Subject: Foreign policies

Roll No: 04
Name: Sehrish Zaman

Question 1.

Write a detail note on the role of media in shaping public opinion and framing foreign
policies of Pakistan?

Answer:

Role of media:-

Newspapers, radio, television, and therefore the Internet including e-mail and blogs are
typically less important than the social setting, however they're still vital, particularly in
affirming attitudes and opinions that square measure already established. The print media
focus the public’s attention on bound personalities and problems, leading many of us to
create opinions concerning them. Governance consequently have noted that
communications to them from the general public tend to “follow the headlines.” The
mass media can even reinforce latent attitudes and “activate” them, prompting individuals
to require action. simply before associate election, as an example, voters World Health
Organization earlier had solely a light preference for one party or candidate conjointly be
is also} galvanized by media coverage not solely to require the difficulty to vote however
maybe also to contribute cash or to assist a celebration organization in another method.
The mass media play another necessary role by material possession people apprehend
what others suppose and by giving political leaders giant audiences. During this method
the media build it potential for public opinion to cover giant numbers of people and wide
geographic areas. Before TV, national elections were seen for the most part as contests
between variety of candidates or parties for parliamentary seats. Because the electronic
media grew additional subtle technologically, elections progressively assumed the looks
of a private struggle between the leaders of the principal parties involved. Within the us,
presidential candidates have come back to personify their parties. Once in workplace, a
president will simply charm to a national audience over the heads of elective legislative
representatives. In square measure as wherever the mass media are thinly unfold, as in
developing countries or in countries wherever the media square measure strictly
controlled, word of mouth will typically perform an equivalent functions because the
press and broadcasting, although on a additional restricted scale. In developing countries,
it's common for people who square measure literate to browse from newspapers to people
who aren't, or for giant numbers of persons to assemble round the village radio or a
community TV. Word of mouth within the marketplace or neighborhood then carries the
data farther. In countries wherever necessary news is suppressed by the govt. an excellent
deal of knowledge is transmitted by rumor. Word of mouth (or different kinds of person
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to person communication, like text messaging) so becomes the vehicle for underground
public opinion in totalitarian countries, even if these processes square measure slower
and frequently involve fewer individuals than in countries wherever the media network is
dense and uncontrolled. Foreign policy is that the method within which states articulate
their interests towards foreign actors. The effectiveness of the articulation rests on the
relative level of power that a state has. to understand the complexness of the interaction
that takes place at intervals the international arena.

Relationship b/w media and foreign:-

Media and policy relationship is delicate and complicated. Hamid mowlana(1997)

counsel that the study of media and policy ought to take into account the multifarious
nature of phenomena by specializing in following dimension

 Public opinion and interest teams.

 The culture of policy.
 Modern communication technology.
 Security, peace and war.
 Economic and trade as policy.
 Culture and data as policy.

Role of media in foreign policy:-

Research shows that public opinion effects policy making. Mass media has power to
affect both public opinion and policy.

According to cohen:-

 Communication
 Interpretation
 Advocacy

Media through its communication options sets the agenda for debates and discussion at
national yet as international level. Choice of reports things and framing by international
media has profound influence upon foreign policies.

It is the media that pulls political maps of the globe in present time.

``the media might not achieve success a lot of your time in telling individuals what to
suppose, however they're `stunningly eminent in telling individuals what to trust.”
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Role of framing:-

Framing, the second order of agenda-setting, deals with the news treatment, structure,
arrangement, choice of words, and phrasing. Media analysis of problems and events
connected with policy effects upon the last word objectives of policy. Media by its virtue
of lightness or marginalizing sure discourse could facilitate or impede the execution of
policy.

Critical paradigm:-

Critical paradigm sees media outcomes as embedded values of elite and also the
powerful. Initial 2 paradigm facilitate a state to use media for supporting policy.

Government policy (Pakistan) and media:-

A survey of Pakistani journalist, member of policy community and media tutorial founds
the mediatization of Pakistan has a mixed impact on stability of the country fragile
democracy. Members of policy community usually have a a lot of positive read of the
impact of the media on Pakistani society than people who add the profession and say they
take media reaction under consideration before creating choices, though all teams
aforementioned the media area unit still unable to meet its watchdog without concern of
retribution. The result area unit in line with studies within the developed world that found
that the a lot of politician believe stronger media effects, the a lot of vulnerable they
become to media agenda setting. The finding conjointly bolster the ‘co-evolution’ theory
that argues media gain influences as democracy stabilizes in post –autocratic
environments.

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Conclusion:-

To summarize the idea, the policy method} process present itself at intervals the setting
part created by media. Media performances during this environments is set by the state’s
political communication regime, government communication policy, the economics
structure and by the precise communication channels that perform the relevant media
functions. This media-created atmosphere reflects policy events through the agenda
setting perspective, influencing call manufacturers and compelling them to reply through
the media, with their specific characteristic, it's necessary to say that the conception of
media setting includes the feedback method, that during this context means that media
oriented foreign-policy call on press.

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Question 2.

How foreign policies are initiated in USA and majors actors involved in decision making
process?

Answer:

Foreign policy of the United States:-

The policy of the us is its interactions with foreign nations and the way it sets standards
of interaction for its organizations, companies and system voters of the us.

The formally explicit goals of the policy of the us of America, together with all the
Bureaus and Offices within the us Department of State as mentioned within the policy
Agenda of the Department of State, are "to build and sustain a a lot of democratic, secure,
and prosperous world for the advantage of the yank individuals and also the international
community”. additionally, the us House Committee on Foreign Affairs states as a number
of its territorial goals: "export controls, together with bar of nuclear technology and
nuclear hardware; measures to foster business interaction with foreign nations and to
safeguard yank business abroad; international goods agreements; international education;
and protection of yank voters abroad and expatriation.US. Policy and aid are the topic of
abundant discussion, praise and criticism, each domestically and abroad.

Historical overview:-

The main trend concerning the history of U.S. policy since the American Revolution is
that the shift from non-interventionism before and when war I, to its growth as a land and
world political system throughout and since war II and also the finish of the conflict
within the twentieth century. Since the nineteenth century, U.S. policy additionally has
been characterized by a shift from the realist faculty to the idealistic or Wilsonian faculty
of diplomacy.

The Jay written agreement of 1795 aligned the U.S.

additional with kingdom and fewer with France,
resulting in political polarization reception

Foreign policy themes were expressed significantly in

George Washington's farewell address; these enclosed,
among different things, observant honesty and justice

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towards all nations and cultivating peace and harmony with all, excluding each
"inveterate antipathies against specific nations, and a flame attachments for others",
"steer further from permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world", and
advocating trade with all nations. These policies became the idea of the party within the
decennary, however the rival Jeffersonian feared kingdom and favored France within the
decennary, declaring the War of 1812 on kingdom. Once the 1778 alliance with France,
the U.S. didn't sign another permanent written agreement till the Atlantic Ocean written
agreement in 1949. Over time, different themes, key goals, attitudes, or stances are
diversely expressed by Presidential 'doctrines', named for them. At the start these were
uncommon events, however since WWII, these are created by most presidents.

Jeffersonian smartly opposed an outsized ground forces and any navy till attacks against
American shipping by Barbary corsairs spurred the country into developing a military
service force projection capability, leading to the primary Barbary War in 1801.

Despite 2 wars with European Powers the War of 1812 and also the Spanish American
War in 1898 American policy was largely peaceful and marked by steady growth of its
foreign trade throughout the nineteenth century. The district in 1803 doubled the nation's
geographical area; Kingdom of Spain ceded the territory of FL in 1819; annexation
brought within the freelance American state Republic in 1845; a war with North
American nation administration Golden State, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, and NM in 1848.
The U.S. bought AK from the Russian Empire in 1867, and it annexed the freelance
Republic of Hawaii in 1898. Conclusion over Kingdom of Spain in 1898 brought the
Philippines and Puerto RICO, also as oversight of Cuba. The short experiment in
imperialism concluded by 1908, as the U.S. turned its attention to the shipway and also
the stabilization of regions to its south, as well as North American nation.

US foreign policy:-

The us has formal diplomatic relations with most nations. This includes all international
organization member states and international organization observer states aside from
international organization member states Asian country, Iran, D.P.R.K. and Syrian Arab
Republic and also the international organization observer State of Palestine. in addition,
the U.S. has diplomatic relations with the European Union and province. The us federal
statutes with reference to foreign relations are often found in Title twenty two of the us
Code. For many years, the us had the foremost diplomatic posts of any state however as
of 2020, it's second to the People's Republic of China.

Actors concerned in policy making:-

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Policy method encompasses associate degree tortuous series of smaller processes.
Specifically, it entails formulation, implementation and analysis. Ensuing upon the
intricacies concerned, specific crucial actors play roles within the policymaking method.
Anderson (1979) categorized the crucial actors within the political method into 2, namely
official and unofficial policymakers. The 2 classes of participant’s square measure
concerned in a way or the opposite within the policy method, and that they square
measure crucial and important within the sub-processes of policy initiation, choices,
formulation, implementation and analysis.

Unofficial Policymakers Unofficial policymakers don't occupy formal public positions or

political offices. They are not in government however they derive their relevancy and
political roles from government and therefore the official policy manufacturers. Mainly,
they harness their interests and demands, harmonies them and influence official
policymakers to issue them into the policymaking method. Official Policymakers: Accord
to Anderson, the official policy makers area unit those that possess legal authority to have
interaction within the formulation of public policy. Those concerned during this class
area unit the legislators, the manager, the directors and therefore the judiciary. Every of
them perform political responsibilities in an exceedingly totally different method from
the others. They are governmental actors UN agency occupy formal public positions and
political offices and functions the particular policy manufacturers. Official policy makers
area unit successively categorized by Anderson (1979) and Egomania (1991) into:

i. Primary policymakers
ii. Supplementary policymakers.

The first policy makers area unit constitutionally authorized to have interaction within the
formulation of policies. It's their constitutional assignment and responsibility.
Consequently, they have not rely upon alternative governmental agencies or units or
structures to perform their political roles. In Nigeria, for instance, they're members of the
National Assembly (the Senate and therefore the House of Representatives) and states’
homes of Assembly. In Nigeria’s current democratic dispensation, alternative important
primary policymakers embody the president, his aides, directors and judges. They, as
well, contribute as supplementary policymakers. The supplementary policymakers,
expectedly, receive their authority to act in affairs of state method from the first
policymakers like the National Assembly in Federal Republic of Nigeria. they're expected
to be attentive to the interests and requests of the National Assembly. samples of
supplementary policy manufacturers area unit persons, agencies or bodies that require
authority from others so as to act as they're addicted to, or area unit controlled by, others.

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They embody ministries, departments and alternative governmental agencies that initiate
policies and push for them.

The Role of the manager within the political Process:-

The manager includes the president, prime minister, premier or governor, (as the case
might be), ministers, special advisers, special assistants, prime political aides and
therefore the directors. The most responsibility of the manager is to implement public
policies and to supervise, coordinate and manage ministries, departments and agencies
(MDAs) that area unit concerned within the implementation of policies. However the
manager in democratic dispensations, for instance, the president in Federal Republic of
Nigeria plays a vital and polar role within the political method. Indeed, he plays dominant
roles within the initiation, formulation and implementation stages of the policy method.
This era is mentioned as associate “executive-centered era,” within which the
effectiveness of presidency depends considerably upon govt. leadership each in policy
formation and in policy execution. The Nigerian president’s authority to exercise
legislative leadership is each clearly established and accepted as a necessity to the
president (Omotoso, 2010). During this “executive-centered era”, the president and his
chief aides and advisers within the presidency became the most important supply of
policy proposals initiation. it's become crystal clear that the president UN agency offers
govt. leadership is additionally expected to supply legislative leadership. Egomania
(1991) cited the Babangida and Obasanjo administrations within which the 2 presidents
created important impact on policy problems. There have been policy proposals on the
Structural Adjustment Programmed (SAP), privatization programmed, government
reform, new constitutions, and therefore the world System of Mobile Communication
(GSM), to say a number of. Egomania any discovered that in the elective civilian
government of the Second Republic headed by President Shehu Shagari, the National
Assembly expected the president to gift policy recommendations thereto and supply it
with draft bills containing his recommendations. Constant expectation subsists until these
days.

The Role of Legislators in Policymaking:-

Legislators area unit members of parliaments, for instance, the National Assembly and
state assemblies in Federal Republic of Nigeria. As indicated earlier, the legislators
represent the first policymakers. They possess direct constitutional authority to initiate
and formulate policies. As elective law manufacturers, they represent their individuals
from their numerous constituencies. Consequently, they're expected to collate the views,

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interests, demands and issues of their constituents, harmonies them and translate them
into policy proposals for the general assembly. Such policy proposals area unit subjected
to the complete legislative processes of reading, debating and scrutiny (by the relevant
standing committees). Policies developed from such proposals area unit then forwarded
for the president’s assent. Developed policies can came upon policy programs and needed
actions that the manager can then implement and measure. Legislators don't generate and
develop policy proposals from their individuals solely. They additionally develop draft
policies from their fellow legislators and therefore the govt. truly these days, legislators
seem to own much and mostly abdicated their constitutional responsibility of affairs of
state to the manager. Ikelegbe (2006) declared that legislators not exert considerable
influence on the initiation and formulation of policies.

The Role of the Judiciary in Policymaking:-

The judiciary includes judges and therefore the courts. Their constitutional
responsibilities area unit the interpretation of the constitution and therefore the laws,
furthermore as assessment in conflicts between people, groups, governmental
establishments and therefore the arms/levels of presidency. It's instructive to notice that
the judiciary isn't constitutionally authorized to initiate, formulate or implement policies.
However, through the interpretation of the constitution and laws, it contributes
considerably to the affairs of state method. Egomania (1991) known four necessary
instruments that the judiciary employs to react to policies.

These instruments are:

a) Judicial Review
b) Statutory interpretation of cases brought before the judges
c) Cases on economic matters
d) Broad interpretation

(a) Judicial review:-

This refers to the ability of courts to see the constitutionality of the actions of the
legislative and govt. branches and declare them unconstitutional, null and void, and of no
result if such actions violate any sections of the constitution.

(b) Statutory interpretation of cases brought before the judges:-

This instrument refers to the ability of courts utilized in deciphering and deciding the that
means of constitutional provisions that area unit liable to conflicting interpretations.
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Judges in their courts clarify constitutional provisions and no matter interpretation they
offer becomes binding on all parties concerned.

(c) Cases on economic matters:-

This needs to do with the selections of courts on matters like contracts, possession of
property and employer-employee relationship. Once matters with reference to these area
unit brought before the courts/judges, their choices will translate to policymaking, or
policy fine-turning, or “repolicying” altogether.

(d) Broad interpretation:-

This instrument refers to the regulation of social and political activities in line with
dynamic times. During this method, the courts specify what government cannot do and
what it's to try to so as to satisfy legal and constitutional obligations. Consequently, the
courts will venture into, and adjudicate on, areas just like the rights of people to welfare
services. It may adjudicate within the operation of public establishments like colleges,
schools and universities. Through these instruments, the judiciary brings regarding
judicial intervention which may, not solely modify policies, however additionally policy
and action furthermore as moderate implementation activities. in an exceedingly shell,
the judiciary is that actor that ensures correctitude, fairness, constitutionality, justice and
moderation within the policy method.

The Role of directors in Policymaking:-

As indicated earlier, directors area unit classified as supplementary policy manufacturers.

They gain their authority from primary policy manufacturers before they act. they're
doubtless addicted to the first policy manufacturers. Directors work directly below the
manager arm of presidency as they're implementers of public policy. They are gift in
MDAs. As political systems disagree round the world, thus are also body systems. The
sort of social group in situ in any nation determines the sort of body system, in terms of
size, complexity, structure and area of autonomy. Regardless of the scenario, it's been
clearly established that directors, in their implementation assignment, will create or mar
any policy. Throughout implementation, they'll have interaction in foot dragging or non-
enforcement altogether. The role of directors within the policy method has become thus
crucial, and this has transcended mere implementation of policies. Through the manager,
they currently generate, initiate and formulate policy proposals and push for them. Bound
factors area unit chargeable for this as enunciated by Anderson (1979): In complicated
industrial societies particularly, the triviality and quality of the many policy matters, the

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necessity for continued management, and therefore the legislators’ lack of your time and
data, have junction rectifier to the delegation of abundant discretionary authority, usually
formally recognized as rule-making power, to body agencies. Consequently, directors
create many selections that have comprehensive political and policy consequences.

Unofficial Policymakers:-

As explained earlier, the unofficial policy manufacturers (as delineate by Anderson) area
unit people that don't possess legal authority to form binding policy choices. they are
doing not occupy formal public positions or political offices. They are not in government
however they derive their relevancy and political roles from government and therefore
the official policymakers. They are engaged, mainly, in harnessing their interests and
demands, harmonizing them and influencing the official policymakers to issue these
interests and demands into the affairs of state method. These unofficial policy
manufacturers comprise interest teams, political parties and individual voters.

Interest Groups:-

These area unit associations of people UN agency share common interests, beliefs and
aspirations concerning their demands. They are civil society organizations that advance
and advocate their interests and demands with a read to influencing the policy method.
Abutudu (1995) known 5 such teams. The primary cluster is created from skilled
associations, labor and students like the Nigerian Bar Association (NBA), Nigerian
Medical Association (NMA), Federal Republic of Nigeria Labor Congress (NLC), and
National Association of Nigerian Students (NANS). The second cluster consists of the
human rights teams like Civil Liberties Organization (CLO) and Committee for the
Defense of Human Rights (CDHR). The third cluster is created from early teams that
struggle for state power and therefore the national cake like Arewa consultive Forum
(ACF), Middle Belt Forum, Afenifere and Ohaneze. The fourth cluster includes the
business category in producing, banking and finance, agriculture, mining and commerce
below the umbrella of the Nigerian Chamber of Commerce. The fifth class consists of
diverse teams that area unit voluntary in nature and basically reciprocally appurtenant in
character like city unions and community development associations.

Political Parties:-

They talk over with teams of similar people that have close with the only intention of
gaining the management of the machinery of presidency. As they pursue their primary
interest of gaining governmental power, they play distinguished roles within the policy

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method. A organization that controls the lever of power tends to influence their members
in government to formulate policies that may project and defend their party programs and
pronunciations. Political parties that have minority members among official policy
manufacturers try and advocate and build coalitions for factorization their party programs
into policy proposals. Excluding this, they additionally wield considerable influence by
providing alternatives to existing policies.

Individual Citizens:-

The interests and wishes of common voters area unit of import for public policies
(Lindblom, 1986). Governments, everywhere the planet, tend to {pay attention} and pay
attention to what their voters want so as to attenuate social unrest and avoid violent
agitations. Consequently, voters play very important roles within the affairs of state
method. Voters area unit voters, and thru the electoral method, they assist to supply basic
changes publically policy (Anderson, 1979). Voters will kill any organization or the
personalities concerned if they're not glad with their policy programs. Thus, they'll give
birth to separation in policy programs with their balloting power. Individual voters with
nice intellectual depth and flexibility will create considerable impact on policy problems
and policy selections. Government cannot ignore such individuals in policy matters as a
result of their intellectual skills, analytical minds, and their facts and figures. Again, there
are voters UN agency, themselves, have served in governmental positions and capacities.
Through their experiences and exposure in government, they influence the policy method
by partaking in political policy and submitting memoranda on policy problems. They
additionally articulate their policy proposals through the media (print or electronic) and
thru press conferences.

Concluding Remarks:-

Good and useful public policies and higher cognitive process stay a trigonometric
function qua non to sensible governance in any nation whose government is serious and
targeted to handle and solve this and rising issues of societies. All actors within the policy
method got to be alive to their responsibilities of formulating sensible and useful policies.
Developed policies ought to be dependably enforced for the nice of the generality of the
individuals in an exceedingly country. Corruption, that may be a caterpillar within the
implementation stage, should be confronted headlong. It's usually believed in Nigeria that
almost all of our current policies area unit sensible, however implementation is sadly
poor attributable to the hydra-headed downside of corruption. Policy analysis is
additionally elementary as policies got to be reviewed and fine-tuned sporadically,

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therefore on make sure that they continue to be relevant and helpful in determination the
issues that they were developed, in addition as rising challenges.

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Question 3.

What do you know about MEA? Write its role in world’s largest democratic states
decision making?

Answer:

MEA stand for:-

The Ministry of External Affairs (India) (MEA), conjointly called the Foreign Ministry,
is that the administrative body answerable for the conduct of foreign relations of Asian
country. With the world's third largest military expenditure, largest armed force, fifth
largest economy by nominal rates and third largest economy in terms of buying power
parity, India could be a regional power, a nuclear energy, a emerging international power
and a possible country. Asian country includes a growing international influence and a
outstanding voice in international affairs.

India faces serious economic and social problems as a results of centuries of economic
exploitation by colonial powers. However, since gaining independence from United
Kingdom in 1947, Asian country has become a fresh industrial country, includes a history
of collaboration with many countries, could be a part of the BRICS and a serious a part of
developing world. Asian country was one amongst the initiation members of many
international organizations the international organization, the Asian Development Bank,
New Development BRICS Bank, and G-20 and the founding father of the Non-Aligned
Movement.

India has conjointly contend a crucial and cogent role in different international
organizations like East Asia Summit, World Trade Organization, International fund
(IMF), G8+5 and IBSA Dialogue Forum. India is additionally a member of the Asian
Infrastructure Investment Bank and therefore the Shanghai Cooperation Organization.

Regionally, Asian country could be a part of SAARC and BIMSTEC. Asian country has
taken half in many international organization peacekeeping missions, and as of Gregorian
calendar month 2020, is that the fifth-largest troop contributor. Asian country is presently
seeking a permanent seat within the international organization SC, together with the
opposite G4 nations.

Policy:-

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States that host an Indian diplomatic mission

  India

  Nations that host an Indian diplomatic mission

India's policy has invariably regarded the thought of neighborhood jointly of widening
coaxial circles, around a central axis of historical and cultural commonalities.

Pranab Mukherjee, the previous minister of finance of Bharat Asian country and former
President of India with former North American nation President Saint George W. Bush in
2008.

As several as forty four million folks of Indian origin live and work abroad and represent
a crucial link with the fatherland. a crucial role of India's policy has been to confirm their
welfare and prosperity at intervals the framework of the laws of the country wherever
they live.

Role of the Prime Minister:-

Jawaharlal nehru, India's initial Prime Minister, promoted a powerful personal role for the
Prime Minister however a weak institutional structure. solon served at the same time as
Prime Minister and Minister of External Affairs; he created all major policy selections
himself once consulting together with his advisers then entrusted the conduct of world
affairs to senior members of the Indian office. He was the most beginning fathers of the 5
Principles of Peaceful Co-existence. His successors continued to exercise extended
management over India's international dealings, though they often appointed separate
ministers of external affairs.

India's second prime minister, Lal Bahadur Shastri (1964–66), expanded the Prime
Minister workplace (sometimes known as the Prime Minister's Secretariat) and enlarged

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its powers. By the Seventies, the workplace of the Prime Minister had become the factual
arranger and super ministry of the Indian government. The improved role of the
workplace reinforced the prime minister's management over policy creating at the
expense of the Ministry of External Affairs. Advisers within the workplace provided
channels of knowledge and policy recommendations additionally to those offered by the
Ministry of External Affairs. A subordinate a part of the office the analysis and Analysis
Wing (RAW) functioned in ways in which considerably expanded the knowledge
accessible to the prime minister and his advisers. The RAW gathered intelligence,
provided intelligence analysis to the workplace of the Prime Minister, and conducted
covert operations abroad.

The prime minister's management and reliance on personal advisers within the workplace
of the Prime Minister was notably robust beneath the tenures of national leader (1966–77
and 1980–84) and her son, Rajiv (1984–89), World Health Organization succeeded her,
and weaker throughout the periods of coalition governments. Observers notice it tough to
see whether or not the locus of decision-making authority on any explicit issue lies with
the Ministry of External Affairs, the Council of Ministers, the workplace of the Prime
Minister, or the prime minister himself.

The Prime Minister is but absolves to appoint advisers and special committees to look at
varied policy choices and areas of interest. In an exceedingly recent instance, Manmohan
Singh appointed K. Subrahmanyam in 2005 to go a special government task force to
review 'Global Strategic Developments' over following decade. The Task Force
submitted its conclusions to the Prime Minister in 2006. The report has not however been
free within the property right.

Decision making:-

The Ministry of External Affairs is that the Asian nation government's agency liable for
the foreign relations of India. The Minister of External Affairs holds cupboard rank as a
member of the Council of Ministers.

Subrahmanyam Jaishankar is current Minister of External Affairs. The Ministry

incorporates a Minister of State V Muraleedharan. The Indian Foreign Secretary is that
the head of Indian office (IFS) and thus, is the pinnacle of all Indian (ambassadors) and
high commissioners. Harsh Vardhan Shringla is that the current Foreign Secretary of
Asian nation.

The native and external players and their roles:-

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The federal government The main protagonists within the context of the agriculture
negotiations at the federal level in Asian nation area unit the Ministry of Commerce and
trade (MOCI), the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) and therefore the Ministry of External
Affairs (MEA).

The MOCI is remitted with the first responsibility for all WTO-related problems. The
govt. of Asian nation orders relating to the allocation of business state that it's the MOCI
that handles all problems associated with ‘International trade and business policy, as well
as tariff and non-tariff barriers’. At intervals the MOCI, the foreign policy Division
(TPD) is liable for the work regarding the WTO. It's headed by a Special Secretary,
World Health Organization is power-assisted by 2 senior joint secretaries and a team of
nearly twenty middle-management-level officers. The Permanent Secretary of the MOCI
is unbroken within the loop except for most problems the ultimate call and therefore the
negotiating positions area unit for the most part developed within the TPD itself.

The role of the MEA as a neutral, particularly within the context of the agriculture
negotiations, is a smaller amount clear. Its experience within the negotiating method isn't
doubtful, since it's negotiated most international agreements; what the MOCI will doubt,
however, is that the MEA’s experience within the substance of the negotiation — and
particularly therefore within the case of agriculture. This maybe explains why the MEA
doesn't seem to possess been concerned within the informative method to any vital extent.

The state governments:-

The state governments weren't considered vital stakeholders throughout the South
American nation spherical (UR) and their involvement was marginal throughout the pre-
UR consultations. This is often stunning, not solely as a result of area unit a number of
the Indian states larger than several WTO members, however conjointly as a result of
agriculture may be a state subject. In fact, some state governments had, shortly once the
conclusion of the city, filed a case in Asian nation’s Supreme Court on the grounds that
the govt. of India had no authority to just accept obligations arising out of the Agreement
on Agriculture (AOA) owing to agriculture’s standing as a state subject. the govt. of West
Bengal reiterated these considerations in could 2001, spoken communication that
‘agriculture may be a state subject, so all agreements, legislations etc., area unit at
intervals the exclusive domain of the state governments’, which it had been unacceptable
that ‘the government of Asian nation had signed the AOA…. while not initial inbound at
a accord among the state governments.

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It is clear that variety of state governments have vital sensitivities relating to agriculture;
these seem to possess been taken under consideration throughout the informative method.
At constant time, it's conjointly true that awareness of WTO-related problems is
extremely superficial within the states, as well as amongst the state forms, and therefore
the positions taken by them area unit for the most part political instead of being supported
the doubtless implications of the proposals. T. S. R. Subramanian aforementioned that ‘in
most states, the WTO and its rules area unit considered an overseas entity with none
immediate consequences for the authorities, and perceived as a for the most part orphic
subject.

Industry:-

There area unit 2 main trade associations in Asian nation. The first, the Confederation of
Indian trade (CII) was established as a non-government, industry led and industry
managed organization. it's been taking part in Associate in Nursing progressively active
role in golf shot forth the views and considerations of trade to the govt. Its membership
extends to over four, 800 firms from the non-public further as public sectors. Per N.
Srinivasan, Director-General of the CII, it ‘provides a platform for sectoral consensus
building and networking.

He classified the CII as fulfilling 2 functions, specifically ‘creating Associate in Nursing

awareness amongst its members on key WTO problems and providing inputs to
government, supported the feedback received from industry’. The second trade
association, the Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and trade (FICCI), was
established in 1927, and per Manab Majumdar, the association’s Project Leader (WTO),
FICCI has been at the forefront of ‘analyzing the impact of events through a multi
disciplinary approach involving representatives of business, academia, policy makers and
foreign consultants, and evolving problem-solving responses.

These organizations don't appear to possess been consulted throughout the South
American nation spherical. Srinivasan place it terribly with competence once he
aforementioned that ‘for a protracted time the link between the govt. and trade was
supported a “we-they” syndrome; the city mirrored the tenuousness of the link, with the
govt. taking most selections on its own’. Today, the case has modified dramatically and
these associations don't seem to be solely consulted often, however conjointly offer
important inputs to government on trade problems. Srinivasan felt that ‘the turning
purpose of this relationship was the Seattle Ministerial Conference once, for the primary
time, representatives from trade were formally a district of the Indian delegation’.

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Academic establishments and suppose tanks:-

During the city, tutorial establishments and suppose tanks failed to feature within the
informative method the least bit. Since the city they need become rather more concerned,
despite the fact that this participation remains somewhat marginal as a result of most of
them don't have the resources required to conduct a substantive analysis. At times, they
conjointly lack the sectoral experience that the fashionable quadrilateral method needs,
one thing that isn't uncommon amongst tutorial establishments round the world.
However, variety of establishments and suppose tanks were consulted throughout the
drafting of the agriculture proposal. These enclosed the National Council for Applied
Economic analysis (NCAER), the Indian Institute of Foreign Trade (IIFT), the Indian
Council for analysis on International Economic Relations (ICRIER) and therefore the
analysis and data System for the Non-Aligned and alternative Developing Countries
(RIS). Dr. Anil Sharma, a senior economic expert in NCAER, aforementioned that ‘our
inputs we tend tore wanted in order that MOCI might take hip to positions on varied
problems and use the analytical knowledge that we provided to win over domestic
lobbies concerning the appropriateness of those positions.

Civil society:-

Civil society in Asian nation, within the same method, perhaps, as in the other country, is
very heterogeneous. It's not tough to seek out teams actively defensive or opposing any
purpose of read in respect to a selected issue. This is often to not belittle their
contribution to the general dialogue, a reality that looks to be accepted. There's Associate
in Nursing increasing recognition in most government circles that consultations with civil
society area unit important. However, there's still an enormous punctuation on that non-
governmental organization (NGO) to ask to the informative method, as there area unit a
awfully sizable amount of active NGOs to decide on from. As Amrita Narlikar
aforementioned, ‘the method of involving NGOs looks to be a self-affirming method with
the a lot of important ones being typically excluded from the inter ministerial
consultations; the checks and balances, therefore necessary in such a method of
consultation, appear to be missing’. Officers perceived to have somewhat create mentally
notions of the views of civil society. A former official of the ratite aforementioned that
‘the views expressed by the civil society representatives area unit forever advocate in
nature. per them, Indian agriculture is solely not trade-driven; their solely objective is,
therefore, to confirm that the living of the subsistence farmers is protected.’

Challenges faced and the outcome:-

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Perhaps the foremost important challenge that was baby-faced in inward at associate
degree outcome (that is that the final negotiating proposal) was to place in situ a method
that may take into consideration the terribly various views and positions of the varied
stakeholders, whereas making certain that a cohesive proposal may be ready. The method
went through variety of various phases: the initial identification of the key issues;
consultations with the non-governmental stakeholders, as well as trade associations; the
initial drafting of the proposal; holding regional and inter-ministerial consultations; and
therefore the final approval by the cupboard.

The ministries conjointly contacted variety of well-known agricultural scientists. Some

terribly helpful suggestions seem to own start up of those interactions. as an example, M.
S. Hindoo Nathan, one among the foremost known agricultural economic expert in Asian
country, came up with the suggestion that Asian country ought to press for a bread and
butter box, during which all the country’s considerations on rural development and
impoverishment alleviation may be ventilated.

This idea appears to own been taken on board even supposing India’s final proposal talks
of a ‘food security box’ instead of a ‘livelihood box’. At an equivalent time, the policy
framers conjointly had to consider views like those expressed by Devinder Sharma, a
trade and food policy analyst United Nations agency, at that point, wrote that five years
when the planet Trade Organization came into existence, the anticipated gains for Asian
country from the trade liberalization method in agriculture square measure much zero.
And yet, undaunted by the negative fallout from the implementation of the WTO’s
Agreement on Agriculture, the Ministry of Agriculture is sharply pushing for the second
section of reforms. The whole effort of the trade initiative is to destroy the foundations of
food independence thus assiduously engineered over the years.

Indian trade representatives seem to own been concerned within the entire advisory
method. Srinivasan declared that ‘in addition to providing feedback to MOCI, CII
conjointly lobbied and bestowed the industry’s read on key problems to folks like
MrLamy and MrZoelick, whom we have a tendency to met on many occasions.

Manab Mujumdar aforesaid that ‘FICCI had implanted associate degree agriculture task
force, whose primary mandate was to produce inputs to the govt on agriculture problems.

He, in fact, felt that it had been not the govt however the trade associations that required
to try to a lot of, as well as by apportionment a lot of resources into their analysis of
World Trade Organization problems. However, one criticism levied at trade associations
by a number of the stakeholders was that they attended adopt positions on policy
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problems that looked suspiciously the same as those of the govt which they were seldom
important of presidency. However, each the representatives of CII and FICCI disagree:
Srinivasan aforesaid that ‘we didn't hesitate to criticize the govt, though such views
square measure usually expressed in camera consultations, instead of publically
statements of disagreement’. Mujumdar was of the read that ‘we do have variations with
the govt however we have a tendency to tend to not wash our personal business in public’

Inter-ministerial consultations:-

Even though the 2 key ministries, the MOCI and therefore the ratite, seem to own
initiated the method somewhat severally, they are doing appear to own unbroken one
another concerned and knowledgeable on developments. Later, the interaction between
the 2 ministries enhanced even a lot of and culminated in what was much a joint
negotiating proposal. However the trail to the ultimate common position wasn't all that
swish. Officers from each ministries admitted that there have been occasionally serious
variations on the position the 2 ministries needed to adopt on key problems. R. C. A. Jain,
in making an attempt to clarify the explanations for these variations, aforesaid that
‘MOCI, intelligibly, includes a broader perspective and sees agriculture united of the
sectors being negotiated, whereas for ratite it had been tough to just accept such associate
degree approach as agriculture may be a terribly sensitive sector during which
compromises can't be created.

State-level consultations:-

The central government organized terribly wide-ranging consultations on World Trade

Organization agriculture problems. within the June July 2000 issue of MOCI’s monthly
account mention is formed that ‘in the method of making ready India’s negotiating
position on agriculture, the govt initiated regional consultations at numerous places,
besides national level consultations, with a read to generating bigger awareness of the
problems and to receive views and suggestions which might facilitate a accord
concerning India’s position’. However, some folks still feel that these consultations were
a lot of a formality instead of a method that semiconductor diode to important changes. T.
S. R. Subramanian aforesaid that ‘the discussions in these state-level advisory
conferences usually remained superficial owing to a scarcity of in-depth data of World
Trade Organization problems at the state level.

An official of the Ministry of Agriculture aforesaid that ‘rather than tributary to the
substantive aspects of the negotiating components, these discussions attended for the
most part replicate a worry “psychosis” of the World Trade Organization, associate
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degreed views merely didn't emanate in these consultations that the agriculture
negotiations ought to be seen as an opportunity; instead, there was an awesome feeling
that this was a threat that had to be countered’. A former official of the ratite aforesaid
that ‘an try was created to clarify that the agriculture negotiations didn't represent the sort
of threat folks created it resolute be, however it had been terribly tough visible of the
unidirectional nature of views that were being expressed. the simplest we have a tendency
to might neutralize these circumstances was to make the negotiating proposal round the
objective of maintaining the establishment.

Finalization of the proposal by the Cabinet:-

All these conferences and consultations contend a vital role in giving final form to the
Indian proposal. The Commerce Ministry’s web site specifically mentions that:

The Indian proposal collectively developed by the Department of Agriculture and Co-
operation and Department of Commerce, reflects the broad accord that was achieved
through a series of regional-level conferences, conferences with the state governments,
interaction with political parties, representatives of farmers’ organizations, numerous
autonomous establishments, agricultural universities and eminent agricultural
economists.

As for the involvement of India’s World Trade Organization mission in Geneva, a

politician aforesaid that the mission was invariably unbroken within the image and
provided helpful feedback, particularly concerning the possible reactions of
possible/potential alliance partners to the various components of the proposal. the
ultimate draft was submitted to the cupboard early in Gregorian calendar month 2001.
whereas it had been impractical to consult the file on the cupboard note (all such notes
square measure secret), officers involved the exercise indicated that since most ministries
had been consulted beforehand much no changes befell throughout the examination by
the cupboard. Once approved by the cupboard, the proposal was transmitted to Geneva.

The perception of the WTO’s role in the process:-

The documented records and also the oral interviews that were conducted clearly show
that the Indian proposal on agriculture was finalized chiefly through a government
officials method supported consultations with stakeholders. Julius subunit has identified,
in reference to the proposals on international organization problems, that ‘India’s
negotiating positions are nearly while not exception suggested by Commerce Ministry

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officers, examined by the Committee of Secretaries, and so approved by the involved
cupboard sub-committee.

BiswajitDhār, UN agency writes for variety of newspapers, conjointly aforementioned

that due to such a perception ‘it isn't forever terribly straightforward to require a pro-
WTO line publically writing.

A number of reasons were proposes to clarify this perception. The Indian ambassador to
the international organization felt that this was as a result of ‘the general public still
regards the international organization as a developed order, pushing the agenda at the
command of the most important players and international MNCs.

Not that balanced views weren't forthcoming. Srinivasan of the CII aforementioned that
their members understood that ‘the international organization solely provides a platform
for negotiations and it had been up to member countries to barter outcomes of interest to
them’. Others too acknowledged that a lot of positive things had happen due to the
international organization. As an example, BiswajitDhār aforementioned that ‘the client
in India nowadays features a abundant wider selection, chiefly due to the removal of
quantitative restrictions’. Subramanian aforementioned that ‘there has been an enormous
improvement within the potency and within the client service of the banking sector when
foreign banks were allowed to open up branches within the country’. However these
positive outcomes ar seldom acknowledged. Subramanian, in fact, equated the
international organization to a people dominion in India, which, consistent with him, ‘got
blasted for things, however ne'er got credit for the positive changes it introduced’.

Lessons for others (the players’ views) or conclusion:-

It is not terribly straightforward to generalize, or to draw lessons from a method that had
such a lot of protagonists, particularly as their contributions were detached each
geographically and temporally. A number of the decision-making processes have
undoubtedly been institutionalized and it might not be wrong to assume that they'd be
followed whenever selections are being taken on alternative WTO-related problems. it's
conjointly clear that the consolatory method in India had come back an extended
approach, particularly as compared with things before the Uruguay spherical, and also the
dialogue on the assorted tenets of foreign policy had been thrown hospitable a far wider
audience. Because the gift analysis shows, terribly wide-ranging consultations, detached
over 2 years, were control whereas finalizing negotiating the proposal on agriculture. As
obtained from the records of the Commerce Ministry, additionally to a really sizable

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amount of informal consultations, a complete of fourteen formal consolatory conferences
were control with stakeholders between 1999 and 2001.

The inclusiveness of the consolatory method is additionally borne out by the reactions of
a number of the key stakeholders. The associations representing Indian business seem to
be for the most part happy with the consolatory method. The Director-General of CII
aforementioned that ‘we were concerned in any respect stages of the process’, which the
‘final proposal adequately reflects the considerations that we have a tendency to delivered
to the government’s attention’. Similarly, Manab Mujumdar of FICCI aforementioned
that ‘the method of consultations followed throughout the course of finalizing the
agriculture proposal reflects the exponential increase in interaction between government
and also the business associations’. However, the position is a smaller amount clear as so
much because the involvement of the particular agricultural producers thinks about.
Wherever rural agricultural employee unions exist, their political priorities appear to limit
their capability to arrange themselves at the grass-roots level; they conjointly seem
reluctant to travel on the far side their own immediate spheres of interest. Clearly,
therefore, the flexibility of agricultural workers’ teams to influence the govt. still remains
terribly restricted. To some extent their views were mirrored within the stance taken by
the flightless bird, whose officers were typically happy with the ultimate proposal. Jainist
felt that this was as a result of ‘of a transparent understanding at the political level that on
problems with substance the views of flightless bird would prevail.

There is conjointly no denying that the method was unbroken terribly clear. Flyers were
place out on the official web site at each stage, and comments seem to possess been
frequently invited from the assorted stakeholders. However, it conjointly seems that the
political bosses most popular to play safe and were easier with a defensive strategy
instead of pushing sharply for market reforms. As a former cupboard Secretary
aforementioned, ‘the politicians don't wish to lose their domestic support for events
happening in faraway Geneva and so tend to adopt AN inflexible stand, particularly on a
difficulty like agriculture, wherever that domestic body is as massive as 700 million
folks.

It would, therefore, not be wrong to conclude that the Indian position and policy approach
to the agriculture negotiations within the international organization were got hold of on
the idea of some terribly intensive cross sectoral and inter ministerial consultations, and
so adopted at the best doable level within the government. With the exception of the
officers within the ministries of Commerce and Agriculture, representatives of varied
autonomous establishments, agricultural universities and eminent agricultural economists

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were conjointly concerned within the method. Additionally, inputs were wanted from the
state governments, representatives of various political parties and civil society. Clearly,
therefore, this was a choice taken by the govt. on the idea of expressed domestic
considerations.

Such a decision-making method would appear to suit in with the mandate AND role of
the international organization as a assistant of an inter governmental dialogue that leads,
among alternative things, to binding selections on the governments concerned. The WTO,
as is documented, then maybe not tolerably propagated, isn't AND freelance or self-
contained entity with the constitutional legitimacy to require selections within the name
of its members. Rather, it's a vehicle for decision-making among national governments
unconditional with sovereign authority. The current analysis strengthens this read, since
clearly within the formulation of India’s agriculture negotiating proposal there's little or
no, if something in any respect, that may be attributed to extraneous factors, as well as
the international organization. And nevertheless the spectra of the international
organization, not as an establishment mandated simply to facilitate the negotiating
method, however as an establishment making an attempt to influence domestic decision-
making method, doesn't appear to possess fully disappeared. The international
organization remains perceived somewhat negatively. The final read looks to be that it's
an establishment seeking to undermine domestic policy house. There is clearly a scarcity
of understanding concerning the WTO’s mandate and also the member driven nature of
the organization. The duality between a decision-making method that was little question
fully domestic and clearly terribly democratic, and also the perception of the international
organization as a corporation making an attempt to influence domestic decision making
processes, is maybe best summed up by excerpts from 2 totally different interviews that
the Union Agriculture Minister gave recently. whereas talking to the money specific, he
aforementioned ‘let Pine Tree State create it amply clear that India won't succumb to any
pressure…. we'll take a practical read on numerous issues…. we'll not compromise on
safeguarding the interests of the little and marginal farmers. A statement that clearly
emphasizes the domestic imperatives of India’s position within the agriculture
negotiations. However, in another interview. Given terribly before long later on, he still
stated the ‘threat from the WTO’, a threat whose solely basis is maybe a unbroken, then
hopefully decreasing, bequest from the Uruguay spherical, once the responsibility of sure
politically uncomfortable selections had been doled out to the international organization.

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