Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION: KEY CONCEPTS IN ETHICS
Module 1: Ethics, and Its Key Concepts
A. Ethics: Its Definition and Importance
Have you experience a situation where it
requires that you have to choose on what to do and
part of it is to decide which of the choices is right or
wrong? Can you recall an experience where you really
felt bad and sad because you hurt somebody because of
your wrong action? Did you ever wonder why people
need to be good and avoid what is evil? Did it ever
come to your mind why we need to be pleasing in our
action?
There are many people who ask why study
ethics? Why be moral? Webster’s dictionary has a
number of definitions for moral including: - of or
relating to principles of right and wrong in behavior -
conforming to a standard of right behavior. This is an
important question for a course on ethics - is being
moral important to you, why (or why not)? Most people
think doing well in life is associated with being “good”.
(philonotes.com)
For example: do you think a person who gains
money dishonestly is a success? Is a politician who beats
his wife and children a success? Is Mother Theresa a
success - she had very few of the things society
commonly associates with doing well. Most people like
fairness, justice, truthfulness, compassion in society.
Ethics help give direction to societies and people who
think they cannot flourish without some form of
morality. Morality is said to be breaking down in society
today - juvenile crime, drug abuse, alcoholism, teenage
pregnancies, crime rates - all seem to indicate that the
moral fabric of society is breaking down. Moral
questions are at the heart of life’s vital issues - including
those affected by the actions above. “Morality is
primarily concerned with the questions of right and
wrong, the ability to distinguish between the two, and
the justification of the distinction. (phlionotes.com)
Montemayor (1994) mentions in his
introduction on his book Ethics: The Philosophy of Life
that Ethics is the philosophy of life and that it delves
into the deepest whys and wherefore of human
existence, men’s actions, problems and destiny.
He further mentions that to live well and happy,
we must know what we are living for. He says this is
taught by Ethics that investigates the meaning and
purpose of human life. He mentions that according to
Socrates the unexamined life is not worth living for
man.
Montemayor (1994) also states that Plato one
of the greatest philosophers of all times proclaimed
Ethics as the supreme science, the highest in the
hierarchy of human values, as it is Ethics that is
concerned with the attainment of life’s greatest Good
and Goal – Happiness.
Definitions of Ethics
The book of Montemayor (1994) provides the
following definitions of Ethics:
1. Ethics is the practical science of the morality
of human actions.
2. Ethics is the science of human acts with
reference to right and wrong
3. Ethics is the scientific inquiry into the
principles of morality.
4. Ethics is the study of the rectitude of human
conduct
5. Ethics is the human conduct from the
standpoint of morality.
6. Ethics is the science which lays down the
principles of right living
7. Ethics is the practical science that guides us in
our actions that we may live rightly and well.
8. Ethics is normative and practical science,
based on reason, which studies human conduct
and provides norm for its natural integrity and
honesty.
9. According to Socrates, ethics is the
investigation of life. Looking into these
definitions we can say that they are similar to
each other.
The definitions speak of the field of study of ethics as
human conduct; and of the investigation of such human
conduct in terms of its morality.
The important terms that can be seen in them are:
1. Science-systematic study or a system of
scientific conclusions clearly demonstrated,
derived from clearly established principles and
duly coordinated
2. Morality – the quality of human acts as right,
wrong or indifferent, moral immoral or amoral.
3. Human acts –acts done with knowledge,
freedom and free will or consent.
Importance of Ethics
Montemayor (1994) proclaims that the
importance of the study of ethics follows immediately
from the importance of ethics itself. His idea is
manifested in the following:
 1. Ethics means right living and good moral
character and it is in good moral character that
man finds his true worth and perfection. All the
great teachers of the ages maintain that the
supreme purpose of human living lies not in the
acquisition of material good or bodily pleasures,
nor in the attainment of bodily perfections such as
health and strength; nor even in the development
of intellectual skills but in the development of the
moral qualities which lift man far above brute
creation.
2. Education is the harmonious development of the
whole man-of all ma’s faculties: the moral,
intellectual, and physical powers in man. Now then
highest of man’s power are his reason and will.
Hence, the primary objective of education is the
moral 15 development of the will
B. Rules And Its Importance To Social Beings
(lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics:
Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
You find rules everywhere. But did you ever ask
yourself why you need to follow them? Try to recall an
experience where you followed a rule and assess what
you did. Did you just follow it without asking yourself
why you need to follow it? Did you have any doubt
about following it?
Rules refer to explicit or understood regulations
or principles governing conduct within a specific activity
or sphere. Rules tell us what is or is not allowed in a
particular context or situation. In many ways, rules
serve as a foundation for any healthy society. Without
rules, society would like fall into anarchy.
Rules benefit social beings in various manners:
1. Rules protect social beings by regulating
behaviour. Rules build boundaries that place limits
on behaviour. Rules are usually coupled with
means to impose consequences on those who
violate them. One of the reasons people follow
accepted rules is to avoid negative consequences.
2. Rules help to guarantee each person certain
right and freedom. Rules form frameworks for
society. Nations are generally nations of laws and
the governing principles are outlined in what is
called constitution. Because the majority has
agreed to follow and consent to be governed by
such a constitution, the freedoms outlined exist.
3. Rules produce a sense of justice among social
beings. Rules are needed in order to keep the
strong from dominating the weak that is to prevent
exploitation and domination. Without rules,
schemes in which those with the power control the
system, would take over. In effect, rules generate a
stable system that provides justice, in which even
the richest and the most powerful have limitations
on what they can do. If they transgress rules such
as laws and ordinances and take advantage of
people, there are consequences both socially and
criminally.
4. Rules are essential for a healthy economic
system. Without rules regulating business, power
would centralize around monopolies and threaten
the strength and competitiveness of the system.
Rules are needed to ensure product safety,
employee’s safety and product quality. Copyright
and patents help protect people’s intellectual
property. Rules and regulations also keep the
banking system stable so as to avoid depression
and the like.
In short, society could not soundly functions
without rules and regulations. Rules are necessary to
protect the greater good. Even the freest societies
ought to have rules in order to avoid exploitations and
tyranny while 16 upholding the common good.
C. Moral Standards versus Non-moral Standards
(lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics:
Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
Do you know the meaning of standards? Have
you been in a situation where you were chosen because
you met the standards or you were disregarded because
you did not meet the standards? But are you aware that
there are different kinds of standards and the kind is
dependent on their implication or effect on people and
situations? Why do you think there is the need to
distinguish moral standards from non-moral ones?
It is important to note that different societies
have different moral beliefs and that our beliefs are
deeply influenced by our own culture and context. For
this reason, some values do have moral implications,
while others don’t. Let us consider, for example, the
wearing of hijab. For sure, in traditional Muslim
communities, the wearing of hijab is the most
appropriate act that women have to do in terms of
dressing up. In fact, for some Muslims, showing parts of
the woman’s body, such as the face and legs, is
despicable. However, in many parts of the world,
especially in Western societies, most people don’t mind
if women barely cover their bodies. As a matter of fact,
the Hollywood canon of beauty glorifies a sexy and slim
body and the wearing of extremely daring dress. The
point here is that people in the West may have pitied
the Muslim women who wear hijab, while some
Muslims may find women who dress up daringly
despicable.
Again, this clearly shows that different cultures
have different moral standards. What is a matter of
moral indifference, that is, a matter of taste (hence,
non-moral value) in one culture may be a matter of
moral significance in another.
Now, the danger here is that one culture may
impose its own cultural standard on others, which may
result in a clash in cultural values and beliefs. When this
happens, as we may already know, violence and crime
may ensue, such as religious violence and ethnic
cleansing.
This is where the importance of understanding
the difference between moral standards (that is, of
what is a moral issue) and non-moral ones (that is, of
what is a non-moral issue―thus, a matter of taste)
comes in. This issue may be too obvious and
insignificant for some people, but understanding the
difference between the two may have far-reaching
implications. For one, once we have distinguished moral
standards from non-moral ones, of course, through the
aid of the principles and theories in ethics, we will be
able to identify fundamental ethical values that may
guide our actions. Indeed, once we know that particular
values and beliefs are non-moral, we will be able to
avoid running the risk of falling into the pit of cultural
reductionism (that is, taking complex cultural issues as
simple and homogenous ones) and the unnecessary
imposition of one’s own cultural standard on others.
The point here is that if such standards are non-moral
(that is, a matter of taste), then we don’t have the right
to impose them on others. But if such standards are
moral ones, such as not killing or harming people, then
we may have the right to force others to act
accordingly. In this way, we may be able to find a
common moral ground, such as agreeing not to steal,
lie, cheat, kill, harm, and deceive 17 our fellow human
beings.
Now, what are moral standards, and how do
they differ from non-moral ones?
Moral Standards and their Characteristics
Moral standards are norms that individuals or
groups have about the kinds of actions believed to be
morally right or wrong, as well as the values placed on
what we believed to be morally good or morally bad.
Moral standards normally promote “the good”, that is,
the welfare and well-being of humans as well as animals
and the environment. Moral standards, therefore,
prescribe what humans ought to do in terms of rights
and obligations.
According to some scholars, moral standards
are the sum of combined norms and values. In other
words, norms plus values equal moral standards. On the
one hand, norms are understood as general rules about
our actions or behaviors. For example, we may say “We
are always under the obligation to fulfil our promises”
or “It is always believed that killing innocent people is
absolutely wrong”. On the other hand, values are
understood as enduring beliefs or statements about
what is good and desirable or not. For example, we may
say “Helping the poor is good” or “Cheating during
exams is bad”.
According to many scholars, moral standards
have the following characteristics, namely:
1) Moral standards deal with matters we think can
seriously injure or benefit humans, animals, and
the environment, such as child abuse, rape, and
murder;
2) Moral standards are not established or changed
by the decisions of authoritative individuals or
bodies. Indeed, moral standards rest on the
adequacy of the reasons that are taken to support
and justify them. For sure, we don’t need a law to
back up our moral conviction that killing innocent
people is absolutely wrong;
3) Moral standards are overriding, that is, they take
precedence over other standards and
considerations, especially of self-interest;
 4) Moral standards are based on impartial
considerations. Hence, moral standards are fair and
just; and
5) Moral standards are associated with special
emotions (such as guilt and shame) and vocabulary
(such as right, wrong, good, and bad).
Non-moral Standards
Non-moral standards refer to standards by
which we judge what is good or bad and right or wrong
in a non-moral way. Examples of non-moral standards
are standards of etiquette by which we judge manners
as good or bad, standards we call the law by which we
judge something as legal or illegal, and standards of
aesthetics by which we judge art as good or rubbish.
Hence, we should not confuse morality with etiquette,
law, and aesthetics or even with religion.
As we can see, non-moral standards are matters
of taste or 18 preference. Hence, a scrupulous
observance of these types of standards does not make
one a moral person. Violation of said standards also
does not pose any threat to human well-being.
Finally, as a way of distinguishing moral
standards from non-moral ones, if a moral standard
says “Do not harm innocent people” or “Don’t steal”, a
non-moral standard says “Don’t text while driving” or
“Don’t talk while the mouth is full”.
D. Dilemma and Moral Dilemma
(lifted from the book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics:
Principles of Ethical Behaviour in Modern Society)
Do you have any idea of what a dilemma is?
Have you ever encountered a situation where you need
to choose between two alternatives, yet choosing any
could lead to a negative consequence on what you did
not choose? What did you do? How did you feel?
The term dilemma refers to a situation in which
a tough decision has to be made between two or more
options, especially more or less equally undesirable
ones. Not all dilemmas are moral dilemmas.
Also called ‘ethical dilemmas’, moral dilemmas
are situation in which a difficult choice has to be made
between two courses of action, either of which entails
transgressing a moral principle. At the very least, a
moral dilemma involves conflicts between moral
requirements.
What is common to moral dilemmas is conflict.
In each ethical dilemma, an agent regards himself as
having moral reasons to do each of two actions, but
doing both actions seems to be ethically not possible.
The key features of a moral dilemma are these:
a.) the agent is required to do each of two (or more)
actions; b.) the agent can do each of the actions; but the
agent cannot do both (or all ) of the actions. In a moral
dilemma, the agent thus seems condemned to moral
failure no matter what he does, he will do something
wrong, or fail to do something that he ought to do.
Some ethicists propose that when one of the
conflicting moral requirements overrides the other, the
case is not a ‘genuine moral dilemma’. Thus in addition
to the features mentioned above, in order to have a
genuine moral dilemma, some add that it must also the
case that c) neither of the conflicting moral
requirements is overridden.
Three Levels of Moral Dilemma
Moral Dilemmas can be categorized according to these
levels:
1. Personal Dilemmas. Personal Dilemmas are those
experienced and resolved on the personal level. Since
many ethical decisions are personally made, many if not
most of moral dilemmas fall under, or boil down to this
level. If a person makes conflicting promises, he faces a
moral conflict. When an individual has to choose
between the life of a child who is about to be delivered
and the child’s mother, he faces an ethical dilemma. 19
2. Organizational Dilemma. Organizational moral
dilemmas refer to ethical cases encountered and
resolves by social organization. This category includes
moral dilemmas in business, medical fields and public
sector.
A medical institution which believes that human
life should not be deliberately shortened and that
unpreventable pain should not be tolerated
encountered a conflict in resolving whether to withdraw
life support from a dying patient. This is common moral
dilemma faced by healthcare organizations.
Administrative bodies in business are
confronted with situations in which several courses of
action are possible but none of them provide a totally
successful outcome to those affected by the decision or
actions taken. Moral dilemmas in business involve
issues about corporate practices, policies, business
behaviors, and the conducts and relationships of
individuals in the organizations.
In a public sector, government leaders and
employees have a moral duty to act in a manner that is
fair and unbiased, that is loyal to the public by putting
public interest, accountability and transparency. In
fulfilling these responsibilities, public officials may
encounter foreseeable moral dilemmas. These
dilemmas include whether or not to favour family,
friends, or campaign contributors over other
constituents; favoring the agenda of one’s political party
over a policy one believes to be good for the
community; dealing with conflicting public duties
inherent in serving both as a council member and as a
member of an agency or commission; resigning from
organizations in which membership may give rise to
future conflicts; becoming a whistle blower even if it
means potentially derailing a policy objective one is
pursuing; and accepting gifts if it is legally permitted but
creates the appearance of impropriety.
3. Structural Dilemmas. Structural moral dilemmas
refer to cases involving network of institutions and
operative theoretical paradigms. As they usually
encompass multi-sectoral institutions and organizations,
they may be larger in scope and extent than
organizational dilemmas.
Case in point is the prices of medicine in the
Philippines which are higher compared to other
countries in Asia and in countries of similar economic
status. Factors affecting medicine prices include cost of
research, presence of competition in the market,
government regulations, and patent protection.
Institutions concerned may want to lower the costs of
medicine, thereby benefiting the Filipino public, but
such a move may ruin the interests of the involved
researchers, inventors or discoverers, and
pharmaceutical companies which own the patent of the
medicines or healthcare technologies.
E. Only human beings can be Ethical (lifted from the
book of De Guzman, (2017) -Ethics: Principles of Ethical
Behaviour in Modern Society)
Oftentimes we experience something that test
our being and often also we wonder whether we
deserve to be the highest form of animal. If we commit
something, we often hear “animal ka”. But we are as
Aristotle say “rational animasl”. We are animals minus
the rationality.
Another basic tenet in ethics is the belief that
only human beings can truly be ethical. Most
philosophies hold that unlike animals, human beings
possess some traits that make it possible for them to be
moral.
Only human beings are rational, autonomous,
and self-conscious. The qualities of rationality,
autonomy, and self-consciousness are believed to
confer a full and equal moral status to those that
possess them as these beings are the only ones capable
of achieving certain moral values.
Synthesis/Generalization
1. As ethics is defined as the science of the morality
of human act, it provides as with set of rules or
principles needed so we can be guided in our
actions in society.
2. Rules are important to social beings as they
protect the greater good avoiding exploitations and
tyranny in society. Society could function soundly
without rules and regulations.
3. Not all rules are moral rules and not all
standards are moral standards as moral standards
are equated by some ethicists to moral values and
moral principles.
4. Moral Dilemmas are situations in which a
difficult choice has to be made between two
courses of actions, either which entails
transgressing a moral principles. They involve
conflicts between moral requirements and they
can happen in the personal, organizational or
structural level.
5. Only human beings can be ethical as only human
beings are rational, autonomous, and self-
conscious, can act morally and immorally, and are
part of the moral community.