HISTORY OF TRANSLATION

Quintus Horatius Flaccus (roman poet):

 extract from the Epistula and Pisones (known as Ars Poetica) word for word:interpreter
 he renders sense for sense. sense for sense:orator
Aurelius Augustinus (theologian/writer)

 extract from ''De Doctrina'': according to him knowledge of foreign languages is necessary
because translations of the same text tend to differ from each other; a translator very often
misses the real sense where he is not very learned. Literal translation is often not an
obstacle for the understanding, but it can imitate those readers who enjoy the content more
than it's verbal expression.

Translation is not made in a vacuum: contrastal culture influences the way in which they translate.
Before the 20th century:

 word for word or sense for sense translation

 translation of the Bible
 systematic translation
 evaluation of the foreign
 early 20th century: ''is translation possible?''

Cicero (roman orator)-> the Romans translating imitating the Greeks;

 He was the first to translate in a practical way

 extract from DE ORATORE: he decided to take speeches written in Greek by great orators
and to translate them freely by giving a latin form to the text but he only coined new
expressions, analogous to those used in Greek;
 extract from DE FINIBUS BONORUM ET MALORUM: where the Greeks have one word he
uses more than one if he can't translate otherwise, but this doesn't mean that he shouldn't
have the right to use a Greek word whenever Latin is unable to offer an equivalent.

Quintilianus (roman orator)

 when he translates we are allowed to avail ourselves of the best words, we are also forced
to imagine a great many of them and to vary them, he says.

Saint Jerome (translator)

 extract from the ''letter to Pammachius'' : he has translated sense for sense in order to
maintain the elegance of the original (he realises the VULGATA: translation of the Bible
sense for sense)
 he derives his principles from Platus and Terence when he translated the ''chronicles of
Eusebius'' ; he thinks that if he translates word for word he produces nonsense, but if he
has to change something he could be accused of falling his duties as translator; he advices
people to read the short preface to the book that describes the life of Saint Anthony, that he
has translated in such a way that the whole sense is there;
 he declared that he used sense for sense translation to preserve the original text, he adopts
domestication because non literal translation is seen as biasphemy, but a weapon against
Church.
Leonardo Bruni (Aretino, italian humanist)

 he introduces for the first time the word ''tradurre''. He was indeed t the sight of his
reprimands book full of sweetness, elegance and he was pained to see how those books
had turned out so vile and degrades in latin because the translations are riddled with
impurities;
 he could say the same thing of Plato, that Bruni considered him inexperienced and inept as
a captain, for him the full power of translation resides in the fact that ''what is written in one
language should be well translated into another, nobody can do that well unless he has an
experience of both languages''.

Bruni's rules:

 you need to know the language you are translating and the knowledge must be supported
by deep and accurate experience, by reading of philosophers, orators, poets and turning
them over in your mind;
 you have to know the language you translate in order to be able to dominate it and you
should be aware of the power and nature of words and figures of speech;
 translation should have a good ear and should result elegant and harmonious;

For Bruni, the translator trasforms himself into the original author with all his mind, will and soul
and he also ponders the problem of how to transform the shape, the stance, the style. The result
will be a wonderful translation. The most beautiful tasks of all is to translate effectively what the
original author wrote in a copious style, the translator should know that is necessary to intervene
with full stops, commas to ender the style clear and make comprehension possible.
Etienne Dolet (french poet/ translator)

 extract from ''De la maniere de bien traduire d'une langue en autre'' 15410;

His principles of translation:

 the translator must understand to perfection the meaning and thesubject of the author he
translates;
 the translator should know the language of the author and know the topic, in order to not
violate the splendor of one language;
 the translator should render sense for sense, if he translates word for word, it can mean
that his mind is poor;
 the translator should avoid latinal and unusual forms and abstain from usign words outside
common usage;
 a good translator needs to observe the figures of speech. (he uses domestication)

De La Motte (french writer/ translator)

 extract from the preface to his translation of the Iliad (1714); he has followed some parts of
Iliad by changing whatever he thought disagreeable, he defines himself ''a translator in
many parts and an original author in many others'', a ''mere translator''. He has reduced in
bringing the essential parts of the action together in order to have a better proportioned
whole thank Homer's original. He has suppressed the unnecessary preparations and by
cutting down on the uninteresting episodes. He has just left the gods their passion and
preserved their dignity. He has also deprived the heroes of the avarice, the eagerness and
put into them the mixture of power and sense.
John Dryden ( ''On translation'')

 translation could be reduced to : metaphrase (literal translation), paraphrase (the sense is

amplified, this is the most balanced method for him) and imitation ( free translation, it's the
most advantageous way for a translator to show himself;
 the translator must consider the thoughts, words of his author and find the counter part in
the other language; the sense of the author is inviolable and the translator has to make his
author as fascinating as possible;
 the translator must perfectly understand his author's tongue and his own tongue;
 words can change but the sense remains;
 he has to be a master also in the author's sense, in this way he will express himself as if he
wrote an original.

Alexander Tytler (scottish academic/ lawyer/ ''Essay on the principles of translation'')

 translation has to give a complete transcript of the author's ideas, the style should be the
same of the original, the translation has to be fluid and natural;
 when the sense of the author is doubtful the translator can give his opinion, so he can use
liberty moderately;
 the translation should contain sentiments, style and manner of the original author and it's
difficult to achieve it, in fact the author should not copy the original but he has to produce a
perfect similarity;
 translator's difficulty can be found in the translation of idioms which are different in every
language ;
 there are characteristic of composition which represent a difficulty for the translator:

- the difficulty of imitating natural thoughts;

- the difficulty of remote expressions;
-the difficulty of putting together sentiments with simplicity of expression;
-the difficulty of translating a series of characteristic terms;
-the difficulty of translating a composition with an indefinite meaning.
Friedrich Schleiermacher (''On the different methods of translating'')

 He distinguishes 2 fields: the business/ commerce(1) and the world of scolarship(2) and
arts; 1: writing is a mechanical device 2: writing gives them permanence;
 translation is different from interpretation;
 language has a crucial role in translation, in fact every discourse can be perceived in 2
ways: out of the spirit of language and out of the speaker's emotions; besides the discourse
is understood when both these aspects are perceived together;
 he invents 2 other ways to be familiar with foreign languages: paraphrase(1) and
imitation(2). 1: it overcomes the irrationality of language in a mechanical way, it deals with
the elements of both languages as if they were mathematical symbols; in paraphrase the
spirit of the original and transformed language cannot be revealed. It is applied in the field
of scholarship; 2: it admits that a replica of a verbal work of art doesn't exist, so imitation
is the only way ( it's applied in the field of arts);
 there are 2 ways to bring together the author and the reader: the translator tries to move his
readers toward his own point of view (domestication), or he leaves the writer alone and
moves the reader toward the writer (foreignization: the most applicable one);
  translator's goal is to provide the reader with the same image of the original work/
language;
 languages are discovered thanks to art and scholarship;
 the greatest difficulty of a translator is not disadvantage his own language and there are 2
conditions in translation: the understanding of foreign works and the flexibility of the native
language.

Von Humboldt (''From the introduction to his translation of Agamennon'')

 his work is untranslatable: no word in one language is completely equivalent to a word in

another language->impossibility to translate. Languages are synonymic, each language
expresses a concept somewhat differently, a word is more than just the sign of concept ; for
the concept could not come into existence without the word;
 translation is one of the most necessary tasks of any literature, because it increases the
expressivity and depth of meaning of one's own language; everything can be expressed in
every language;
 all forms of language are symbols sounds, they are flittered through the mind in which they
originated and continue to originate in a mystical relationship;
 he underlines the bond between words and culture: translation is to give the language and
spirit of a nation that does not possess or possesses in another form, then the first
requirement is always fidelity to the original text; translation should have a foreign flavor,
but only to a certain degree. In his own work he has tried to approach the simplicity and
fidelity and to guard against un- Germanness and obscurity. The translation shouldn't be a
commentary and shouldn't contain ambiguities caused by insufficient understanding of the
language;
 Agamennon is an example of the result of the brevity and the boldness with which thoughts,
images, emotions are linked together.

Jose Ortega y Gasset (''The misery and the splendor of translation'')

 the essay is a dialogue between academics and student who talk about the problem of
translation, it is divided into 2 different sections: the misery of translation and what
translation is;
 to write well is an act of rebellion against rules, the translator betrays the author
(traduttore=traditore);
 scientific books are easier to translate thanks to a specific terminology;
 he says that a language is a system of verbal signs where people understand each other,
instead terminology can be understood only by the one who is speaking or the one who is
reading = pseudolanguage;
 the utopianism of translation is based on the fact that a writer (not scientific topic) achieves:
intelligibility and modification of ordinary use of language; and it's utopian to believe that 2
worlds belonging to different languages refer to exactly the same objects;
 in a conversation the personality of the speaker becomes divided: one part listens to what
is being said, the other thinks about the matter; the conversation will reach a point when
they lapse into silence -> state of solitude;
 talking is an illusory activity because it says a little portion of what we think, when we speak
we try to express our ideas nut only partially succeed;
 each language is a different equation of statements and silences, so translating is difficult in
in fact we are not able to translate the secrets that people kept to themselves in their
silences;
  he supports foreignization, in fact translation can move in 2 directions: the author is brought
to the language of the reader or the reader is carried to the language of the author; the first
case is imitation. -> translation is not a duplicate of the original text.

Benedetto Croce

 he perceived art as a lyric or pure intuition, in fact art is unique like 2 people who cannot be
alike; as a consequence there is the impossibility of translating and when one tries to
translate, he can have 2 different results:
-he can create another expression which is defective compared to the one of the original
text, there is something missing (brutte infedeli: foreignization);
-he produces a new artistic expression, a new work of art created mixing the expression of
the original text and his own expressions (belle infedeli: domestication);
 he prefers domestication with the ''belle infedeli'', in fact he says that a poem is
untranslatable but we can translate the scientific prose and not the literary prose because
it's an artistic expression.

1950's linguistic approach to translation is restricted. Equivalence:

-rules to produce an equivalent text;
-translating is transferring small units from one language to another;
It's a normative approach because they try to establish rules to produce an equivalent text.
Roman Jakobson (''On linguistic aspects of translation'') He belongs to the Prague school

 he distinguishes:
-intralingual translatiom: which is an interpretation of verbal signs by meous of other signs
of the same language = praphrase;
-interlingual translation: which is an interpretation of verbal signs by meous of some other
language (a passage from a code to another one);
-intersemiotic translation: which is an interpretation of verbal signs by meous of signs of
non verbal sign system (ex music/poem).
 For him in the intralingual translation we can't reach a complete translation, so he proposes
some examples: ''every celibate is a bachelor but not every bachelor is a celibate'';
bachelor: a man who is not and has never been married, celibate: a person who abstains
from marriage and sexual relations;
 for him in the interlingual translation there is also no full equivalence between code units,
while messages may serve as adaquate interpretations of alien code units or messages;
 every language is different laso due to its cultural differences (ex butter in England and in
Italy): Despite this, the translation is possible because every language can say everything
so the translator tries to produce an equivalent message to the info of the original text, in
order to solve this problem;
 languages differ essentially in what they must convey and not in what they may convey;
 translation = interpretation (codification and decodification);
 when languages are different, the translator disposes of a series of strategies to convey the
same message : periphrasis, neologisms, ecc; in this way translation becomes a

 communicative process of interpretation.

Lefevere (''translation studies''/ '' traduzione e riscrittura,la manipolazione della fama letteraria'')
  ' Translation studies': term developped by Lefevere where translators do not follow rules, no
normative approach, but a descriptive approach; the translator is a cultural mediator
(multidisciplinary approach) and translation is influenced by the country of the source
language;
 the descriptive approach privileges the translated text to identify conventions that influence
the translation process; one of the consequences of this approach is the review of the
relation between original text and translation; in fact every translation provides a
manipulation of the original due to the socio-cultural and historical factors;
 Lefever conceives the translation process a rewriting because it includes, for example,
adaptations for the theatre or schools, to promote a readily comprehensible;
 'Traduzione e riscrittura, la manipolazione della fama letteraria' : he develops here a theory
in which a literary work can be perceived by the receiving society only if it is translated
according to its dominant values; Lefevere examines the rate of ideology in translation
process and in the construction of the image of the literary work, which he defines ''literary
glory'' (fama letteraria); in the 2000s there is the power turn because translation has an
ideological and political influence; so translation is a rewriting of the original text to adopt it
to the context, so there is a manipulation which can be positive or negative, positive:
introduction of new words/concepts; negative: information are distorted.
 According to Lefevere there are 2 factors which control the logic of culture:
-specialists: translator/teacher;
-patronage: political institutions/ Church, it could be individuals like Presidents or groups
like religious institutions ; it exercises its own power on translators, who can shape the
''literary glory''.
 Every rewriting is a textual manipulation to the service of the power and it could have
positive or negative results; positive: translation can help the literary and social evolution,
negative: it can repress innovation and create a distorted picture -> power turn
all rewritings, whatever their intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such
manipulate literature; rewriting is a manipulation undertaken in the service of power and in
its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society; rewriting can
introduce new concepts, new genres, new devices; but rewriting can also repress
innovation, or distort. Two factors which control the logic of culture:
-the factor regulates the literary system mainly from the inside and is represented by
professionals;
-another controls the literary system chiefly from the outside.
 The translator is a cultural mediator. His task is irreplaceable because he can adopt the
original text o the cultural needs of users ; he represents a link between different cultures,
he can't stay indifferent , in fact he manipulates the text. -> exemplifications are divided into
2 groups:
1: examples of manipulation which demonstrate how translation is able to reshape in the
culture of arrival the image of a literary work (ex the diary of Anna Frank);
2:examples of manipulation which demonstrate how rewritings influence the picture of an
author;
 Lefevere assumes the necessity of an ''unfaithful'' translation because a ''faithful'' one would
not be acceptable by the target audience;
 Rewritings are susceptible to control factors : for example the exclusion of an author by the
literary history because he is not accepted by dominant conventions in the historical
moment.

Umber Eco (''Riflessioni teorico pratiche sulla traduzione'')

  he thinks that having an active or passive xperience of translaion is useful for translating;
 translation= interpretation; the author has to discover the text's intention in relation to the
language and to the context. The concept of translation is linked with the concept of fidelity
that is not always linked to the cultural fidelity;
 translator should choose an another type of linguistic infidelity to guarantee a ''textual
fidelity'';
 translate= make the text comprehensible to render a different language; he has always
conflicted between need of fidelity and the possibility that the text could change when it's
said in another language, but he admits that sometimes the translation could improve it.
 he thinks that is impossible to elaborate a rule for a source (domestication) or target
oriented (foreignization) , but the responsability is in the hands of the translator;
 the effect equivalence is necessary to reproduce the same effect of the original text to
readers;
 translate= say almost the same concept; the translator decides the extension of ''almost''
based on the degree of equivalence to which he decides to stick;
 negotiation is a process by virtue of which, in order to get something, each party renounces
something else; in this kind of negotiations there will be many parties: ''one side, there is
the original text, sometimes an author who claims right on the whole process along with the
cultural framework in which the original text is born, on the other side there is the
destination text. A translator is the negotiator between those parties.
 La lingua perfetta: to establish that the translation is source or target oriented, it's also
important that there is a sense above the work. It should express a third language that
represents the parameter to which the original language and arrival language try to adapt;
the third language should be something like a perfect ''language of mind'', it means a ''pure
language'', spoken only by God and Angels;
there must be a ''tertium comparationis'' that allows to go through/pass from the expression
of a language ''A'' to the expression of language ''B'', shaping a metalinguistic expression
''C'';
A satisfactory translation must render the sense of the original which is not in pure
language but it's the esult of an interpretative conjecture of a bet.
 Tradurre la poesia: in the poems the expression appears more decisive than the content
and something it happens that the substance of expression is more relevant than the form;
we can identify 3 important levels that compose a narrative text: fabula(plot) -
intreccio(interweaving) - discorso (speech).
Plot: logical-temporal succession of events;
Interweaving: narrative arrangement of these events;
Speech: linguistic form in which the succession is exposed.
In poetry it's important the metric and the rhyme, but sometimes they are lost in italian
translations; an attempt to recreate the same rhyme would be grottesque; the translation is
free verses not rhymed was imposed as he only possibility.

Invisibility

 Invisibility is a term to describe the translator's situation and activity in Anglo-American

culture, it refers to 2 phenomena: an illusionistic effect of discourse and a practice of
reading translations in UK and US.
  A translated text is acceptable when it's fluent, where there are no linguistic or stylistic
peculiarities giving the appearance that it reflects the meaning of the foreign text -> the
illusion of transparency is an effect of fluent discourse , the more fluent the translation is,
the more the translator is invisible;
 a fluent translation is written in English when is current instead of archaic , when is
standard instead of colloquial and foreign words are avoided -> fluency also depends on
syntax that is not to faithful to the foreign text;
 the translator's invisibility is partly determined by the conception of autorship; acording to
this concept the author freely expresses his thoughts and feelings in writing , which is
viewed as a transparent self-representation (only the original text can be authentic);
translation is a way to efface its second-order status with transparency.
 translator's invisibility is a weird self-annihilation , a way of conceiving and practicing
translation that reinforces its status in Anglo-American culture;
 Translation is a process by which a chain of signifiers that constitutes the source language
text is replaced by a chain of signifiers in the target language -> both foreign text and
translations are derivate: both consist of diverse linguistic and cultural materials that neither
the foreign writer nor the translator originates and this leads to conflict;
 Schleiermacher: foreignization and domestication;
 Nida says that the translator must be a person who can draw aside the curtains of linguistic
and cultural differences so that people may see clearly the original message -> this
relevance to the target language culture, which can be established in the translation
process; translation= interlingual communication that overcomes the linguistic and cultural
differences that impede it.

Issues in the past

 the word vs sense controversy raged for hundreds of years;

 the unity of translation was the word , or at the most, the individual sentence. There was a
direct and transparent relation between ST and TT: The relation of the TT to the ST was
indirect and complex and there was no recognisable unit of translation;
 Cicero (1st century BC) was the first to speak in favour of translating ad sensum rather than
ad verbum;
 Horace (20 years later): translator is faithful to the meaning of the sentence, not the word
order;
 In the Middle Ages it was word for word translation; words were written in over the original
text in a kind of ''interlinear'' translation;
 the aim of 2 Bible translators: St Jerome and Martin Luther was to produce a vernacular
version that was readable and satisfying for the readers style and sense privileged over
form. Martin Luther used literal translation similar to the original text:
-translate-> to Germanize
-characterised by fluidity, intelligibility, trasmission of a literally accurate message;
-he felt that as the Bible was destined for ordianry people, it was to be translated into a
language they could understand, his aim was to instruct readers
 one of the first theories of translation was formulated by Dolet with 5 guidelines for the
translator:
1:understand the sense and content of the original text;
2: have a perfect knowledge of both languages;
3: avoid translating word for word;
 4: use a form of plain everyday speech;
5: use a harmonious and natural style.
 George Chapman: criticised literal translation;
 John Dryden: categorized the translation process in England;
 John Denham/Tytler -> solution= translate both form and content;
 Romanticism. translator seen as a creative genius in his own right and in touch with the
spirit of the original text;
 Goethe identified 3 types of literary translation:
1: the first aquaints us with foreign countries from our own vintage point;
2: ''parodistic'' and cites the French belles infèdeles;
3: to make the translation identical with the original.
 Matthew Arnold he adds that a translation should affect the target language reader in the
same way as the source may be supposed to have affected its original readers;
 Benedetto Croce: translation= ''impossible undertaking'' especially as poetry where form
and content are fused.

One of the most studying issue in translation is how translator has to do his work and how the
translation has to be faithful to the original text. Actually, it is difficult giving words and ideas of
original, read lie an original or a translation, reflect the style of the original or of translation. In
addition, it is possible adding or omitting something. So, all this concept, it depends by translator
and his strategies. There were issues in the past, actually it was possible to translate word-for-
word or the meaning. There are, even today, many degrees of faithfulness to the original.
In the 1st century, Cicero invented the worldvertere. He was the first speaking about the
importance of translation ad sensum rather than ad verbum. He defined orator as who translated
according the meaning and translator who translated according to the word. Twenty years later,
also Horace sustained it was right translating the complete meaning of sentence. Also in Italy,
during Humanisms, translation is important.
During the Middle Ages it was practiced the translation word-for-word, especially with holy and
religious texts, in order to realize a quite same translation to the original. The greater translation,
inspired by the technique of Cicero and Horace, was that of St. Jerome and Martin Luther. They
realized translations where the meanings of sentences and phases were expressed without regard
word-for-word correspondence so that style and sense privileged over form. Both translated
according to the meaning, Luther Germanized the Bible. He was concerned on a natural rendering
rather than a literal one. Luther translated using a vulgar language in order to make clearthe text
to its destined readers, actually translation was audience oriented, every person had to
understand.
Interpretation is an important one since it is closely bound up with the role of translator and the
techniques of translation to be used.
During 600-700, Neergard defined:

 DOMESTICATION: an reduction of the foreign text to dominant cultural values in the

target language. It is simple and flowing;
 FOREGNIZATION: a pressure on those values to register the linguistic and cultural
differences of foreign text. It is designed making visible the presence of the translator. It
is not a good thing. A translator can do this using words of the language to translate or
translating a work in a different way.
Dolet encouraged the translation of author intentions rather than the word themselves. Translator
needed to understand author’s intention, know both texts, be faithfully to the text, use words
and forms every day speech words and forms and finally use a harmonious style. So, French
poets should imitate the best Greeks, they translated with practical purpose, they considered
barbaric the other languages.French translators aimed to give pleasures as their language did,
so, they have literally aims. The differences between French translations and Luther’s translation
are that the firsts aimed to give pleasure to the readers, whereas, Luther’s translation had religious
purposes, so, they were written to instruct TL readers. they considered their language an elevate
manifestation of their culture, for this reason, they intended to translate also the elegance of
French.
At the same time, Benedetto Croce in Italy intended art as a pure intuition, but, translation is
impossible because any language is unique. Croce preferred a new translation that would be
faithful to the ST.
In England -Dryden distinguished metaphase (literal word-for-word, line-by-line translation),
paraphrase (rendering the true sense of the original in an acceptable target language form) and
imitation (ST as a kind of pattern), he preferred to find a balance. Whereas Dehman was the first
to establish the role of translator during this years. He distinguished 3 translation types:

 METAPHASE (word for word translation);

 PARAPHASE (expresses the meaning of the text by the class inspiration of Cicerone
andOrace. He translated following the meaning);
 IMITATION
Tyler with Dryden believed translators had to make accessible the translation to everyone. Tyler
believed translation should give a complete transcript of the writers ‘idea in original work, the
style of writing should be of the same character of the original, the translator should have all
elements of ST.
In Italy, Bruni defined invisible translation by knowing ST and TT, meaning, socio-cultural
context.
Romanticism marked translation; at the same time, it was characterized by individualism,
national languages and cultures, freedom of creative force, translator is a creative genius, in
order to enrich the literature, culture and language.
Goethe made up a distinction in translation:

 The culture of ST is enriching by the culture of TT;

 PARADOSTIC: he cities French translation, he tries to appropriate and to reproduce the
spirit of foreign language. So, it is created a new text because ST lose its identity;
 Making translation identical with the original, so that the oe is not accepted instead of, but
actually, take place of the other.
In German, Schleiermacher believed translation is a daily activity and right translation could be
possible if there is a correspondence for every word, but it does not exist. he distinguished 2
features:

 Interpret;
 Translator, it is a written translation in the field of art and science. It is a link, language and
through and language and culture, because language characterizes reality differently the
world defines languages.
And two methods:
  Making a flowing translation in order to approach the reader to the text;
 Nearing the reader to the original author, in order to enrich its own cultural heritage;
During Victorian Age there was a growth in this term, better than French. Translators
translated in order to appreciate both languages. A modern approach to translation
Nowadays the bulk of translation is of technical manuals, scientific papers, documents and
advs; in the 20th century the work of Nida shifted the focus of translating theory to the effect
achieved by means of different translation strategies: Nida proposed 2 basic orientations:

 Formal equivalence: in relation to morpho-syntactic elements;

 Dynamic equivalence: based on the principle of equivalence of effect.

 An approach that is similar to Nida is by Newmark who distinguishes between semantic

translation and communicative translation; in conclusion there is no one single way to
approach all kinds of texts.
 Future trends: machine translation differs from human translation, the greatest obstacle
to achieve an accurate machine translation ambiguity. MT needs to simulate human
verbal behaviour , human intervention is an important component of MT. A user needs
to scan the text for information and will have no problem interpreting the meaning
despite the errors in syntax and lexis. The advantage is the low cost and ultra-rapid
delivery.
 Among professional translators the ''Machine-aided translation'' is common.
 Computers can't translate alone, everything depends on human translators that have to
possess high-grade intuitive skills in post-editing the raw MT text efficiently and
economically.

According to Benjamin, translator has to understand the essence of artistic work to transmit
emotions of a pure language. Translation should be transparent.
Jakobson distinguished:

 RIFORMULATION, interpretation of linguistic signs by other signs of the same language;

 INTERLINGUISTIC TRANSLATION, interpretation of linguistic signs thanks to signs of
other languages;
 INTERSEMIOTIC TRANSLATION: interpretation of linguistic signs thanks to no linguistic
signs.
After wars, they were born the translation science, translatology and translation studies. The
first refers to technics to use, it establishes translation rules to realize a similar text to the original.
Whereas, the second describes the translation process, the factors and the influences of the
context. Finally, translation studies created a new world, a new culture; they showed the link
between language and culture. It does not concern on translation, but on language and culture.
There are no so similar language comparing with the same society and culture. Every language
has a cultural context.
At the beginning of 900, it was faced the in transability. Ortega yGassetbelieved the translator’s
task is humble because he translates something written by others, at the same time, he has to
respect grammatical rules chosen by the author. It is illusory believing a language can be
translated. In addition, when translator does his work, he can be also omitting something because
of difficulty in translation. He talk about the big difference between literal text and scientific text.
The firsts cannot be translated how we can translate a scientific texts, because, in this there are
universal and words, so, it is a conventional terminology. Also, Benedetto Croce talks about idea of
art as pure expression. Artistic expression is pure and unique.
During the last years there had been a development in translation. We can talk about machine
translators, they will create a new future. This machine tries to realize a great translation, by
establishing rules, but it cannot understand a text how a person do because of ambiguity. But
person can choose different types of translating a word. So, human translation is different respect
of this, because they understand better the meaning. Machine translators can translate short text.
MAT includes translation that are made by a human translator behind a computer. In the future,
computer will not translate alone but this will be a profession.

TRANSLATION
Translation is an interpretive process, we interpret something also in communication process.
In fact, it is the recodification of a message and translator interprets it from source language to
target language. A translation can be faithful to SL or TL. Translation is a negotiation process
because translator has to choose what omit, add. This process follows faithful degrees. So, it does
not exist a perfect translation. Translator receives the message and understand the communicative
force of utterance. It is important also understand microfunctions and macrofunctions.
Translator encodes the text in the source-oriented language to target language. He ri encodes the
text and so he has also to choose the way to translate in order to use the right tools.
First passage is analysis which can be did by predictions, so, about how it will develop on these
are verified as the reading process, syntactic and lexical items to each other in order to build up
a composite meaning as our reading process.
Translator has the same approach to text, he reads it in a global way. He vaults the level of
language, understands the function, the register and proceeds with analysis from macro
structures of the text to the micro units of the word.
The translation process begins with the interpretation of the ST as an integral part of its socio-
cultural context. The starting point is understanding the ST at various levels: syntactic, semantic
and pragmatic.The analyzing strategies the translator uses are the same strategies we use when
we read a text.
Reading is a twofold process: top-down and bottom-up(Brown and Yule 1983).
- Our assumptions are verified against the text itself. We also make predictions about how it
will develop and these, too, are verified as the reading proceeds.
- At the same time, we tend to analyse and decode syntactic and lexical items in relation to
each other in order to build up a composite meaning as our reading proceeds.
- The second stage entails testing hypotheses and making decisions.
Contrastive textual analysis comes into play: the SL textual devices and patterns are compared
and contrasted with those available in the TL.A complex ST can be simplified in the SL before
being translated into the TT (reordering). So, he forms hypotesys. He transfers, making decisions
and comparing the two languages. A text can be simplified in the SL before being translated into
TT. The TL elements are not self-contained entities: they must always be selected taking into
consideration the whole texts it overall communicative function. The meaning is to be decoded and
re encoded according to the context. The TL text is an adequate rather than equivalent version.
The definitive TL version will not be archived at the first writing, so, translator moves back and forth
between the two texts during the translation process, writing, rewriting and revising. The final step
is to do a cross: reading ST and TT to ensure that no information has been left. The final version
should seem as possible as an original text. The TT version should be the closet natural
equivalent of the message. The text cannot be a supplicate of original. The TL text is adequate
rather than an equivalent version. The equivalence concept is relative and it depends by translator
chooses and the socio-cultural context.
Translator has to follow many criterion:

 Accuracy, in tecnic terms and mono referential terms

 Economy, concise transmission of information, using the minimum linguistic resources
 Clarity, accuracy to situation and communication
 Objectivity, impersonality of text
Another criterion for establishing a typology of texts is identifying author’s strategies. There are 5
types of dominal contextual focus:

 Expository texts, whose purpose is to inform, enrich knowledges;

 Descriptive texts, the focus is an objects and relation in space;
 Narrative texts, the focus is on events and relation in time. It is characterized by temporal
sequences;
 Argumentative texts, the focus is on relation between different concepts;
 Instructive texts, the focus is on the future behavior of the addresser on the addressee
with or not option.
Taylor considers a typology of categories according to the general subject area:

 Literally texts, they contain pragmatic, stylistic, linguistic features. They correspond to
expressive texts. They show the creativity of language. Translators have to examine every
sentence in terms of its denotative and connotative meanings.
 Advertising texts, they use expressive elements can be inputted to advertising discourse
along with the vocative and persuasive elements. They are realized to input knowledges. They
deal with a vast range of subject matter. In terms of function, the informative role of advertising is
becoming ever more peripheral. An advertisement is designed to attract attention, not to impart
knowledge.
Expressive elements can be imputed to advertising discourse along with the vocative and
persuasive component. The message is likely to contain some form of mnemonic pattern provided
by phonological strategies such as alliteration, rhyme, onomatopoeia, repetition or reiteration. The
translator is in a similar position to that regarding literary texts.
But the difference is that an advert exploits the spoken mode, is short (some products are
advertised with zero wording) and has little co-text.The text appears outside a context.
In longer texts we find the characteristics of spoken language:
- use of generic terms
- moredynamic language with verbs of the everyday familiar type
- imperative mood, incomplete sentence structures: non-finites, verbless clauses,
paratactic sentences, more typical of the spoken mode (clauses are linked with conjunctions or
punctuation)
-use of adjectives to describe products and comparatives and superlatives to compare them
to others.
 Technical texts, they show a technical language, there are standard terms written in formal
and impersonal way;
 Journalistic texts, The term journalistic is useful in distinguishing textual material actually
written by journalists (news reports, editorials) from all the other linguistic elements
(advertising, horoscopes, weather reports, cartoons, film reviews, obituaries). There are also
differences between news reporting and editorials (creative characteristics of literary texts).
 The most representative text is the informative news report: the central function of a
newspaper is to inform The most striking characteristics, at least in the English language
press, are those elements that are clearly visible:
- the different fonts, colours and letter sizes that distinguish
- major headlines from minor headlines
- leads* from the various other sub-headings
- all the various headlines from the main text.
- theformat is important in terms of the pragmatic presentation of information: using the
visual metaphor of an inverted pyramid, the most important items of information in any
newspaper report are presented first, in the various headlines and in the opening
sentences. This strategy has the advantage to concentrate information into chunks.
The translator, therefore, needs to be aware of these conventions, which may not be
mirrored on languages other than English, for example French.
- Many characteristics of the English model can be found in Italian newspapers.
- The headlining system is more elaborate, consisting of an occhiello (pre-headline), a
headline proper and a sub-headline.
- - It is more common in the Italian press to find quotations:
newspapers quote direct or indirect participants in the event because the quote is
considered as an incontrovertible fact, and so the journalist can distance himself.
- - Informal dialogue in headlines: the che! exclamative or Cosa?

The phase is a component of text, it is the combination of one or more linguistic elements.
They form a syntactic unity that has a function in the structure of discourse. Morphems the
smallest meaningful units, a word, more words, a complex word formation. Sentences simple,
more elaborate in terms of coordination or subordination. Chunks are sentences which have
meaning with its words and they are generally useful in formal situation. Semantic, it Is possible
translate all languages from others. There is not a perfect translation but translator have to try a
successful meaning. In order to create a semantic space of a text in SL to TL translator should
know rules, intern relations, construct elements without necessary researching correspondences
between every word. Translator does his work. He has to know the rules and the organization of
sentences, reordering conceptual and semantic materials to TL. The verbal phase refers to the
head of sentence. It defines the action.

HOW TO DO THINGS WITH WORDS (J. AUSTIN)

SPEECH ACTS THEORY and the concept of performative languages in which to say something
is to do something. All this contributes to the rational structuring of the mass of linguistic and
extralinguistic knowledge which includes every act of communication and by extension translation.
According to Austin utterance can be locutionary (act represents the intention of person
formulating that utterance), illocutionary (they are not immediately), perlocutionary (the results
of speech act)
According to Searle speech act are divided according to their performative function, meanings can
be:

 A single lexical item;

 An individual speech act;
 An exchange;
 A concatenation of speech acts;
 An entire text.
The hidden pragmatic meaning can be identifiable at each individual level or just following
consideration. The coefficient of intensity is a measure of the relative force of words.
House devised a series of parameters designed precisely to compare source and target text in
translation and termed them dimensions. There are 3 dimensions of language user
(geographical origin, social class time) and 5 dimensions of language use (medium, participation,
social role relationship, social attitude, topic). The first 3 determine space, register and time.
Others refers to the degree of social distance involved (frozen, intimate and
province).Interpersonal componentIs particularly noticeable to create emotive and humorous
effects.

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATIVE PROCESS

The communicative process is the act of verbal communication elements, so it includes all types of
communication. Communication context and co-texts are important. The purpose of
communication is to create a unique world between addressee and addresser, even if they speak
two language.Micro function and macro function are the structure used. The addresser is the
person who originates the message. The addressee is the person who receives the message.
Context is social or physical situation where the communicative act takes place. Message
includes information and lexical grammatical choices. Contact is the medium and physical
channel. Code is the language system.
LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS
Language function includes the different uses of languages according to the context, so it must be
comprensible , in order to reflect appropriately the meaning. Translator interprets the meaning of
text in linguistic and extralinguistic context and the formal level of two language. In order to create
a formal equivalence, he must know building rules and the organization of TT.Language functions
define the purpose of language. There are many functions. J.Austin noted all utterances have
communicative force in different ways. We can talk about:
• Locution, the formal, literal meaning;
• Illocution, the communicative force of utterance and the act performed to it;
• Perlocution, the effect of utterance on action.
Rethorical funcitons used by the author, one is predominant, it depends on which language
prevails. If it is identified will mean a easier translation. It is essential to realize a great
communication and translation. Recognizing the dominant contextual focus is crucial in order to
understand the author’s intentions.
On the basis of similarities and regularities between the texts, they can be classified, each type is
useful to identify what aspect of translation should be considered. There's a relation between text
type, textual function and translation strategies. Translator can distinguish criteria and guidelines
for evaluating the ST. Identifying the SL text type can create expectations in translators as to the
language content. Translators have to understand author’s intentions, he generates hypothesis
and selects lexical, grammatical and semantic features. Macro functions:
•EMOTIVE OR EXPRESSIVE: it expresses emotions of addresser, personal style is maintained
intact to reproduce all things and emotions. It is centered on author and ST oriented. We can talk
about literary texts, wrote with the first person;
•REFERENTIAL OR INFORMATIVE: the context should be translated appropriately, focusing on
the extra linguistic reality. It is content concerned. We can talk about textbooks, scientific and
technical books and articles, using the third person. The translator’s task is to convey the message
accurately and in a way that may be accessible to the intended TT reader;
•CONATIVE OR VOCATIVE FUNCTION, reader centered and TL oriented. Text has to be fully
and immediately comprensible to the reader in order to persuade them. So, it has a communicative
function and it aims to establish a contact between two participants. (advertising, persuading
messages). In fact, it informs readers and at the same time persuades it about the quality of the
product. It's important to decide which form of address to select, the degree of formality, the
number. Compensation strategies are used to convey the degree of formality or familiarity
intended.
Jakobson adds:
•POETIC: it is the form chosen for the message (sound-effects, rhythm, figurative language). it
concerns the message, it isn’t confined by poetry, it has aesthetic function;
•PHATIC: it includes the establishing of a contact for social reasons, in order to socialize, creating
a common ground for conversation. It serves to open up a channel of communication, to socialize
using standard sentences translated with standard worlds, they should not be translated literally.
This sentence establishes a contact between two people, a direct line with readers.
•METALINGUAL: it is focused on the code itself. It refers to the ability of language to talk about
itself (dictionaries, description, grammatical exercises). It includes standard terminology.CONTEXT
OF CULTURE
Steiner defined human communication equals translation. SL author’s intention has to be
understood by receiver of SL message. Translator encode the text in the source-oriented language
to target language. He ri-encodes the message and so he has also to choose the way to translate.
Translator has to interpret it, which will be appropriate to TL and context. Language depends by
socio cultural factors, it is crucial because text is the expression of author’s intention. Translator
has to interpret intention’s author’s text according to the contextual situation.Context creates
expectations to understanding the content of discourse. It is possible translating in more meanings
according to the context.
It is important and it depends by lexical problems and the meaning of texts. It is crucial because
text expresses the author intentions, so translator has to interpret it according to the context of
situation, he should recognize the communicative purpose and transmit it. It is a source of meaning
in every language, it is the idea and situation that generally influence the text.
The context will create expectations in the scenario. Intertextuality words will be always
different according to the context. Context of an idea or event is the general situation that relates
to it, and which helps it to be understood. Its analysis can be made according to a top down
process or a bottom up process, so, trading and interpretation of ST to define the context.In order
to realize a communication or translation it is important participants share the same universe of
discourse.
Co-text is the linguistic context, where the context of situation is the extralinguistic context.
Malinowski determined the context of culture; he aimed to resolve the problem of how illustrating
his ideas on the remote culture of a group of South Pacific islanders to an English- speaking public.
Thanks to his researches he contributed to the definition of context. To understand the meaning of
a foreign language it is necessary to know the immediate environment of speech act in their under
cultural. There are two types of translation:

 FREE TRANSLATION (it was intelligible to the English audience but gave no insights into
the SL and source culture)
  LITERAL TRANSLATION (conveyed the flavour of the original, but was not intelligible to
English readers)
Context of culture is the awareness of cultural differences and similarities which is essential to the
interpretation of meaning. Personal development of a mind or knowledge of a country history.
Language is part of culture.
According toBenjamin the language people speak determines their perception of reality that is
conditioned by language, different languages, it means there are many different realities. The
principle of language relativity is expressed by the transability of texts, translation is impossible if a
community’s way of thinking and conceptualize are determined by language.
According to Chomskythe principle of language is universal, the translations include the
recording of surface structures from ST and TT, so, any kind of translation is possible.
According to Edward Sapir there aren’t two language which are so similar to be considered
representing of the same social and cultural reality, he, together with Whorf defined the language
reality which is influenced by communication and languages.

CULTURE INFLUENCES LANGUAGE

Culture contains language can developed within a specific set of circumstances, a language can
become common in more situation. Interculturaldifferences can be understood. Even the individual
words of a language are often expressly linked to the culture. Translators have to find a position in
two cultures. They should know the two systems, bilingual and bicultural. Cutural background it is
referred to human experience. It is seen in relation to the big areas of language, trying universal
equivalence. It includes geographical names, institutional terms.
Geographical names describe phenomena that are more locally defined. Institutional terms are
generally translated if there is a right correspondence word in the European language.
A shared mental model of map of the world is a system of values and strategies. People will
express themselves in language that reflects their cultural upbringing:
-Cultural bound phenomenon
-Set expression
MICRO BASIS APPROACH- CONTEXT OF SITUATION

 Participants
 Verbal and no verbal actions
 Objects and events
 Message form and content
 Setting
 Channel
 Effect
 Key
 Genre
 Norm of interaction
Communication involves also communicative and extra linguistic competencesin order to be
complete.
REGISTER
Questions of register come into play depending on the social state, personality, age, sex and
educational level. Felicity conditions is necessary to make a speech act successful.
Halliday’s register (used to say different things according to the social activity) it is related to the
use to which language is put in a particular social context. All texts are produced and received
within a set of circumstances of time, place, space, purposes. They involve various person in
various roles and are confined in a particular way. Identify register is important, it defines the
substance of text. Every communicative act takes place in a situational and cultural context.
Halliday's context of situation consists of 3 components:

1)field=refers to the subject matter and the nature of the activity/event: what is happening, to
whom, when and where, what they know (shared and unshared knowledge), what they are doing,
and so on. Identified in the collocation of lexical and grammatical items. We can speak of technical,
scientific, and legal register, institutional registers and so on. Also what the text is about (science,
education, war, medicine, sports, linguistics, tourism). Moreover: specialised vs. non specialised
(the vocabulary is specific to the field, or the vocabulary is common to other fields with different
meaning in the current field ( a ''constituent'' in politics means member of a political unit, in
linguistics a syntactic unit).

2)tenor=refers to the social and role relationships between the participants in a communicative
event, in terms of power and status and how they feel about each other, whether they know each
other well and so on. It refers also to the role structure.

1ｷ The status of the participants influences the level of formality of language (it depends on
the distance between the addresser and the adressee): formal, neutral, informal.

2ｷ It is essential when translating to ensure that the tenor is consistent: all the grammatical
and lexical elements should belong to the same level of formality.

Some informal expressions and their formal equivalents:

Informal Formal

to start with->first,firstly

on top of that->moreover/furthermore

what's more->in addition

anyway/anyhow->however

talking about->as far /as to

3ｷ Related to the degree of formality is the familiarity between participants: English doesn't
have the distinction between tu/lei but has other ways of showing the distance between the
addresser and addresee (with the use of conditional, for example).

4ｷ Another aspect of tenor concerns the attitude of the addresser to the message,
which may be detached, cautious, tentative, and so on, with the use of adverbs
(certainly,...)and modal verbs(of possibility, obligation..).

3)mode=it's the channel communication and concerns how the language is being used, the
medium that is chosen and the channel through which the communication takes place. It refers
also to a whether text is reflective of performative, spontaneous or well thought out.

5ｷ The translator reconstructs the context through an analysis of what has taken place (field),
who has participated (tenor) and what medium has been chosen (mode). These 3 variables
provide the basic conditions for communication to take place and by identifying them in the ST the
translator will be able to relay the intended message in the TL.

DIALECT They are related to who speak not to what is told. They say the same things in different
ways because they differ phonologically, lexically and grammatically. They depend by
geographical varieties and social varieties. Geographical terms describing phenomena that
defines a place, whereas institutional terms are simply transcribed. Sometimes transparent
translation is possible. If something isn’t clear from the context, an explanation note should be
provided in the text. But translator can use paraphrase, omission, explanation, annotation. So,
there is not ever a transparent translation, but translator will be able to try a functional equivalent.It
is difficult to make similar translation because translator must create the same effect and there are
not worlds to translate dialects.It exists also temporal dialects, they refer to changes during the
time, you can compare them with modern text. Translators translate using neologism.Idiolectic
dialects are the most individual of user related to a variety of language and refers to a person who
tell worlds according to the speech habits in a particular time.
The non-correspondence of lexical and syntactic categories can be overcome at text level through
compensation, which allows translators to preserve the global meaning and the pragmatic effect
of a text.
Since language is a integral part of culture, translators not only need to be proficient in the SL and
the TL, but also familiar with two cultures:they act as mediators between cultures and they
should be bilingual and bicultural. They should move effortlessly between the two cultures, and
be able to see the symbolism or the humour in a text.

LANGUAGE AND TRANSLATION

According to one of the most exponent of modern linguistics, study of language structure is
fundamental. Horizontal nature (syntagma) forms grammatically acceptable and meaningful
clauses and sentences. They are compared to vertical nature (linguistic options) avaible to
speakers within a syntagma sequences.Paradigmatic wordsare chosen by speakers, they will
combine syntagma in a logical order to create meaning.
STRUCTUALISM
In order to create sentences, we have to follow a structure. Every single word could be split into
meaningful morphemes. Translators must recognize single units in the TT. Universal structure
was defined by Chomskylike a universal deep grammar. Underling structures of language may be
stable over the time, just grammar surface changes in the many languages spoken in the world.
According to Nida minimal structures in a language includes subject, article, verb and noun. It can
be divided from a text and simplified, so, it will be easier to translate and re-introduce every
element.Format is important in terms of paradigmatic presentations of information. The most
important items of information, many newspaper or report, are presented first in the various
headliners in the opening sentences. This strategy has the advantage to concentrate information
into chunks. Headlinyng system is more complicated: it consists of an occhiello, a headline and
sub-headline. It is more common in Italian press to find a quotation: newspapers can be direct or
directly participating to the events.

PRAGUE SCHOOL
It introduced the concept of communicative dynamism and functional sentences perspective. It can
be made up into themes and rehemes. Themes refer to information that is to some extent
dependent on the immediate context, it gives information and usually it is put in the beginning of
the text. Whereas, rheme contains context-independent information, new information that
generally comes out the end of a clause of discourse. It keeps us interested. It lets us know
something new. They determine the level of communication.
THEME IN HOLLIDAY it is an introduction to functional grammar. He developed his concept of
theme and rheme. Theme is an invariably found in initial position either given or new information,
giving information, either previously mentioned in the co-text or simplicity know to be shared
knowledge. Any stretch of discourse is analyzed in terms of theme, giving information.
COHESION is important to organize the analysis of text. It Is created in a number of ways within a
text. It refers just to the links that exists with the discourse. So, cohesion occurs where the
interpretation of some elements in the discourse is dependent, that of another the one
presupposes the other. The two elements, the presupposing and the presupposed are integrated
into a text. It is expressed partly trough the grammar and vocabulary. Translator has to be
complete in order to respect the range of vocabulary at their disposal order. The range will be
restricted and circumscribed in source and target language.
We can refer to grammatic cohesion and lexical cohesion; For Halliday and Hasan (1976),
there are 4 ways by which cohesion is created in English, by:

1)REFERENCE;

2)ELLIPSIS AND SUBSTITUTION;

3)CONJUCTION;

4)LEXICAL COHESION;

 REFERENCE:

Items which have the property of reference. They make reference to something else for their
interpretation (the thing referred to has to be identifiable), and it can be personals, demonstratives,
comparatives. Cohesion lies in the continuity of reference.

Ex:Theresa May has said Brexit is a chance...and she (item) encouraged...

We can distinguish 2 types of Reference:

1)EXAPHORIC (situational);

2)ENDOPHORIC (textual)->(to preceding text=ANAPHORA)

->(to following text=CATAPHORA).

The basic distinction is between pointing 'outwards' and pointing 'inwards'- between exophora(1)
and endophora(2).

1)Exophoric reference means that the identity presumed by the reference item is recoverable
from the environment of the text.

Ex: Guardate questo!(questo=qualcosa presente nel contesto situazionale, so there's reference to

the context of situation).

2)Endophoric reference means that the identity presumed by the reference item is recoverable
from within the text itself (there's a textual reference).

• Anaphoric reference, refers back a previously mentioned entity (John came in, he did x,
he did x)

• Cataphoric reference, it refers to an entity further ahead in the discourse (This is not a
good news for any of you. You are all fired!)

3 TYPES OF REFERENCE:

1)PERSONAL REFERENCE:I, you, he/she/it, my, mine,his,etc...

The distinction is that between:

• first and second person-> typically exophoric (io, tu sono i partecipanti del contesto e
corrispondono al mittente e al destinatario, sono dunque interni alla situazione).

• Third person-> typically endophoric (it refers to a preceding item in the text, it is inherently
cohesive.

2)DEMONSTRATIVE REFERENCE:this, that, those, here, there, the (quando ciò di cui si parla è
determinato nel testo,quando specifichiamo).

• SUBSTITUTION:

Replacement of one linguistic item by another.

Substitution and Ellipsis are the same process. In fact, Ellipsis is a kind of substitution where one
linguistic item is replaced by zero or nothing. Therefore, it is an omission of an item.

(it might rain but I hope it doesn’t.)

 CONJUCTION:

It provides the resources for making logico- semantic relationships between text spans.
Conjunctions can be classified according to four main categories:

1. Additive conjunctions act to structurally coordinate or link by adding to the presupposed

item and are signalled through 'and, also, too, furthermore, additionally etc'. Additive
conjunctions may also act to negate the presupposed item and are signalled by 'nor
and...not, either, neither etc'.

2. Adversative conjunctions act to indicate 'contrary to expectation' and are signalled by

'yet, though, only, but, in fact, rather etc'.

3. Causal conjunctions expresses 'result, reason and purpose' and is signalled by 'so, then,
 for, because, for this reason, as a result, in this respect etc.

4. Temporal conjunctions link by signalling sequence or time :' then, next, after that, next
day, until then, at the same time, at this point'.

 LEXICAL COHESION:

The two basic categories are:

 1)REITERATION: repetition, synonymy, antonymy ,hyponymy , meronymy;

 2)COLLOCATION;

REITERATION:

-Repetition->repeating of the same lexical unity (ex :Algy met a bear. The bear was bulgy) as well
as of morphologically distinct forms of the same word (ex: impressionati, s'impressionò). Aim=to
reintroduce important topic words at various point in the discourse.

-Synonymy-> the choice of a lexical item that is in some sense synonymous with a preceding one.
The use of synonymy or elegant variation is discouraged by scientific journals because it creates
ambiguity.

A special case of synonymy is its opposite, antonymy. Lexical items which are opposite in
meaning also function with cohesive effect in a text:

ex: He fell asleep. What woke him was a loud crash.

-Hyponymy-> describes a specific-general relationship between lexical items (the general term is
called hyperonym or superordinate).

-Meronymy-> describes a 'part-whole' relationship between lexical items.

Hyponymy and meronymy often work together in the development of the text.

LEXIS IN TERMINOLOGY
It is not easy dividing grammar by lexicogrammar. Translator has to select grammatical
structures and words, creating the language. So that, we can distinguish ambiguous,
polysemous, terms: together, they form a concept. Translator must be sensitive to the meaning of
the words, they have to be translated.
The componential analysis is a technique which select all elements in order to create a complete
syntactic picture of lexical items. So, each lexical item is regarded as a set of components called
distinctive features and semantic features.The basic idea of many linguistics was every word can
be broke into many components in order to arrive to the total meaning.
LEXICAL ITEMS are considered term of their semantic components. Newmark shows how a word
can be divided into part to be translated.

COLLOCATION (how words go together)

it is an enormous problem defining the right collocation, actually in translation we have to
understand in a transparent way what it is the right collocation of a word. Some collocations are
predictable, very common and mirrored in other languages, whereas, other items collocate in
surprising combination. Languages are important and inventive, but this includes problems to
translators when the patterns of location in one language are not mirrored in other languages.So,
translator have to do an transparent translation, the source of original collocation is known across
the two cultures. In addition, it can be common or physholinguistically successful. It could be
impenetrable and even be justified in the right context. The translator is faced with a substitution
that works on so many level that translators cannot hope to capture it.

ILLOCUTIONARY INTENT: there are 3 kinds of translation adopted by speakers and writers:
REFORMULATION
ABBREVATION
EXPAINATION
Given a piece of language, it can be described different level of analysis. A wordcan be taken as:
-a combination of letters and sounds;
-made up of elements of meanings called morphemes;
-a constituent of larger units, phrases or sentences;
-a unit of meaning like a dictionary entity, that is to say a lexical item a lexeme.
These sentences are connected up in a text.
The study of how the sounds of speech are made is the business of phonetics. The study of
phonemes and their relation is the sound systems is the business of phonology; morphology
studies the construction of words. Translator has to try the fit meaning they require according to the
context.Translator’s task is not try a word on dictionary but try the same meaning of a word,
because it presents many meanings.
PROPER NAME of real people, historical importance. They are translated if there is a regularly
equivalence related between European languages, even if they are geographical names.
TERMINOLOGY development of science and technology, creation of many subject areas. The
specialised language planning carried out by terminologists is designed to assist the users of
terminology. The terminological discipline provided by dictionaries, specialized glossaries and also
data banks.
LANGUAGE FOR SPECIAL PURPOSE, it is a technical discipline, we can define the level of
consistency in the naming process. So, we can talk about a general language, different of separate
lexical units. It is a terminological job. Terms are created to represents concepts in the lexic of the
language. Sometimes the lexical item representing the term also exists in the general language but
it is considered to be a separate lexical unit.
Dictionary can help in definition of words across synonymous. In addition, they can give
information about morphology and pronunciation. There are problems when a word is homonymy
(identical words with different meanings), polysemy (words with many meanings connected in the
same way), homograph (words having the same form but different pronunciation and meaning).
They are very useful instruments for languages, but it is difficult to understand all possible
translations and the right, according to the context of situation. Whereas, homograph refers to
words having the same form but different pronunciation and meaning.
THE TASK OF TRANSLATOR is not try a word on dictionary but try the some meaning of a word
because it presents many meanings.
TERMS FORMATION, new terms are created according to the model of existing terms, derived by
Latin and Greek.
We can measure lexical density, which is the proportion of lexical words in a text compared to the
number of function words. In written texts density than spoken language. Translating, translator
has to reproduce, through use of right register, expression and balance, the same effect of ST.
Translator uses corpus to see how a technic can be denser than others. Actually, they are different
respect of dictionaries. Corpora refers to a large body of recorder of text material, written or
spoken. It shows the real meaning of a word thank to the use or collocation rage. There is a
selection of available corpora in order to provide as a more representative as possible of language
in use. Corpora also reveal discrepancies in the use of single lexical items in the singular and
plural.
COLLOCATION: HOW WORDS WORK TOGETHER
TRANSLATION STATEGIES
Malone provides a visit of a strategies who a translator can apply in translating a structural
lexicogrammar level. Some of them are presented together because there is the opposite:
1)equation=a sort of automatic equivalence: it is rarely or never found for long continous
stretches;

2)loan=where equality seems absolute

• culturally specific words

• technical terms borrowed from English by virtue of its international role in the world of
science etc...

• sometimes the loan can coexist with the equivalent term in the target language.

3)calque=the target language adapts the source language term to its own morpho-phonological
framework (ex.crossare, stoppare derive from English). A term translated by its clear one to one
equivalent: a faithful and plain translation in every way (with no changes in its syntax). One of traps
associated with equation is represented by false friends or false cognates (actual/patent). There
are also partial cognates: the word for word translation can be valid in some situations but not in
others(direttore->manager).

4)substitution=it is antipodal to equation, if there's no ''automatic'', the translation chosen may

have little or no morpho-syntactic or semantic relation to the source text. Lack of an equational
target-language counterpart:

• grammatical constraints,

• descrepances in idioms or other set expressions,

• cultural differences(film titles,songs..)

5)divergence=when the translator is expected to choose a suitable term from a more or less
extended range of alternatives. Sometimes the translator is expected to select from more than one
acceptable grammatical construction. The translator can make use of co-textual linguistic
clues(ideas) to assist decisions-making.

6)convergence=the relation is many to one(lei, voi, tu->you).

7)amplification=the translation adds some elements to source text for reasons of greater
comprehensibility. A single lexical term needs a collocation partner in the other language
(ortopedico->orthopaedic specialist). Sometimes things are taken for granted in the ST are
culturally or lexically opaque for target text reader:HGV license=license to drive heavy goods
vehicles).

8)reduction=consists of omitting elements in the TT because they're redundant or

misleading(carta geografica->map).

9)diffusion=amplification of ST but no extra info is added->magari =''If only I could/I wish I could''
or information/advice/furniture are uncountable.

10)condensation=the TT expression is more economic or more compact than the source

expression (a buon prezzo=cheap/to look at=guardare).Sintagmi nominali complessi:

ex.criteri di qualità dell'aria->air quality criteria;

ex.State school teachers recollocation protest->protesta sul trasferimento degli insegnanti nella
scuola statale.

Universal structures, in order to translate correctly translator has to understand the head of noun,
there are sentences which are simple, so, determiner and noun, whereas, others with premodifiers,
noun and post modifiers.
•REORDERING, it aims to create order in the sentences when we translate, it is important to
understand when we use it. It is the field of complex syntax. It is important that translator
understands when using this mechanism. Word order is formal and functional.
• one or more target elements appear in a position different from that of the ST;

• adjective noun inversion->white horse (in italian the position is more flexible than
english,in this case it's more rigid).

• At a sentence level it's often necessary to reorder phrases because words order is
meaning oriented .English SVO order (subject,verb,object) is less flexible than Italian word
order.

• Dislocazione a sinistra:the subject is post-placed and the direct objects is shifted to the
left (il costituente è posto a sinistra per enfatizzare).

• It's also possible to use some devices to give emphasis to a particular element (cleft
sentence) ex:''The story about the moon and the bonfires. I know that as well''.

• A very frequent use of the passive voice (passive construction is used for more in English
than in Italian):passive form, impersonal construction ('si' in italian), an active form using
verbs with impersonal agents whose nominal or pronominal identity never appears.