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An assignment on
“Bridges in Forestry Section”
Course code: FES-343
Submitted to-
Rahela Khatun
Lecturer, DFES, SUST.
Submitted by-Group-2
Reg no-
2017631008
2017631009
2017631013
2017631015
2017631028
2017631036
2017631048
2017631074

Department of Forestry and Environmental Science

Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet.
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Contents
1 Introduction to Bridges: ............................................................................................................... 3
2 Importance of Bridges in forestry: ............................................................................................... 3
3 Components of Bridge: ................................................................................................................ 4
3.1 Substructure .......................................................................................................................... 4
3.1.1 Abutments ...................................................................................................................... 4
3.1.2 Wing walls ..................................................................................................................... 5
3.1.3 Piers................................................................................................................................ 6
3.1.4 Approaches..................................................................................................................... 7
3.1.5 Foundation ..................................................................................................................... 8
3.2 Superstructure ....................................................................................................................... 8
4 Classification of bridges............................................................................................................... 9
5 Classification by depending on the materials of construction ..................................................... 9
5.1 Timber bridge or log bridge .................................................................................................. 9
5.2 Steel Bridge......................................................................................................................... 10
5.3 Concrete Bridge .................................................................................................................. 11
6 Classification according to construction .................................................................................... 12
6.1 Girder Bridge ...................................................................................................................... 12
6.2 Suspension Bridge............................................................................................................... 13
6.3 Cantilever Bridge ................................................................................................................ 14
6.4 Arched Bridge ..................................................................................................................... 14
6.5 Rigid-frame Bridge ............................................................................................................. 15
6.6 Floating Bridge ................................................................................................................... 16
6.7 Ford Irish Bridge................................................................................................................. 16
7 Factors effecting the selection of the site ................................................................................... 16
8 Factors effecting the bridge design selection ............................................................................. 17
9 Drainage ..................................................................................................................................... 17
10 Culverts .................................................................................................................................... 18
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Bridges in forestry

1 Introduction to Bridges:
Bridge construction is an important part of forestry and
civil engineering for planning roads in a forest. A
bridge is a structure that is at least 6m long that spans
a river, stream, road, or any other obstacle giving
communication across the obstacle. Bridges are
important for recreation, silviculture, range, and
watershed. A successful harvesting plan requires a
well-designed road network including bridges. There
are several types of bridges that we can create in a
forest according to the importance and purpose of
construction. There are also factors that affects the bridge construction like the budget for the
construction, the expected time period of service.

2 Importance of Bridges in forestry:

• Bridges are important in forestry. For many
purposes like forest monitoring, forest
management and harvesting we need to construct
bridges.
• Bridges are connectors that connects both sides of
an obstacle.
• It saves the time, fuel and energy for
transportation.
• It reduces the distance between two places. Bridge
constructions are planned perpendicular of a river or stream.
• As we said it reduces the distance, so that it also
reduces the time for transportation.
• It increases the recreation as well as aesthetic
value of an area.
• Aesthetic value of any area brings more visitors to
that area for recreation. That helps in the
economic development of the area.
• It helps traffics to move uninterruptedly in any
weather.
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3 Components of Bridge:
Bridges are consisting of three components. These are:
1. The substructure: This is the base of the bridge. This part
of the bridge supports the weight of superstructure.
2. The Superstructure: This is the upper surface of the
bridge. Where traffic moves.
3. The approaches: The entrance of the bridge.

3.1 Substructure
This is the base of the structure. It supports the
weight of both superstructure and the traffic over
it.
Function: It is functioned for supporting the
superstructure components and transfer their loads
safely to the ground.
Supports: It supports the superstructure and the
traffic in it.
The substructure is consisting of 5 components:
1. Abutments
2. Wing walls
3. Piers
4. Approaches
5. Foundation for the above

3.1.1 Abutments
These components are the end supports of the
superstructure. This can be flat or arched. They protect
the channel banks from giving in. They hold the soil or
other components of the both entrances of the bridge and
connect with the approaches. Abutments are not always
required. As for example we don’t need abutments for
suspension bridge. But for girders and arches, abutment
is a must. It can be made of Brick Masonry, Stone
Masonry, Concrete Blocks, R.C.C.
Abutments are classified as below:
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1) Simple abutments: Recommended for low

clearance bridges on firm ground. The
structure of these bridges is too simple and
cheaper to build. Their construction exports
sloping to the bank of the stream to support
the strings running across it. The strings are
placed directly to the ground. They can be: Simple sill log
a) Simple sill log abutments
b) Simple sill log abutment with mud sills
c) Abutments with foundation logs under
mud sill
d) .
2) Log crib abutments: This type of abutments is
required when the two facing stream banks
are in different elevation level. They are
consisting of:
a) Simple log crib Simple sill log abutment with mud sills
b) Open-end log crib
c) Box cribbing
d) Pre- cast concrete cribbing
3) Pile abutments: It is useful when wood is not
enough for cribbing. When the foundation
of these pile has to put in stream. And when
the stream bank is so exceeding to difficult
for log cribbing. Types of pile abutments:
a) Pile abutments
b) Pile bents Multiple sill log abutments
4) Concrete abutments and foundations: These
types of abutments are most durable and
best. It is also very expensive and very resistant to impact.

3.1.2 Wing walls

They placed transversely from both abutments. They protect the entire structure and abutment from
landslip. They are classified according to their plan position along with other components such as
the bank and the abutments. The wing wall is classified into two types:
1) Depending on the materials of
construction:
a) Masonry wing wall
b) R.C.C wing wall
2) On the basis of the layout in plan:
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a) Straight wing wall: Uses in small bridge and culvert

b) Splayed wing wall: Uses in small and
also for large bridges. They provide
smooth entry of water under bridges.
c) Curved wing wall: They also provides
smooth entry of water under bridge.
This type of wing wall generally uses Curved wing wall
in bridges over canals or irrigation
channel.
d) Returning wing wall: They placed parallel to the roadway
and right angle to the abutment. It is suitable where the
embankment is very high and banks are firm.

3.1.3 Piers Splayed wing wall

Pier bears the vertical load that is known such as
intermediate support for multi-span bridges. Pier
is the types of column that are constructed
between the two abutments in the bridge which
is functioned to support the load of
superstructure of the bridge.
Function: It is functioned as an intermediate
support for the superstructure. By this foundation, the weight of the superstructure is transfer to
the subsoil.
• The longitudinal distance between two piers is call span.
• It transmits the load from superstructure to the subsoil.
• The velocity of the flow is much higher in the middle of the stream or a river so that the central
piers receive the greatest impact of the water.
• In arched bridges the flooring is supported by the arches, these intermediate supports are built
extra strong and they are called “abutment piers”.
• In suspension bridges, piers are termed as towers. Which can be made up of masonry or most
commonly steel.
Two types of piers can be made:
1. Solid Piers
2. Open Piers
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3.1.3.1 Open Piers

Open piers are classified into four types, such as:
1. Cylindrical Piers
2. Column bent Piers: This type of piers requires two or more
columns that supports the main girders.
3. Pile bents: Pile act as support to the main girders in this type
of piers. Piers are connected by the same type of materials
with piles. The materials can be steel, R.C.C or timber.
4. Trestle bents: This type of piers is made of timber, R.C.C or steel. All members are square or
rectangular in cross-section.

3.1.3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Piers by Material selection

Log crib Piers:

1. They are simple to build. No special and heavy equipment or machinery is necessary for
installation.
2. They require a good foundation and their period for time-lasting is short
3. Box cribbing is necessary for installation.
4. They reduce the channel size as for the piers have to be made widely
Concrete Piers:
1. They are long lasting and highly resistant to damage.
2. They are difficult to build.
3. They are expensive to made.
4. They have a narrow structure.
5. Their construction requires special equipment and expert man power.
Post-bent and Frame-bent Piers:
1. Difficult to build.
2. They are prone to scouring.
3. The wood we use here have to treated properly and need a concrete foundation.
4. This type of piers is required when the ground is so hard that piles cannot be driven.

3.1.4 Approaches
These are the part of road on both percolation of the bridges. The factors affect to their design is
levels, alignment, height and other design characteristics. Some basic function for the approaches
they have to be straight for at least 50m. The approach and the bridge deck have to be at same
level.
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The classification of Approaches:

1. With Straight abutments or toe abutments
2. Approaches with abutment and retaining walls.
3. Approaches over the extended part of the main bridges. A better substructure.

3.1.5 Foundation

3.1.5.1 To the approaches

The approaches with a foundation of a structure of straight and with the abutments and approaches
with abutments and retaining walls.

3.1.5.2 To the Piers and Abutments

The foundation of these can be spread, pile or caisson foundations.
• Spread foundation preferred for R.C.C. And is recommended for shallow waters and shallow
good soils.
• Pile foundation is driven into deep of the soil. This structure has to be deep enough for support
the whole structure. This type of foundation is required for clay soil.
Requirements for piles:
1. Common piles are round or rectangular between 15- 40 cm and diameter between 6-15m long.
And spaced between 1-1.5m apart.
2. Timber have to be well seasoned, straight and free from knots. These requirements increase
the life span.
3. The lower portion of wooden pile have to be shoed with wrought or cast iron.

3.2 Superstructure
The super structure is the surface of the bridge where
the traffic moves. This structure is consisting of:
• Decking: Decking is the part we can call as
flooring. It includes the guardrails. It provides
the running surface for the traffic like human,
animals and vehicles to pass the bridges.
• Guardrails: Guardrails are installed as a border of
the bridges. That remains people the edge of the
bridge
• Stringers: These are structured to support the decking and other load of the bridges.
• Trusses: Their purpose is to strengthen the superstructure by driving the load equally over the
stringers.
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4 Classification of bridges
Different types of bridges are constructed in forests, depends on the internal structure of the forest
area and why the bridges will be used for. Here we have classified bridges in broader sense, which
may not use in forestry more frequently and any junior forester cannot give better construction
ideas. So that for the deeper and better result, we may need professional bridge engineer's
consultation for designing any bridge for any forest area. And there are some factors which should
be considered when a bridge will be constructed. These factors will help to choose t he perfect
type of bridge according to our need:
1. Channel section and sub soil condition
2. Grades and alignment
3. Weather and hydraulic data
4. Economic and strategic consideration
5. Availability of construction materials
6. Time allotted for construction
7. Type of loading will be done on the structure
8. Width of the channel to be crossed
9. Availability of mechanical erection facilities
Classification by depending on the materials of construction:

5 Classification by depending on the materials of construction

Bridges are made of various materials like steel, concrete, timber, bricks, stone, cables or
combination of them. The materials we will going to use depends on which type of bridge will be
required, availability of building material in the site, budget are made for construction and whether
the unit will be temporary or permanent, carrying capacity of load and speed. Regarding all of
these facts, bridges can be classified depending on materials are described below:

5.1 Timber bridge or log bridge

These types of bridges are classified as temporary bridges.
These are made of timber and their life span is 15 to 20 years.
These are commonly suitable for hilly areas.
Advantage:
✓ These are easy to construct, materials for this type are
generally can be found in the adjacent forest area.
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✓ No need of so many heavy construction tools and vehicles.

✓ Easier to remove without harming so much to the adjacent area as these are made of timber,
their debruises will be more nature friendly for their deterioration process.
Disadvantage:
• They get deteriorated easily due to atmospheric affect. Abiotic factors like precipitation
advanced the deterioration process. Biotic factors like insect attack or fungal attack and
other decomposer can attack in the logs of the bridge and results of these attack turn into
deterioration.

• These bridges easily catch fire and they need continuous care and maintenance.
• Wrong wood selection can be hazardous for both forest, waterbody and worker vehicles.
If we do not select enough strong woods, the bridge will not take the weight of vehicles
and accident will be occurred.

5.2 Steel Bridge

Standardized structural members produced by the
metallurgical industry are used in most of the steel bridge
construction. Cast iron (C: 1.7 to 4.5%) is used for
compression members and wrought iron (99.5% Fe) is used
for tension members.
Advantages:
✓ Steel bridges are lighter in weight, cost effective and more sustainable.
✓ They have long life span, long durability and more fatigue strength.
✓ They are also environment friendly and recycling also possible.
✓ The time duration of construction of steel bridge is much faster than other bridges.
Disadvantages:

• Though steel bridges are cost effective but the cost of construction is very high.
• Due to forest fire and other fire hazard, the strength quality of steel can be affected. Bridges
are exposed in atmosphere. So that they go through between weathering and corrosion
process. So that frequent maintenance application needs to arranged.

• Due to high strength or weight ratio, steel compression members are in general slender and
consequently more susceptible to buckling than other bridges.
1. Concrete and masonry bridge: These are bit older bridges. They are made of natural
stones, bricks or concrete blocks. These bridges are always arched with massive supports.
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Advantages:
✓ Concrete and masonry bridges have high durability and higher level of resistance.
✓ They have architectural attractiveness.
✓ They have very long-life span and sometimes the span expanded through time and for other
environmental factors.
✓ They can be constructed from any materials.
✓ Load carrying capacity is so high.
✓ It can adapt the local environmental condition better so that deterioration level is low.
✓ These bridges have least distortion.
Disadvantages:
• Although they have very long-life span but when the distance between the start points and
the end points is long, by passing time the bridge will became vulnerable for weathering
process of the site.

• It a very time-consuming process and require very careful maintenance.

• This type of bridges specially needs a very advance site selection.

• Their structures must be situated along abutments or banks that are sound for the span to
work. Artificial supports can be used to reinforce weak areas if all the other elements
required for the design will work, but this need is typically one of the greatest disadvantages

5.3 Concrete Bridge

These kinds of bridges are become popular in the early 20 th
century. So we can say these are bit modern type of bridge.
Their substructures are constructed with stone or brick
masonry and superstructures are constructed with R.C.C.
Advantages:
✓ High adaptivity with environment and flexible with
construction process for long span or short span.
✓ High resilience against all type of load and impacts.
✓ The structural redundancy is good enough and it has
long durability with less maintenance.
✓ Construction process is very rapid and local labor can
be included in the construction work.
✓ Economically flexible and versatile in uses.
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Disadvantages:

• The life span is limited and they get saggy as they age.

• They have less aesthetic value.

6 Classification according to construction

Construction process goes through
various type of factors. Regarding
this factor, we can classify the bridges
depending on construction.
According to construction methods,
the classification of bridges is:

6.1 Girder Bridge

They also known as "Longitudinal beam bridge". Any
girder bridge is consisting of one or more spans bridges over
by beams. Beams can be simple for span of 5m and arched
for span between 6-8m.

Different types of girder bridges:

1. Steel bridges which include beam, plate girder and open web girder bridges such as truss
bridges for spans of 6-8 m.
2. R.C.C. bridges which can either be the beam and slab and the alular construction type
3. Pre-stressed concrete girder bridges.
Advantages:
✓ Girder bridges can provide more space for lateral expansion. This can be achieved by
displaying one girder on the side of the widened bridge and providing a new stronger in the
middle.
✓ It has so much variation which gives a good chance for choosing the suitable one.
✓ For exceeding the practicing limits of both the trestle and composite timber-concrete slabs,
they recommended for medium-length spans.
✓ They are satisfactory for the spans of lengths less than those economical for truss construction.
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Disadvantages:

• It requires skilled labor.

• The construction process is costly.

• The maintenance cost is higher than other types.

6.2 Suspension Bridge

Suspension bridges are constructed when the obstruction is a
deep and wide ravine. For every average span, they are normally
single bridges but if spans are long, these bridges can be multi
span. The floor of the bridge is supported by cables or chains.
The floor is often made of wooden planks placed crosswise.
According to the relation to the support of the roadway, small
suspension bridges are three types:
a) Sling suspension bridge: In the case of sling suspension bridges, the roadway is
supported by rope slings, wires or chains from two sets of one or more cables or wire
ropes running along the sides of the structure.
b) Ramp bridges: The roadway of these types of bridges mostly supported directly by
the cables and the decking or flooring is wooden planks.
c) A trestle suspension bridges: This one in which thrle roadway is carried on or rests
on trestles which are in turn supported by cables and chains.
Advantage:
✓ These are normally single span bridges.
✓ In their construction, only require cables and material in small light pieces rather other
bridges need more materials.
✓ Although these are made for long span but if needed it can be use for long term while
difficult situation came over.
✓ They are cheapest type of construction.
✓ By providing additional suspending cables with fasteners, re-strengthening can be done
easily.
Disadvantages:

• If bridge is not stiffened, it can only load in limited amount and the amount is minimal.
• Suspension bridges are very damage prone because of high winds which cause the structure
move sideways.
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6.3 Cantilever Bridge

These are also known as "Balanced" bridges. They may
have a continuous adjacent span or spans. They are
constructed in sites where the gorge is deep but
relatively narrow and traffic is medium in load.
Advantages:
✓ Their structure and construction process
relatively simpler than other types.
✓ Their process does not demand skilled labors.
✓ These bridges afford a much longer waterway so that it will protect from the danger of
being washed away in the period of high flow.
✓ A balanced cantilever types of construction provides better flexibility and it is
recommendation for sites prone to bedding down.
✓ These bridges are constructed over deep gorges where the use of centering is not possible.
Disadvantages:
• It needs long time for construction.

• Construction needs large number materials and timbers as strouts, beams and rocks.
• It needed much labor force although it not demands skilled labors.

• These disadvantages make the process more expensive.

• Because of the long spans, cantilever bridges are adapted for the erection of girders presents
many difficulties.

6.4 Arched Bridge

Arched bridges have arches between abutments,
between piers, or between abutments and piers.
Depending on the materials are used, arch bridges are
classified in four types:
a) Masonry arch bridges: The bridges of stone or
brick are the most genuine of arch bridges.
b) R.C.C. arch bridges: Reinforced concrete arch
bridges are adopted when girder bridges are proved to be uneconomic with larger span.
c) Pre-stressed concrete arch bridges: Its main load bearing members are steel arch ribs that
are prestressed with high tensile rock anchors embedded in the banks.
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d) Steel arch bridges: These are may be solid or the open web type bridges.
Advantages:
✓ Masonry and brick worked bridges give a permanent and stable structure. And for this
reason, it needs a little
✓ e maintenance.
✓ Arches have a better and desirable appearance.
✓ Arches are more suitable for the embankments with hard rocks and deep gorges areas.
✓ If arch bridges are made of steel then its span will be 120 to 240 m.
✓ They are simple in construction.
✓ Cost of the construction is moderate.
✓ Because of the action of the horizontal thrust at the abutment or the pier, the bending
moments are either minimized or eliminated. Thus the arch section can be designed for
normal thrust and radial shear.
Disadvantages:

• If bridges are made of masonry or brick so that their span length will be limited.

• In cases of very low approach levels, the construction is virtually impossible.

• With exception of the three hinged arches, any settlement in any support will considerably
alter the designed stress of the entire structure.

6.5 Rigid-frame Bridge

Rigid frame bridges are usually not included in forestry
approaches, because these are very expensive and difficult
to made. This type of bridge includes:
a) R.C.C. rigid frame bridge.
b) Steel rigid frame bridge.
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6.6 Floating Bridge

These bridges are made when construction is costly for any
site. Otherwise sometime during the construction period of
main bridges, these bridges are made temporarily. There
three types of floating bridges:
a) Boat bridge.
b) Pontoon bridge.
c) Raft bridge.
Advantages:
✓ These are cheap and easy to make.
✓ More environment friendly.
Disadvantages:

• They cannot be a permanent roadway.

• They are not safe for heavy loading.

6.7 Ford Irish Bridge

A ford is a much cheaper form of river crossing than
a bridge, but it may ... or watersplash had been known
as "Irish bridge" in reference to the Anglo–Irish war.
It raised way over wet ground or as paved way in flat
ground and takes drainage water across the road.

7 Factors effecting the selection of the site

There some factors always stand between the construction of the bridges. These are:
1. At bridge site, the stream should be straight.
2. The site should be geologically sound i.e.; it should be away from fault zone and should have
non-erodible foundation.
3. At the site, the stream should be narrow.
4. At the site, the river flow should be without whirls & cross currents.
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5. At the site, there should be suitable high banks & above high flood level.
6. The approach roads should be economical.
7. The site should be at reasonable proximity to a direct alignment of the road to be connected.
8. There should be no sharp curves in the approaches.
9. Avoidance of excessive under water construction work.
10. Large portion of bridge construction should be in dry as far as possible.

8 Factors effecting the bridge design selection

1. Expected life of the bridge.
2. Type of traffic.
3. Type and size of the stream.
4. Construction costs.

9 Drainage
Drainage means the collection and disposal of surplus water.
Good drainage means:
It will prevent subgrade failures, it will decrease the water
volume for prevent flood, frost action and soil erosion. It
protects embankment.
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10 Culverts
When the drainage structure is less than 6m it is called a culvert. It
is used to cross water bodies. Constructed of wooden body, brick,
steel, concrete and logs.

There are two types of culverts:

a) Open top culverts: it is found in mountainous countries. They
are very less costly and made of local materials. The width of the
culvert can be increased regarding to needs.

b) Submerged or underground culverts: These are expensive to construct but they serve better.
There are five types of underground culverts:
1. Timber crib culverts.
2. Masonry slab culverts.
3. Pipe culverts.
4. Box Culverts.
5. Arch culverts.

Therefore, bridges and are important in the management of the forest especially if the forest area
is artificially planted or it is a commercial plantation. From planting seedlings to harvest and after
the harvesting, extraction of the forest product must demand a roadway. If the forest is surrounded
mostly by gorges and streams then bridges are needed to construct. A good and suitable structural
construction and environment friendly process can be more beneficial to our forest management.
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Although in our country, there are lack of forest engineers. But it is important that foresters have
well knowledge over forest engineering. So that we can do this engineering project into the forest
in more sustainable way.
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References:
1. Course related materials
2. http://www.fao.org/3/x0622e0q.htm
3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315662977_Bridges_and_their_Types
4. https://homesteady.com/12153296/how-does-polyurethane-protect-wood
5.https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Steel+Bridge#:~:text=The%20principal%2
0designs%20of%20steel,steel%2Dreinforced%2Dconcrete%20bridge.
6. https://civiconcepts.com/2019/10/bridge-components-and-their-
function/#i_Substructure
7. https://usbridge.com/bridge-building-advantages-steel/
8. https://www.aisc.org/globalassets/nsba/technical-documents/advantages-of-steel-over-
concrete-for-bridge-design-and-construction.pdf
9. https://krishnakumar31.files.wordpress.com/2017/04/steel-vs-concrete.pdf
10.
https://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Masonry+Bridge#:~:text=a%20bridge%20w
hose%20main%20load,%2C%20brick%2C%20or%20concrete%20blocks.&text=The%2
0spandrel%20is%20made%20from,small%20arches%20resting%20on%20crosswalk.
11. https://greengarageblog.org/15-arch-bridges-advantages-and-disadvantages-tied-
through-and-truss
12. http://www.nationalconcretebridge.org/index.cfm/advantages
13.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_longest_masonry_arch_bridge_spans#:~:text=The
%20masonry%20arch%20bridges%20of,some%20lasting%20a%20thousand%20years.&
text=Such%20an%20arch%20would%20not,305%20metres%20(1000%20ft).
14. https://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/bridge-construction/arch-bridges-types-
components-and-shape/94039
15. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262840499_Prestressed_Steel_Arch_Bridge
16. https://www.rentafloat.eu/en/pontoon-systems/pontoon-bridges
17. https://familypedia.wikia.org/wiki/Ford_(crossing)
18. https://youtu.be/QMfZ5-ynMSU