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6 Clauses (1)

6.1 Clauses and sentences

 Sentences are classified into main clauses and subordinate clauses. The
following are main clauses:
- Wickham eloped with Lydia.
- Miss Bates chattered on for hours.

What are the main properties of main clauses?

I. A clause contains a finite verb.

 Finite verbs are marked for tense, person and number.
 Past tense verbs are used to place and event in the past time and
present tense verbs place and event in the present time.
- I was working late last week.
- I am working late right now.
 Person has to do with whether an actions is assigned to the speaker (1st
person), the hearer (2nd person) or someone other than the speaker or
the hearer( 3rd person)
- I am listening.
- You are listening
- S/he is listening.
 Number has to do with whether the speaker or writer refers to one
person (singular) or more than one (plural).
- She is listening
- They are listening.
 Person and number are mostly lacking in English verbs except for verb
BE.
 Other languages have a richer system of person and number contrasts
such as Russian and Arabic. Can you give examples from Arabic?
II. In each clause, the finite verb is accompanied by its complements and
adjuncts.
III. Each clause is marked for aspect.
- Wickham was eloping with Lydia (progressive aspect)
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- Wickham eloped with Lydia (simple aspect)

- Wickham has eloped with Lydia (perfect aspect)
IV. Each clause has mood.
 Mood refers to whether what is said is a statement, a question or a
command and whether what is said is possible, necessary or a fact.
- Wickham eloped with Lydia. (statement)
- Did Wickham elope with Lydia? (question)
- Elope with Lydia! (command)
- He may have eloped with Lydia. (possible)
- He must have eloped with Lydia. (necessary)
- He did elope with Lydia. (fact)
V. A clause allows certain changes of syntax to reflect changes of focus or
emphasis.
- Never will Wickham elope with Lydia.
- With Lydia Wickham eloped (to London).
- Eloped with Lydia to London, Wickham did. (colloquial)

6.2. Main and subordinate clauses

 Some sentences consist of single main clause and, thus, called simple
sentence.
- Wickham eloped with Lydia.
- Miss Bates chattered on for hours.
 Other sentences consist of several clauses depending on what types
of clause are combined. Therefore, we can have compound sentence
and complex sentences.
 Compound sentences consist of two or more clauses joined by
conjunctions such as and, but or or.
- Captain Benwick married Louis Musgrove and Captain
Wentworth married Anne Elliot.
- Henry Crawford loved Fanny but Fanny loved Edmund.
- Mr Bingley became tired of Jane or Mr Darcy persuaded Mr
Bingley to go to London.
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6.3. Subordinate clauses

 Subordinate clauses are found in complex sentences and they have

three major types: complement clauses, relative clauses and adverbial
clauses.

6.3.1. Complement clauses

- Elizabeth regretted that she had met Wickham.

- Catherine feared that the Abbey was haunted.
 Complement clauses reflect the relationship between the clauses and
the verb of the main clause.
- *Elizabeth regretted.
- *Catherine feared.
 Complements occur to the right of verbs in the main clauses, but also
occur to the left of verbs.
- That Anne was in conversation with Mr Elliot dismayed Captain
Wentworth.
 Complement clauses can modify a noun.
- Fanny was delighted by the idea that she could subscribe to a library.

More examples of complement clauses:

- Who thought up the proposal that the committee be abolished?

- There was a plan that we would visit Glasgow today but the weather
is terrible.
- Scientists have disproved the theory that the moon is made of green
cheese.
 The noun complement clauses in these examples convey the content of
the proposal, plan and theory.

6.3.2. Relative clauses

- The cottage (which) Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.

- The gentleman who saved Marianne was Willoughby.
- The book (which) Marianne was reading contained poems by
Cowper.
- The building (that) we liked is in Thornton Lacy.
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 While complement clauses modify nouns or verbs, relative clauses

modify nouns.

6.3.3. Adverbial clauses

 Adverbial clauses modify whole clauses and they are considered

adjuncts since they are optional constituents in sentences.
 They are traditionally classified according to their meaning to the
following types:
1. Reason
o Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she refused to believe
that he had deserted her.
2. Time
o When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill.
o As Marianne was running, she fell.
o While they were in London, she looked for Willoughby.
3. Concession
o Although Mr Darcy disliked Mrs Bennet, he married
Elizabeth.
4. Manner
o Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.
5. Condition
If Emma had left Hartfield, Mr Woodhouse would have been
unhappy.

6.2.4. Form and function in subordinate clauses

 As for function, verb complement clauses modify verbs, noun
complement clauses and relative clauses modify nouns and, finally,
adverbial clauses modify other clauses.
 To test whether a clause is a complement clause or relative clause, we
do this:
- If the clause allows a WH word as complementiser, then the clause is
a relative one, if it doesn’t, it is a complement clause.
o We like the theory the moon is made of green cheese
o *We like the theory which the moon is made of green cheese.
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 the form or shape of a clause can be misleading:

- We asked when this happened (verb complement clause)
- Can you really remember the time when this happened? (relative
clause)
- We were in Paris when this happened. (Adverbial clause)

6.4. Complementisers and subordinating conjunctions

 A distinction is made between coordinating conjunctions and

subordinating conjunctions
 Coordinating conjunctions can join clauses that have the same status
and which can stand alone
- Captain Benwick married Louisa Masgrove.
- Captain Wentworth married Anne Elliot.
- Captain Benwick married Louisa Masgrove and Captain Wentworth
married Anne Elliot.
 In contrast, subordinating conjunctions introduce subordinate clauses
that cannot stand alone without the main clause.
 The term complementiser is used to refer to these subordinating
conjunctions.
 In relative clauses, subordinating conjunctions (who- whom- which) are
also called relative pronouns.
 The WH words can also be preceded by prepositions.
- The fire at which Mr Woodhouse sat
- The teacher from whom I borrowed that book
 Relative clauses are also introduced by that which is invariable and
cannot be preceded by a preposition.
- The fire that Mr Woodhouse sat at.
- *the fire at that Mr Woodhouse sat.
 Subordinate clauses can also be conjoined.
- If Henry Crawford loved Fanny and if Fanny loved Edward, Henry
Crawford was going to be disappointed.
- It was Anne Elliot who loved Captain Wentworth but who rejected
his first proposal.
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6.5. Rules of thumb for identifying clauses

 Some of the rules have to do with constituent structure or the

complementiser but most of them exploit the concept of modification.
A. If it modifies a clause, it is an adverbial clause.
- When we sell the house, we’ll probably leave most of the furniture.
B. 1. If it modifies a verb, it is a complement clause.
- A motorist has reported that the road is blocked by snow at Soutra
Hill.
(Verb complement clauses function as subject or object of a clause).
2. If it modifies a preposition, it is a complement clause.
- I am only interested in whether you have a driving license.
C. If it modifies a noun, it could be a relative clause or a complement
clause.
1. If the subordinate clause is introduced by a WH word such as who,
which, where, or by a prepositional phrase such as in which, it is a
relative clause.
- The Labrador ate all the food which we left on the kitchen table.
- Show me the folder in which you stored the document.
 Exceptions: the following are complement clauses in spite of the fact
that they are introduced by WH words.
- The question why she bothered phoning
- The reason why they refused
- The problem where to leave our furniture
2. If the subordinate clause is introduced by that, it could be a relative
clause or a complement clause. If that can be replaced by WH word,
it is a relative clause, if that cannot be replaced by WH word, then
the clause is a complement one.
 I like the book that you gave me. (Relative clause)
I like the book which you gave me.
 We like the idea that the city centre will be pedisterianised.
(complement clause)
*We like the idea which the city centre will be pedisterianised.
D. Another test to distinguish between relative and noun complement
clauses is the removal of the complementiser.
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1. Removal of the complementiser from complement clauses will result

in complete clause.
 Elizabeth regretted that she had met Wickham.
 That she had met Wickham (complement clause)
 She had met Wickham (complete clause)
 Although Mr Darcy disliked Mrs Bennet, He married Elizabeth.
 Although Mr Darcy disliked Mrs Bennet (complement
clause)
 Mr Darcy disliked Mrs Bennet (complete clause)
2. Removal of complementiser from relative clauses will result in
incomplete clauses.
 The cottage which Mrs Dashwood accepted was rather small.
 which Mrs Dashwood accepted (Relative clause)
 *Mrs Dashwood accepted (incomplete clause)
 The postman who saved Marianne was Willoughby.
 who saved Marianne (relative clause)
 *saved Marianne (incomplete clause)

6.6. Final comment

 Complement clauses and relative clauses may be found without

complementisers. They follow their head noun or verb directly and they
are called contract clauses.
 I love the food they cook in the halls of residence.
 A motorist has reported the road is blocked at Soutra Hill.
 I am delighted at the idea they might demolish the Appleton
Tower.