AIAA 2015-1728

AIAA SciTech Forum

5-9 January 2015, Kissimmee, Florida
23rd AIAA/AHS Adaptive Structures Conference

Smart washers to measure bolt loads using Magnetostrictive

Galfenol
Ganesh Raghunath 1, Brett Barkley 2 and Alison B. Flatau 3
University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland , 20742

Nomenclature
B = Magnetic Induction
T = Applied Stress
H = Magnetic Field Strength
d = Magneto-Mechanical Coupling coefficient
µ = Magnetic Permeability
s = Compliance of the material
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S = Change in dimension

Abstract
With successive flights, structural components such as bolts often loosen. As a result, technicians must re-tighten
bolts to ensure they are properly loaded for each flight. However, if a bolt loading sensor were installed, technicians
would know the loads on each bolt in the structure and could retighten them as required.

Unfortunately, typical bolt loading sensors on the market today are rather expensive and require additional signal
conditioning to generate appropriate data. Deploying washers made of Galfenol (a magnetostrictive alloy of Iron and
Gallium) with biasing magnets and Hall Effect sensors provides an accurate, sensitive, and cost-efficient alternative
that mitigates the shortcomings of existing bolt loading sensors. The possibility of real-time monitoring of stresses in
bolts during flight with minimal signal conditioning makes this prospect very exciting for condition based
maintenance (CBM).

The operating principle for the proposed sensor is the measurement of magnetic state changes in Galfenol due to
applied compressive stress using Hall Effect sensors. With proper magnetic biasing of the washer, this change is
linear and a relationship between stress and bolt loading can be derived. This work details efforts to find the optimal
size, shape, biasing magnet locations, and calibration of a Galfenol washer bolt loading sensor.

I. Introduction

I ndustrial environments contain hundreds of bolts fastening machinery and equipment which are critical to the
continued secured operation of the mechanical system. Failure of these ‘critical’ bolts may cause equipment
damage, production downtime, injury of operating personnel and in extreme cases, even loss of lives. This is
especially true in the aircraft industry where lose bolts on aircrafts can lead to performance decreases, failed
components, and large scale damage if the bolts detach and fall into moving parts. The most common method of
monitoring these critical bolts for tightness is to physically inspect each bolt and take a mechanical torque reading.
At best, this is an imprecise way of measuring tightness due to the various conditions of the bolt threads, and the
accessibility of the bolt itself. Regardless, inspection of each bolt must be done, resulting in an inexact, tedious, and
labor intensive process.

Traditionally, torque wrenches have been employed for decades to attain the desired tightness in the bolts. But after
each flight, owing to vibrations, temperature changes and other factors, the bolts become lose and need to be
tightened again. Despite the use of torque wrenches, clamp forces still cannot be measured perfectly in bolts.
Loading can also vary depending on bolt plating, lubrication, thread condition, nut and washer material, and other

1
Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD
20742 and AIAA Student Member.
2
Undergraduate Student, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742
and AIAA Student Member.
3
Associate Dean of Research and Professor, Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Maryland, College
Park, MD 20742 and AIAA Faculty Member.
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American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics

Copyright © 2015 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All rights reserved.
 factors which cannot be measured by a torque wrench. Directly measuring the tension can minimize this uncertainty
since it responds only to bolt tension and not torques.

These issues have led the sensor industry to research smart bolts like DTI SmartBolts which change color upon
attaining the desired bolt tension. However, such systems do not explicitly inform the user of tightness in the bolts
and might lead to over-tightening and damage to the threads. Such systems also require manual inspection after each
flight which is impractical. Another option, strain gage based bolts, like the Scanimetrics Smart Bolt, give a reading
of the tightness of each bolt, but is expensive and requires extensive signal conditioning.

More recently, efforts have been made to build smart washers which can monitor the tightness in the bolts. This
technology is advantageous because it can passively detect the tightness in the bolts. Mascarenas et al. [1] used
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tagged Piezoelectric sensors such as PZT that demonstrated the ability of
such washers to provide real-time measurement of the tightness in the bolts. Tanka and Okugawa [2] demonstrated
the ability to detect loosening by using a PZT attached on a cantilever connected to the washer and a fault detection
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technique using numerical simulations. But the performance of such a sensor is very sensitive to temperature and the
bonding condition between the PZT patch and the conventional washer. This technology also suffers from
variability of the sensor itself and would require recalibration when the sensors are replaced.

The proposed magneto-elastic smart washer eliminates the need for adhesives since the washer itself is the
sensor. Since it is made of Galfenol (a smart material which is an alloy of Iron and Gallium), it has the mechanical
properties of Iron, ideal for use as washers. It can be easily installed in place of traditional washers, provides real-
time measurement of tightness, and can accommodate wireless transmission technology. In addition, it is compact,
easy to install, accurate, sensitive and cost-effective. Other attributes include real-time measurements and minimal
signal conditioning requirements. A schematic of the proposed sensor prototype is shown in Fig. 1. This prototype
uses Hall Effect sensors to detect the magnetic change in the magnetostrictive sensing element that arises from
stresses induced by tightening the bolt.

Hall
Effect Galfenol
sensor Washer

Bias Magnet

Figure 1. Schematic of smart washer sensor made using magnetostrictive Galfenol.

The fields of Structural health monitoring (SHM) and Condition based maintenance (CBM) have a number of
significant works that deal with bolted joints. They usually employ monitoring changes in the dynamic properties of
the system as indicators of damage. Mechanical impedance matching of structure (bolted joint) and washer sensor
can be used for detection of changes in the preload can be incorporated in this sensor as well.

II. Background
Galfenol (Fe100-xGax) is a recent alloy developed at the Naval Ordinance Lab in 1998. It exhibited high
magnetostriction of 300-400 ppm at magnetic field strengths around 100 Oe [3]. It exhibits low hysteresis and
minimal change in the magneto-mechanical properties between -20oC and 80oC [4]. Other characteristics include
high strength [5] and ductility.

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Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on November 13, 2016 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/6.2015-1728

Figure 2: Compressive stress vs. magnetic induction characteristics of 19% Ga single crystal Galfenol
indicating region of induction-stress response that is useful for design of a smart washer [6].

It is already known that Galfenol exhibits a linear response to strain in the presence of biasing magnets that
follows commercially available strain gages in bending tests [6]. The sensor characteristics of Galfenol in the <100>
crystallographic direction is shown in Figure 2. It shows the variation of the magnetic induction B with stress T in
the presence of a bias magnet of strength H. In the absence of stress, the magnetic dipoles in the sample are aligned
along the direction imposed by the bias magnet. As a compressive stress is applied, the energy supplied rotates the
magnetic dipoles away from the biasing direction causing a decrease in the magnetization. This also causes a
decrease in the thickness of the sample. This change in magnetization depends on the strength of the biasing magnet.
The stronger the strength of the magnet, the more energy needs to be supplied to the dipoles from the applied stress
to rotate the dipoles. It is desirable to operate in the linear region of a curve for good sensitivity for a fixed stress
range.

The behavior of this smart material is governed by Equation 1 (a,b) given below. The first equation describes the
response of the magnetostrictive material as a sensor where the change in the mechanical stress T induces a
magnetic flux. The second equation defines the use of Galfenol as an actuator where the application of a magnetic
field H causes mechanical deformation. The term d is called the magneto-mechanical coupling coefficient. µ is the
magnetic permeability of the material and s refers to the compliance of the material. The superscript indicates the
constant parameter of the transduction.

𝐵𝐵 = 𝑑𝑑 ∗ 𝑇𝑇 + µ𝑇𝑇 𝐻𝐻 Eq. (1, a)

𝑆𝑆 = 𝑠𝑠 𝐻𝐻 𝑇𝑇 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 Eq. (1, b)

Although materials like Terfenol-D exhibit higher magnetostriction, they are brittle and unsuitable for robust
transduction. Galfenol was chosen due to its superior mechanical attributes and good magneto-elastic coupling.
While single crystal Fe-Ga alloys have superior magnetostriction, they are expensive to manufacture. The textured
polycrystalline Galfenol used in this study were obtained from Etrema Products, Inc. They were produced by zone
refining (FSZM) at rates ~350 mm/hour which is two orders of magnitude faster than single crystal growth rates
which ~ 1mm/hour is making these polycrystalline commercially more viable. The Galfenol composition was
chosen to be 18% Ga based on the first peak in the magnetostriction value [3]. The dimensions for the washer
prototype were 0.688” diameter with a center hole of 0.344” diameter. Its thickness was 0.4” in order to
accommodate the size of the Hall sensor IC mounted on a custom designed printed circuit board for ease of wiring.
This is shown in Fig. 3.
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 Hall
Effect Galfenol
sensor washer

Strain
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gage

Figure 3: Smart washer sensor made using magnetostrictive Galfenol with strain gage and Hall Effect sensor attached.

In the case of the washer, the magnetic dipoles which are originally oriented along the thickness of the washer
due to the applied magnetic bias start flipping perpendicular to the axis of the washer with applied stresses. This
causes a change in the magnetic state of magnetostrictive Galfenol which is recorded by the Hall Effect sensor.

III. Experimental Setup and Procedure

The test rig set up for the quazi-static tests is shown in Figure 4. A tapped rod was used to apply axial stress on
the washer using a nut. A strain gage was used as a truth sensor to measure the strain experienced by the Galfenol
washer from which stress information indicating tightness can be calculated. The axial strain experienced by the
magnetostrictive washer was compared with the change in the voltage generated by the Hall Effect sensor based on
the change in the magnetic state of the washer due to loads. Two faceplates made of non-magnetic aluminum were
used on either sides of the washer in order to avoid asymmetric loading.

Threaded
rod

Lever arm
Face to tighten
plate
Galfenol Hall
washer Effect
sensor
Bias
Magnet

Figure 3: Bench-top experimental setup for quazi-static testing of magnetostrictive smart washer.

A ring magnet of strength 0.8 T was used for biasing the sensor system. This strength for the biasing magnet was
chosen based on previously available data on the effect of magnetic biasing on range and sensitivity in axial testing
as shown in Fig. 2. An EQ Series Hybrid Liner Hall effect IC (of Sensitivity 13 mV/G manufactured by Asahi Kasei

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 Microdevices) was mounted on the outer surface of the washer using M-bond. A resistive strain gauge rosette
manufactured by Vishay Micro Measurements (WK-06-125AD-350) was installed on the washer. This strain gage
was connected to a strain indicator (Vishay 3800), which was hooked up to a PC-based NI LabVIEW data
acquisition system through a National Instruments DAQ board. The output from the Hall Effect sensor was also
connected to the computer using the NI LabVIEW DAQ interface.

IV. Results
As the threaded rod was used to compress the washer, the signal from the Hall Effect sensor and the strain gage
were recorded and the time trace of the change in voltage with the application of compressive axial load was plotted
as shown in Fig. 5. The Hall Effect sensor was able to capture the change in stress experienced by the washer.

3.55
3.5
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3.45
3.4
∆V (Volts)

3.35
3.3
3.25
3.2
3.15 Hall Effect Voltage
3.1 Strain Voltage
3.05
40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56 58
Time (sec)
Figure 5: Change in voltage obtained from the strain indicator and Hall Effect sensor for quazi-static testing of smart washer.

Closer examination shows a nonlinear behavior in the response of the Hall effect sensor to the applied stresses
which is expected in Galfenol. There is a larger change in the response at lower applied stresses which is due to the
biasing condition. The output voltage from the Hall Effect sensor is graphed as a function of the voltage from the
strain indicator as shown in Fig. 6. The slope of this curve defines the sensitivity of the sensor in its current
configuration for 5V input to the Hall Effect sensor.

0
-0.005

Hall Effect Output (V)

-0.01
-0.015
-0.02
-0.025
-0.03
-0.035
-0.04
-0.045
-0.05
-0.45 -0.4 -0.35 -0.3 -0.25 -0.2 -0.15 -0.1 -0.05 0
Strain (V/V)
Figure 6: Performance (Input strain measured by the strain gage vs. Output magnetic change measured by Hall Effect sensor) of the
magnetostrictive smart washer under 0.8T bias field using a ring magnet.

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 V. Conclusions
A proof of concept smart washer made from magnetostrictive Galfenol was used to derive information of
tightness in the bench top nut-bolt system. The highest sensitivity of the washer prototype in this configuration was
~ 0.41G/MPa (at 5V input for the Hall sensor with a sensitivity of 13mV/G) in the 0-20MPa stress range which
reduces non-linearly at higher applied stresses.

Future work will be directed towards improving the performance of the sensor by studying various
configurations for the Hall Effect sensor including embedding it in the washer, thereby measuring magnetic change
in the magneto-elastic Galfenol across the thickness which is expected to give the best output. The effect of using
discrete bias magnets in regions lose to the Hall Effect sensor will also be explored along with the possibility of
using coils to measure the magnetic state change.

Efforts will also be taken to make the washer by stacking up rolled and textured sheets of Galfenol. This should
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reduce the cost of the sensor and increase the sensitivity since texturing has been known to yield single-crystal like
performance [7].

Acknowledgments
This project is sponsored by NAVAIR, Pax River #Ser 14-012 PR 1300386495.

References
[1] Mascarenas, D.L., et al., “Remote Inspection of Bolted joints using RFID-Tagged Piezoelectric Sensors”.
Proceedings of 24th International Modal Analysis Conference, St. Louis, MO, USA (2006).
[2] Tanaka, T. and Okugawa, M., “Adopting Supervisor for Bolt Loosening Detection by using Smart Washer”.
Proceedings of ASME Conference on Smart Materials, Adaptive Structures and Intelligent Systems, Ellicott City,
MD, USA (2008).
[3] Clark, A. E., et al., “Extraordinary magnetoelasticity and lattice softening in bcc Fe-Ga alloys”. Journal of
Applied Physics 93, 8621–8623 (2003).
[4] Kellogg, R. A., “Development and modeling of iron-gallium alloys”. Ph.D thesis, Iowa State University,
(2003).
[5] Datta, S., et al., “ Figures of merit of magnetostrictive single crystal iron–gallium alloys for actuator and
sensor applications”. Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials 321, 4017-4031 (2009).
[6] Datta, S., “Quasi-static characterization and modeling of the bending behavior of single crystal galfenol for
magnetostrictive sensors and actuators”. Ph.D thesis, University of Maryland, (2009).
[7] Na, S.-M., et al., “Abnormal (110) Grain Growth and Magnetostriction in Recrystallized Galfenol With
Dispersed Niobium Carbide”. IEEE Transactions on Magnetics 45, 4132-4135 (2009).

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