defective recessive gene is called
a carrier. The carrier does not express the disorder because it is not detectable
by the dominant normal gene. Therefore, it can pass the defective gene to their
children.
a. Sickle cell anemia is a genetic blood
disorder. A person who inherits two
defective genes will have abnormally
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 shaped red blood cells and may die at an early stage.
b. Tay-Sachs disease is characterized by the lack of an important chemical in
the brain. Infants who have this kind of disease usually die within their first
five years.
c. Phenylketonuria or PKU is a rare genetic disorder that can cause serious
mental retardation in infants. An infant who have this kind of disorder cannot
breakdown phenylalanine (chemical commonly found in food) that it builds up
in the body, in which the brain is affected. Phenylalanine is obtained from an
artificial sweetener called aspartame. This kind of disease can be treated
through a special diet.
d. Cystic fibrosis is a disease in which some glands produce too much mucus
that it clogs and damages the lungs. This disease is fatal among children
because it causes difficulty in breathing.

2. SEX-LINKED DISORDERS
Sex-linked disorders are more common in men because they have only
one X chromosome, so all defective genes on the chromosome will be expressed.
Since women carry two X chromosomes, a recessive defective gene on one X
chromosome can be covered by a normal gene on the other X-chromosome. A
woman who had this kind of disease may pass it on to her children. The most
common sex-linked disorder is color blindness and hemophilia.

3. HUMAN GENETIC SYNDROME

There are some genetic disorders

that may have few or too much
chromosomes. A person who survived
during chromosomal mutations is
categorized by a distinctive set of mental or
physical abnormalities.
a. Cri du chat is caused by the deletion of
part of the short arm of chromosomes 5.
Babies who have this disease have a
wide-set eyes and small head and jaw.
b. William syndrome is the result from the
loss of a segment in chromosome 7.
They have large ears and facial
features that make them look live elves.
c. Down syndrome (trisomy 21) is known
as Mongolism. A child receives an extra
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 chromosome (chromosome 21) and has a distinctive physical appearance. It
is the most common cause of mental retardation. It can be a mild or severe
mental retardation.
d. Edward syndrome (trisomy 18) happens when there is an extra number 18
chromosome. It shows mental retardation and physical abnormalities to the
child and can live beyond one year.
e. Patau's syndrome (trisomy 13) is caused
by extra copy of number 13 chromosome.
Based on the study, about 90% of babies
with this syndrome do not survive in
infancy. Severe mental retardation
occurred to those survived.
f. Klinefelter's syndrome (XXY) is another
genetic disorder. A male who have this
syndrome has two or more X-chromosomes in addition to their Y-
chromosomes. They lack facial hair and their testes, including the prostate
gland, are underdeveloped.
g. Turner's syndrome has 45
chromosomes. About 96-98% with
this condition does not survive at birth.
It is a genetic disorder that affects
women. Those who survived with this
condition usually have no
menstruation, has narrow hips,
breasts are not developed, and with
broad shoulders and neck.
IMPACT OF MUTATION ON PHENOTYPE
Mutations of the chromosome directly
affect the genes which can cause human
genetic disorders. The gene can no longer
do its tasks normally once it breaks up due
to mutation. Gene mutation has a great
impact on the organism. For instance,
substitution occurs in a coding region of
DNA. If substitution happens, the enzymes
are not able to bind to its substrate, so the
mutation directly affects protein folding.
Thus, it damages the protein's function.
There is also a premature stop codon.
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 Gene mutations sometimes do not affect an organism's phenotype due to many
codons that code for the same amino acid. A mutation that has no effect on the protein
is called silent mutation. Most of the amino acids of silent mutation are encoded by
many different codons. For instance, if the third base in the TCT codon for serine
becomes different to any one of the other bases, it can still be encoded. It is called
silent since there is no change or the product cannot be detected without sequencing
the gene. Missense mutation happens when a point of mutation, in which a single
nucleotide change, result to different codes of amino acid.

IMPACT OF MUTATION ON OFFSPRING

Mutation occurs in the body cells and in germ cells. Mutations in the body cells
damage only the organisms in which they occur while in germ cells, mutation may be
passed to offspring. In some cases, mutation result in a more beneficial phenotype due
to being favored by natural selection and increase in a population.

CAUSES OF MUTATIONS:
1. SMOKING CAN RAISE RISK OF GENETIC MUTATION.
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 Smoking can cause germ cell mutagens that can destroy genes and cause
cancer and other diseases. If diseases occur, they will be inherited and can be
detrimental to the children later in their life. When a mother smokes during her
conception, it may lead to genetic alterations in her child.
2. EFFECT OF OLD AGE ON OFFSPRING
Many experts found out that old age at conception had an effect on offspring's
intelligence and personality. Healthy and normal eggs produced by females will decline
as they get older. There is a chromosomal error happening more frequently in the eggs,
resulting in abnormal embryos. Older mothers (aged 36 to 45) are at a higher risk of
having a baby with Down syndrome, Patau's syndrome, and Edward’s syndrome. For
early detection of these diseases, parents should prepare for the special needs of the
baby.
3. CHEMOTHERAPY
Chemotherapy drugs can cause DNA mutations to the offspring. The genome
affected by chemotherapy drug will not stabilize, resulting to new mutation.
4. EXTERNAL INFLUENCES
Too much exposure to hazardous chemicals and radiation such as x-rays and
gamma rays can cause mutations. The DNA will break down. Though the cell repairs
to the DNA, it can no longer return the original structure, resulting to new mutations.

END OF DISCUSSION!
Proceed to the activities given. You
did great!

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 WHAT TO DO?
ACTIVITY 1
Analyze the diagram below and give your honest interpretation.

Interpretation:
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ACTIVITY 2

Design your own SIMPLE DNA model through recycled materials. Here is
an example of DNA structure with recycled materials.

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