MODULO D

“Translation constructs a domestic representation for a foreign text and culure”. (Lawrence Venuti,
The Scandals of Translation, 1998).
The language of tourism:
 Cappelli G.: Sun, Sea, Sex and the Unspoilt Countryside: How the English Language
make tourists out of readers, Pari Publishing, Grosseto, 2007
 Francesconi S.: English for Tourism Promotion: Italy in British Tourism Texts,Hoepli,
Milano, 2007.
 Gotti M.: The Language of Tourism as a Specialized Discourse, in Translating Tourism:
Linguistic/Cultural Representations, 2006, pp. 15-34
Bülher (1934)-Jakobson (1960) Linguistic and Poetics
EMOTIVE FUNCTION REFERENTIAL (content centered) CONATIVE (reader centered)
(authorcentered)POETIC (message centered)
PHATIC (channel)
METALINGUAL (language itself
Francesconi considers the linguistic strategies used in tourists texts in order to perform a conative
function: she devotes attention to a particular genre, the brochure, which subordinate informative
and aesthetic aims to promotional aims. A text cannot be analysed without exploring the
discourse in which it is inscribed. A text from the discursive point of view implies the observation
of language in use (socially situated and manipulated).
THE NOTION OF TOURISM: DEFINITIONAL PROBLEMS
1. Chambers Dictionary of Etimology(1999)
The etymology of the word suggest the notion of tour, a circular movement: tourists go
around, avoiding a straightforward route, they travel for entertainment (the focus is on the
modality and purpose of travel)
2. Cambridge Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2003)
Tourism is the business of providing services to tourists on holiday- it suggests the
existence of a supply of goods and a corresponding demand for services (economic
approach).
Both definitions neglect the relational dimension of tourism, which should be taken into account
since every tourist practice is based on the perception and the approach to the space visited,
the people encountered and their lifestyle and culture, that is, how tourists perceive otherness or
alterity.
Tourism studies were born in the 1960s and 1970s. A transdisciplinary approach is necessary
in studying tourism and this includes:
 Sociology, anthropology, ethnography. Tourism is seen as a social phenomenon;
attention is paid to the cultural implications of the relationships between host and
guests (MacCannell; Hurry).
 Economics since tourism is seen as the largest industry of the world (UNWTO); the
area of marketing.
 History because the roots of modern tourism are in the Grand Tour: “The sons of
European aristocracy at the end of the 17th century and of the upper middle class in the late
18th century used to travel throughout Europe visiting cultural centers, including Italian cities
like Venice, Padua, Florence and Rome.” (Thomas Cook, the pioneer of the package tour in
1844)
  Geography that is the location of tourist areas.

KEY NOTIONS
1) The relationships between linguistics and tourism.
2) Perception and representation of Italy (culture, society, territory) in English tourist
texts.
Cappellistarts from theoretical issued like text types and function, discourse analysis,
registrer; then she focuses on the language of tourism analysing texts for example brochures,
promotional websites, travel articles and guidebooks. She focuses on the language
mechanisms responsible for certain communicative effects.
[…]- even in an age of increasing globalization- tourists brochures and other advertising texts are
culture bound; their impact varies with the reader, his or her age, background, origin and
mentality. “ (Snell-Hornby, 1999, pp. 95-96)
“A tourism texts cannot be approached without an understanding of cultural differences and the
difficulties these can create. […] Brochures are integral part of the target culture and dependent on
its expectations and norms. “ (Sumberg, 2004, p. 332)
The contact between tourists and locals is characterized by an asymmetrical relationships(in
terms of social status) between the participants in the situation because the tourist language is
the dominant one. While in usual situations the foreigner tries to learn the local language, “In
Tourist Talk locals […] talk up to higher status tourists in the tourists’ language (TL)” = the tourists’
first language or a lingua franca. Tourists need and wish to establish the forms and modes of
tourist language, it has a sort of internal specialization within the frame of the tourism
professional field. (MacCannel, 1992, tourism is a specialized language). The language of
tourism is deemed as a set of word and phrases showing a high degree of frequency and
specifity in the context of tourist communication; today, it is important to consider the
communicative context in which language is used and the pragmatic issues that arise from this
use. Thus, the traditional perspective focused on the description of the features of language in its
lexical and morpho-syntactical nature should be overcome.
Graham Dann, The Language of tourism, a Socio-linguistic Perspective (1996)
The act of tourism promotion has discourse of its own and the sociolinguistic nature of tourism
should be a prior concern for tourism researchers. The language of tourism is approached as
following grammatical rules and having specialized vocabulary, but also as articulating values,
beliefs and norms negotiated at socio-cultural level.
“In everyday speech, we often hear references to the “language of dance”, the “language of
architecture”, the “language of music”, and so on. We know roughly what the expression means-
that somehow these various facets of life have ways of communicating with us. They are
structured. They follow certain grammatical rules and have specialized vocabularies. They are in
many senses language-like in their properties. Analogically too, these language convey messages,
they have a heuristic or semantic content, they operate through a conventional system of symbols
and codes. Many also include the equivalent of dialects and registrers. […] Tourism operates
along similar linguistic lines; […] tourism, in the written texts and audio-visual offerings, the
language of tourism attempts to persuade,lude, woo and seduce millions of human beings,
and in so doing, convert them from potential into actual clients. By addressing them in terms of
their own culturally predicated needs and motivations, it hopes to push them out of the armchair
and on to the place-to turn them into tourists. Later, the language of tourism gently talks to them
about the possible places they can visit by introducing various pull factors or attractions of
competing destinations. Thus, since much of this rhetoric is both logically and temporally prior
to any travel or sightseeing, one can legitimately argue that tourism is grounded in discourse.”

Discourse is a set of social practices performing meaning. Analysing a text from the discursive
point of view the observation of language in use that is socially situated and manipulated.
Debate on what expression should be used, we can distinguish between:
1. Restricted language (Wallace, 1981) that makes use of only certain senteces of the
generale language (e.g. the language of Air Traffic Control, based on standard messages
and set phrases).
2. Microlanguagewhich refers to a microcosm lacking the expressive potential of standard
language.
3. Special languages based on the use of specific rules and symbols different from those
of general language (e.g. Code Q, a non-linguistic code for telecommunication).
4. Jargon (linguaggisettoriali), advertisement, journalism, politics, sport = it’s a vague
definition.

Gotti proposes to adopt the term “specialized discourse” because the previous definitions do not
suit the language of tourism, characterized by a creative and varied nature, and in general
specialized discourse, which “may be distinguished from general language not for its use of
specific rules absent from general language, but for its greater use of such conventions” (Gotti,
2006). It possesses all the lexical, morpho-syntactic, phonetic and textual resources of
general language. These resources are employed (and sometimes hyper-employed) in the
construction of specialized texts ( secondoGottiquestepotenzialitàsonoregorlamenteutilizzate e
talvoltaiper-utilizzate).
Specialized discourse is not homogeneous: disciplinary variation produces not only special
lexical connotations, but also influences other aspects (morphosyntactic, textual and
pragmatic). There are three different situations in which a specialist addresses a topic related to
his profession:
1. The expert addresses to other specialists (they share a considerable amount of
knowledge with the frequent use of specialized terminology)
2. The expert addresses non-specialist to explain notions pertaining to their domain
illustrating the meaning of specialized lexis where necessary (textbooks and manuals).
3. The specialist provides information of a professional nature through everyday lexis, in
order to reach a wider audience (e.g. newspaper or magazine articles).

In the field of tourism:

 Highly specialized discourse used by experts to communicate to one another (specific
expression). For example written documents, professional meetings and telephone
conversations.
 Interaction between specialists and non-specialists (vocabulary items related to the
topic, but all the other discursive features are similar to everyday language). For example
 communication occurring in travel agencies, hotels; printed materials, such as newspaper
articles, tourist guides, etc.
 Monoreferentiality, in a given context one term has only one meaning (semantic
uniqueness, denotation prevails, every term signals a concept: the term cannot be replaced
by a synonym but only by its definition). The result is the need to create new terms (rather
than use existing terminology) to define new concepts without ambiguity. Examples taken
from the language of tourism (which has its own terminology to indicate for example the
latest types of services) such as tour operator (specialized companies which organize
holidays and tours) or package holidays (holidays arranged for a fixed price that includes
all main costs such as hotel, transport, meals etc.)
 Conciseness because concept are expressed in the shortest possible form: e.g. blending
that is merging two lexemes into a single term
Campsite (<Camping + site)
Ecotourism (<Ecological + tourism)
Motel (<Motor + hotel)
Motorail(<Motor + rail)
Travelodge (<Travel + lodge)

We can have also acronyms and abbreviation:

ETA (<Estimated Time of Arrival)
GMT (<Greenwich Mean Time)
ID (<Identity Document)
O/W (<One Way)

 Specialization of words borrowed from everyday language (semantic evolution). The

specialized meaning added to such terms often prevails over the general one:
Voucher:
a. Written document serving to attest the correctness of accounts or monetary
transactions (since 1696)
b. Receipt which can be exchanged for goods or services as token of payment made
(tourism).
 Use of metaphor (device to create terms drawn from general language): referring new
concepts to pre-existing items known to the interlocutor, avoiding lengthy conceptual
explanations. Among the advantages are transparency and conciseness. E.g. Island-
hopping(by ferry).
 Indebteness to other specialize languages, terms borrowed from other fields: this is a
result of the wide range of sectors that make up the field of tourism. E.g.
Economics(payment and commercial transactions), geography (tourist destinations),
history of art (terms for the description of monuments and sights), cuisine and
craftsmanship(names of food and crafts provided by guidebooks), transport.
 Emphatic language, generally specialized discourse is characterized by the lack of
emotive connotation: the tone is neutral when the informative purpose prevails. However,
when the pragmatic purpose is persuasive, the lexis used is emphatic and evaluative,
highlighting the positive features of the places described and the services offered (in tour
operators’ brochures and other advertising materials).
 Adjective, superlative forms such as climate/ crystal-clear water/ friendly locals/
delicious specialities/ breath-taking views/ idyllic golden beaches/ stunning beauty/
ideal holiday centre.
Example: California’s most popular attraction/ a very good buy/ totally unspoilt/ the
most peaceful of all the lakes.
SYNTACTIC FEATURES
 Expressive conciseness refers to compact syntactic feature, in order to obtain
shorter and clear expressions: avoiding relative clauses, which are replaced by
lexemes obtained by means of prefixes and suffixes. E.g. Self-catering
accommodation (= accommodation where you cook your own meals)
 Premodification, English employs righ-to-left construction which shortens
sentences and makes the noun phrase dense >nominal adjectivation : Tour
operator/ study holiday/ package holiday/ airline ticket/ hotel voucher/ wild-
life paradise/ charter flight/ travel centre/ first class fare.
Compounds consisting of two nouns that merged in a single term after a certain period of use:
Airline, railcard, timetable, travelcard(at first they were hyphenated). Not only nouns as
premodifiers: freshly laundered linen > linen (sheets) which have been recently washed and
ironed (a premodifying past participle premodified by an adverb). The spread of tourism at a global
level has favoured the use of English all over the world, also in other nations where it acts as
lingua franca, the main examples of loans are bungalow, camping, charter, duty free, check-in,
overbooking, tour operator, voucher

TEXTUAL FEATURES
 Text genres, there is a link between the type of specialized text and its rhetorical and
linguistic feature. The main text are:tourist guides (description of places; practical
information), travel articles in specialized journals or general magazines (they are more
subjective and their purpose is to give information), brochures and advertising material,
professional correspondence between agencies or between an agency and its
costumers, for example Business letters: formulaic verb patterns and international
structures with limited textuality, itineraries.
 Textual organisation, since texts consist of standardized sections (e.g. typical
itinerary: title, location, how to reach it, climate, accommodation options)

Maria Vittoria Calvi(2000) points out that the most interesting texts are those addressed to the
public, from reportage in travel journals or newspapers to brochures. According to Erik Castello
(2001) there are four text genres in the field of tourism:
 Website with low grammar intricacy
 Tourist Guides with high grammar intricacy, low sentence complexity, rare interrogative
forms and rare imperative forms
 Brochures with high sentence complexity and imperative forms
Magazines with frequent interrogative forms and low sentence complexity
Borders between text genres are blurred because brochures can be extended like catalogues or
synthetic (similar to depliants), brochures and articles sometimes have an online version.
Traditional definitions of genre are inadequate in dealing with the plurality which characterizes
tourist texts; we can apply to this aspects Bachtin’s notion of heteroglossiaor multivoicing. The
recognition of a genre is not aprioristic, but depends on the communicative discourse and depends
on use. The parameters to classify tourist text genres are:medium, stage of trip, target,
accessibility, reading function, reading modality, length, information update, cost.
MEDIUM can be:
a) oral, word-of-mouth (direct reports by other visitors), conferences, speeches by
explorers or experts, radio programmes
 b) written, through literary (travel books, novels etc.) or informational (popular writings,
academic treaties, ethnographies, etc.)
c) multimodal(combine more types), for example visual/sensory (paintings by famous
artists, prints, postcards, handicrafts and art work); audio and visual/sensory (TV, film
and video, folklore presentations); written and visual/sensory (guidebooks,
magazines, billboards, websites, advertisement, brochures). The interaction of visual
and verbal textualitycaptures the attention and fixes the message
STAGE OF TRIP:
a) Pre-trip texts (brochures, promotional function, orienting the reader’s choice)
promotional function orienting the reader's choice;
b) On-trip texts (maps, utilitarian purpose) map which has an utilitarian purpose
c) Post-trip texts (postcards and souvenirs)
d) Travel guides (informational purpose), which have an informational purpose, since
reading travel guides is a part of the process of preparation and anticipation
because it can allow us to imagine the destination (pre-trip and on-trip), they
represent a security blanket for survival in the unknown
TARGET, depends on age, social class, cultural background. Young travellers use the
web while adults pick up brochures, mass tourists find brochures satisfying and curious travellers
use travel guides (it is a form of distinction from package tourists, but their trip becomes
prepackaged because they use the guidebook to ensure safety).

ACCESSIBILITY:
a) Brochures are displayed and distributed in tourist agencies
b) Leaflets, in tourist agencies and tourism information points; distributed in social
places such as pubs or supermarkets.
c) Travel magazines, at the newsagent’s, a place typical of daily routine
d) Tourist guides, available in bookshops and libraries (non-tourism-related locations)
e) Websites

READING FUNCTION AND MODALITY

Why and how to read a specific text genres in order to choose a destination (look for
sophisticated stylistic features), to get information (give priority to content originality)
a) Guidebooks, consultation and wishful reading (double reading modality: Margarito,
2000)
b) Brochures readers are motivated and attentive readers: they purposely go to the tourist
agency

LENGTH, extended textuality characterizes brochures, magazines and guides (but these are a bit
longer)

COST, brochures, leaflets with a reduces cost and web pages with zero cost (free nature)

UPDATE INFORMATION:
a) Websites are frequently revised
b) Brochures are valid for a limited period only (e.g. one season)
c) Guidebooks are updated with less frequency
PRE-TRIP PROMOTION MATERIAL
Brochures structures:
 Cover, a conative function prevails (more space devoted to pictures that aim to
capture attention) but also a referential function with the company name, logo,
holiday destination
 Company self-introduction, focuses on expertise, qualities, set of beliefs to
show reliability and safety
 Contents, table of contents that lists the topics covered with reference pages
 Service presentation, tailored packages, extras, discounts, pre-booked tickets for
museums
 Holidays options (main body), tourist destination, accommodation options
 Conclusion with terms and conditions, logistic issues such as price, insurance
conditions, data protections
ANTI-CLIMAX, the reading process follows a top-bottom itinerary since: the cover is
peruasive(first gaze), the first section is more persuasive than informative, the central body
negotiates conative function and referential function because information are presented in a
catchy style (interaction verbal/visual), the final part is only referential with small letters because
a lot of information should be condensed and the reader’s attention has already been caught.

Il linguaggio delle brochures è caratterizzato da una serie di figure retoriche, it’smore

simpleand containsmore information compared to advertisement (funzione conativa e
referenziale).
Brochures have a double soul since they want to promote attractions and they want to inform
the reader about details of the attraction. When the purpose is to promote services or attractions,
the language is emphatic, rich in positive evaluative terms and in references to positive quantities;
format: book, booklet, electronic format, printed leaflet to be picked up. Advertisements are
persuasive: “advertere” (lat.) means turn towards, induce new direction and they are pre-trip
promotion material. There are two factors:
 Pull factors emerge from the attractiveness of a destination, including beaches,
recreation facilities and cultural attractions
  Push factors are intrinsic motivators: the desire for escape, rest and relaxation, prestige,
health and fitness, adventure and social interaction.
Advertising is generally used to give customers a reason for purchasing the company's product
and are supposed to fulfil 3 functions:
-informative advertising;
-persuasive advertising;
-reminder advertising.
 The Latin verb ''advertere'' means ''turn towards'' to induce a new direction. The preposition
pro- before the verb ''movere'' in the Latin root of the term ''promotion'' recalls the
motivating component of the movement in favour of something.
Advertising is less concerned with pull factors, which determine the transformation of a neutral
place into a tourist destination, and more concerned with tourist push factors, that is tourist
psychological motivations (tourist are motivated by their psychological needs).

There are four major theoretical perspectives on tourism:

1. The authenticity perspective: great importance is attributed to traditions, the past and
current local like
2. The strangerhoodperspective: focuses on the desire of modern person who wants to see
things that are different from his or her own reality
3. The play perspective: tourism as play. E.g. theme parks
4. The perspective of conflict and appropriation
(Each of these perspectives can be created through language)

In ADVERTISINGthe linguistic choices aim to create a particular rhetoric effect.

1. Tense, the temporal dimension can be realized through many linguistic elements such as
tense switching (from the past to the present to the future), the use of historic present,
the use of old-fashioned accents. Some ads may underline how the past is superior to
the present, which is unattractive. The addressee needs to escape to a more traditional
place (authenticity perspective: focus on traditions, the past, local life), a place with
slower rhythms (strangerhood perspective: desire to see different things from our reality),
a place where the past is still present (conflict perspective). On the other hand, some ads
are totally future-oriented
2. Resorting to magic (Dann, 1996), the magic dimension can be realized through various
linguistic means- syntactical, visual but especially lexical choices for example the names of
hotels and attractions (e.g. Mirabilandia) or the imperative mood that can be used to
create the spell effect (escape, forget, change, discover)
3. Euphoria technique, adjective are positive and glowing (extraordinary, great…) or have
positive quantity (more).
4. Creating contrasts: binary oppositions are used to reinforce the image of the location that
is marketed. For example past versus present
 5. Eco-targeting, the use of informal language and a conversational style in order to
single out the reader from the crowd thus making him fell unique or privilege. (E.g. Direct
forms of address to the reader: We’ll save you a seat/ Call)

All these verbal techniques satisfy the AIDA condition (= the fundamental requirement of
promotional material): capture Attention, maintain Interest, create Desire, get Action.
(Nöth, 1990/Dann, 1996)

If advertisements are the first contact between a location and future tourists, brochures
come not much later in the tourist cycle: sentences are simple, clear and to the point.
They contain more informational text compared to advertisements.

Post-tourism: the tourism scenario we are experiencing nowadays (M. Feifer, 1985), the
post-tourist character is aware of the playful essence of tourism experience; acts like a
child involved in a game (Dann, 1989); knows that he is a tourist and that tourism is a
series of games (Urry, 1990) and led to a symbolic relationship with the place
 The tossing of a coin in the Trevi fountain, deprived of superstition or credulity
(tossing a coin will ensure your return to Rome), is just a ludic post-tourist
behaviour.
 Visiting a city on horse-drawn carriage.
 Entering souvenirs shops.
Language play a crucial role in this post-tourism discourse and it does not have only a denotative
function. Nostalgia is a key approach in post-tourism discourse, it has two meanings:
1) As a disease: the word was coined in 1688 to describe the pathology of homesickness
and the cause is spatial distance from home.
2) Emotional longing for an earlier time, sees as the Golden Age that is a tension towards
a lost past. Nowadays, this second connotation of sentimentality is predominant.
These connotations are not totally different (spatial vs temporal), but conceptually intertwined.
The consequence is the coexistence of physical and emotional aspects.
Nostalgia is employed as a figure of discourse within tourism promotion in order to construct a
sense of physiological and psychological necessity for the destination (a push factor which acts
prospectively): a longing for a place which offers physical recovery and renewal. Nostalgia is
thematised by means of specific language patterns and provides a shelter to the discontinuity
of contemporary society, where four elements are perceived:
 A sense of historical decline
 A sense of loss of moral integrity
 A sense of loss of individual freedom
 A sense of loss of simplicity and authenticity

Description of Cinque Terre area in a brochure: “Their secluded location means the excesses of
the modern world pass them by. The villages are linked only by the railway, a winding mountain
road (la StradadeiSantuari) and a network of footpaths” >> resistance to a modern society
which has lost the authenticity of simple lifestyle.

Which place is longed for?

The object of nostalgia is home, the location of the self. It could seem paradoxical if we consider
that one of the aims of tourism is escapism since home is both the point of departure and the
point of arrival. Nostalgia prevents the post-tourism from a confrontation with the unknown
(avoid anxiety and discomfort). Brochures often promise British tourists they will find their home
in Italy:
1) Whichever you choose you can rest assured your property will be a “home from home” of
the very highest standard(IIB: 9)
2) Tuscany welcomes you: when you settle into a villa, you’ll likely experience the sensation
of discovering a new home, one you ever knew existed (VIB: 11)
3) Feel at home with Home in Italy (HIB: 3)
The following text uses indirectly the pattern “is home to” which means “offers the setting
to”: its rhythmic recurrence conveys the association between Tuscany and home in a
natural and automatic way: “It is home to that architectural marvel, the leaning Tower of
Pisa. It is home to the fascinating town of San Gimignano with no less than 13 towers of its
own. It is home to the walled city of Lucca surrounded by infamous towering ramparts and
the moat that has protected it for centuries (VIB: 7)

The term “home” is preferred to the more neutral “house”, because it recalls sentimental notions.
The reader is addressed in an informal and familiar way (use of cotractions)
1) “Whichever you choose you can rest assured your property will be ‘home from
home’ of the very highest standard” (IIB: 9)
2) “Tuscany welcomes you: when you settle in a villa, you’ll likely experience the
sensation of discovering a new home, one you never knew existed” (VIB: 11)
3) “Feel at home with Home in Italy” (HIB: 3)
Metaphors of womb, cradle, nest since the domestic space is articulated through the notions of
warmth and protection. Home is safety, in moments of difficulty and uncertainty and the holiday
destination is presented as a womb-like environment.
1) “The city of Todi is beautiful even from a distance, where it appears as if cradled(cullato)
between the two hills on either side” (VIB: 47)
2) “This charming converted farm-house nestles (sinasconde, siannida)in the valley just
below the sleepy town of Gualdo in the most delightful country setting “ (ContradaBartolotti,
IIB: 138)
3) “This attractive little town house is situated in the heart of ancient and charming Sarnano,
with its winding medieval streets” (Casa Marzialetti, IIB: 135)

Castello Banfi: “Nestled between the Orcia and Ombrone rivers, on the southern slope of
Montalcino, the Castello Banfi, family-owned vineyard and winery in the Brunello region of
Tuscany, is unique for its wine culture and tradition”

Tourist brochures emphasize the centrality of the costumer’s wishes and desires, treating him
as a child to be satisfied and for this reason texts promise him he will be spoilt. This fosters
customer’s egocentrism, the discourse if nostalgia enacts a self-centered longing for pleasure;
this leads to a sort of selfish closure, an attitude that prevents any genuine and dialogic
relationship to otherness.
Home is also a place where we have power and control (Western notion of property), the product
sold by the tourist industry is a commodified relation the other. Going on holiday in post-tourist
discourse is represented as a comfortable self-recognition and self-confirmation which relies on
a widespread system of values. Figurative representation of nostalgia through the visual
component of metaphors:
HOME WOMB Their function is to displace, to relocate the meaning of a
concept, to overcome
CRADLE the literal meaning and move to a figurative context. Metaphors
consist of two
NEST elements: the concept to be expressed and the image (that is
called vehicle).

The main features of metaphors are:syntactic conciseness and straightforward

communicative power(referring new concepts to pre-existing items known to the interlocutor,
avoiding lengthy conceptual explanations). Metaphors are generally employed in advertising in
order to “detach” everyday objects from their ordinary context, in order to emphasise their
extraordinariness. Actually, a tourist site is already displaced from everyday life and does not
require a metaphors to confer exotic connotations. Actuallytourist metaphors present the
promoted place through an object which is familiar and known (Dann, 1996), reducing the
spatial and cultural distance in order to reduce the fear of unknown: the resort is made closer
and the reader is made more comfortable. However, presenting the destination as a “home
away from home” risks associating the resort with everyday boredom; this is reason why when
brochures want to emphasize the glamorous extraordinariness of a place, or to convey the
image of exclusiveness draw on the semantic field of jewels:
1) “Renowned for its profusion of enchanting hilltop towns, the region is home to Italy’s finest
medieval jewels including Assisi, the birthplace of St Francis” (Discovering Umbria, MIB:
23)
2) “Explore the hillside villages hosting historical gems, and relax on magnificent beaches
[…]”
3) “An emerald isle resting on a sapphire sea, brushed by soft beaches and licked by
laughing waves” (Sardinia)
4) “The ferry port in the Marina Piccola provide connections to Naples and Capri and an
opportunity to view from the sea the dramatic and lovely coast-line with its varied
landscape and its necklace of historic towns” (TIB: 28)
 5) “Birthplace of the Renaissance, Florence is one of the world’s most exciting and exuberant
cities with architectural treasures around virtually every corner” (TCB: 19)>treasure is a
hyperonymof “jewel” while gems, emeralds, sapphires, crown and necklaces are
hyponyms.

These metaphors carry positive connotations: they have a powerful emotive impact on the
readership. They enhance the local, historical and natural heritage, highlighting: the
destination’s intrinsic value, the social distinction acquired through the holiday experience and
the timeless holiday dimension.

1) “Renowned for its profusion of enchanting hilltop towns, the region is home to Italy’s finest
medieval jewels including Assisi, the birthplace of St Francis” (Discovering Umbria, MIB:
23)
2) “Explore the hillside villages hosting historical gems, and relax on magnificent beaches
[…]. Most of the inland villages possess something of artistic or scenic interest, many
housing important historic remains” (“Puglia”, PAB: 48).

These metaphors connote the historical heritage emphasizing the uniqueness of the place: local
history is depicted as precious and rare. The adjectives medieval and historical underline the
atemporal features of the items (eternal and timeless objects); on the other hand, to prevent
from conveying the idea of cold and snobbish luxury, the expressions “housing”, “hosting”,
“home to” give the impression of a warm atmosphere.
3) “Birthplace of the Renaissance, Florence is one of the world’s most exciting and exuberant
cities with architectural treasures around virtually every corner” (TCB: 19)
The metaphor “treasure” underlines the remarkable variety of Florence architecture and conveys
the idea of preservation of these architectural works since a treasure is carefully protected.

4) “An emerald isle resting on a sapphire sea, brushed by soft beaches and licked by
laughing waves- a mountainous interior where the untamed terrain retains scenes of
unhurried rural grace and secluded corners of undisturbed tranquillity- this is Sardinia”
(CIB: 148)
Metaphors of valuable gemstones to celebrate Sardinia’s natural richness. “Emerald” and
“sapphire” have been chosen for the chromatic association with the natural land and with the
sea: nature is described as unspoilt and pure. These notions are confirmed by expressions such
as “secluded corners of undisturbed tranquillity”.

5) “Porto Cervo is the jewel in a glittering crown” (CIB: 149)

It depicts the exclusive Sardinian resort of Porto Cervo, celebrating the beauty of the single village
and the surrounding area. Crowns are linked to social and political status: they convey the idea
of power.

6) “The ferry port in the Marina Piccola provide connections to Naples and Capri and an
opportunity to view from the sea the dramatic and lovely coast-line with its varied
landscape and its necklace of historic towns” (TIB: 28)
The figure of the necklace suggests the linear and harmonious disposition of towns along the
“lovely coastline”. Sites are not casually scattered on the landscape but accurately disposed in
order to be easily enjoyed by visitors.

The construction of rhythm of nostalgia is based on the use of alliteration. Repetition plays a
crucial role: it induces a sense of security, since it relies on the pattern of recurrence that
prevents tourists from facing the unknown. At the prosodic levelwe speak of alliteration since the
patterning of sound has a powerful emotional and mnemonic effect (Cook, 2001). Alliteration
occurs through the repetition of initial sounds in two or more different words across sentences,
clauses or phrases: “the repetition of the same initial consonant sound in a string of words of a
text” (The Routledge Dictionary). Juxtaposition may occur in adjacent words (immediate
juxtaposition) or in non-adjacent words (non-immediate juxtaposition).
 “Spectacular Sorrento has an unrivalled location, looking out over the Bay of Naples with
superb views of Mount Vesuvius” (PAB: 30)
 “Sensational Sicily” (TCB: 88)
Repetition of the voiceless sound “s” : immediate juxtaposition in the adjective-noun structure.

 “Sights, sounds and smells- the daily texture of this unique corner of the worlds” (VIB: 3).
It emphasizes specific Italian aspects. “Sights”, “sounds” and “smells” are linked by the reference
to sensorial perception and by the same initial sound.

 “The main town of Sorrento is full of contrasts with narrow streets and alley-ways to stroll
through, sophisticated shops and numerous restaurants encircling the main square Piazza
Tasso” (KUB: 46)
Immediate juxtaposition: sophisticated shops (it is cohesive and provides memorability to the
message).
Non-immediate juxtaposition: Sorrento, streets, stroll, square (it provides a rhythmic flow).

Alliteration captures the reader’s attention and fixes the message in his mind, since it adds
cohesion and rhythm to the text and confers a tone of familiarity to the message. Rhythm is
based on recognizable recurrence, which induces a pleasant and comfortable attitude in the
reader.
KEY-ADJECTIVES
They allow the writer to enter into the reader’s mind and capture his attention, they have a
connotative meaning. Along with those adjectives referring to destination features (wonderful,
delicious, etc), we can consider the adjectives that act as push-factors, anticipating the tourist’s
emotional, psychological and sensorial reaction to the holiday experience: they are active
participial adjectives (they end in –ing) and give a connotation of dynamism to the noun: e.g.
enchanting, which anticipates the effect the visit has to the tourist. They confirm the discourse of
nostalgia in its dual connotation:
 Clinical: regenerating, relaxing, strengthening, purifying
 Emotional: intriguing, fascinating, stunning, overwhelming >They intersect sensorial and
psychological aspects.

The memorability of the holiday experience is suggested by:impressive, lasting, memorable,

unforgettable. Nostalgia is conceived as a circular process made up of three stages:
1. Attraction or pulling (inviting, intriguing)
2. Capture (fascinating, charming, overwhelming)
3. Captivation (memorable, eternal, unforgettable)
There are different registers:
 The register of nostalgia
 The register of health
 The register of food and drink
 The register of eco-tourism

Brochures
 Brochures can vary remarkable, both in format, style and purpose. Some brochures are
meant to inform, others to attract, other to do both.
Their format can also be very diverse. They may be printed in book or booklet format, or
in electronic format. They may be in full colour or in black and white, they may contain
many pictures or a lot of text.
Here sentences are generally simple, short and to the point; they lack the verb and rely on
adjectives and nouns to convey the relevant message. Adjectives and nouns become very
important keywords.
At the same time, brochures contain more informational text compared to advertisements,
because they also serve the purpose of providing ''further information'' about the attraction
or destination at issue.
The promotional function of brochures can be more or less prominent.
Sometimes brochures can serve the function of presenting a product or a destination that
the costumer has already chosen, and the language appears to be more objective; even an
objective brochure is going to present its subject in positive terms, and it can aspire to
become a promotional tool for the product, attraction or destination that it portrays.
 The language of tourism is recognized as a type of specialized discourse for several
reasons, among which are the use of specialized vocabulary, of specific expressions and
the highly codified nature of textual genres adopted in the professional domain. The
language is emphatic and rich in very positive terms and in references to positive
quantities. Brochures have a ''double soul'':
they want to promote attractions but also to inform the reader about details of the attraction
they feature.
 According to Uzzell (1984) push factors precede pull factors. Tourists are often motivated
by their own psychological need; for this reason, promotional materials lock into the
 motivational requirements of the tourist through a skilful use of keywords that end up
reflecting more the potential visitor's expectations than the real destination.
 Ads, brochure and other genres of tourism texts tend to have a regular structure; thus, adv
have a slogan and images, brochures would not be brochures without an informative
section.

Guidebooks
Guidebooks are both pre-trip and on-trip informational material, they should not be considered
promotional material, since they are meant to be reference material, with an informational
purpose rather than a conative function. Guidebooks are the least persuasive and the most
univocal of the representation modes of tourist discourse (Fodde and Dentu, 2005): “Their
discourse is characterized by the total absence of immediate feedback. In fact, they cannot be
considered as an offer tout court, because the reader/consumer has generally already made
his/her choice”. (p.117) Guidebooks are used when tourists have already arrived at their
destination or immediately before the arrival (pre-trip and on-trip stages), this is why the
function of a guidebook in mainly referential or informational. Guidebooks are both cultural and
practical:
 The region under consideration is introduced by one or more sections providing a varying
amount of information on the geography, history, art, culture and nature of the area.
 The cultural overview is generally followed by a few pages containing practical
information, with recommendations for restaurants and hotels and tips about practical
matters such as postage, transport, currency etc. Practical information is plain and
simple in style, but interesting in unveilingcross-cultural differences.

Since the function of a guidebook is mainly referential or informational, the use of an objective
language is preferred. Nevertheless, the language and style of some guidebooks is comparable to
that of promotional brochures.
Evaluation
Conversational style:
 Information in the form of literary description and narration.
 Linguistic elements that reveal the presence of the author-
Guidebooks may differ in register and style: some provide more subjective portrait of
destinations, while others tend to state facts in a more detached way.
Tourist guidebooks allow us to observe the dynamics of cross-cultural
representation:difference between the homeland country and the destination. The
construction of the image of the “other” is carried out mainly through language. The idea of the
intended public: texts do not simply address an anonymous customer since they tend to create
the image of an ideal target. Hence, they contain reference to senses, describing tastes,
smells and textures. Guidebooks, as their name suggest, have a leading function: travellers
read them with an inquiring attitude and receive protective answers; some guidebooks give
instructions and advice on what to see and provide a subjective description (interaction
between the traveller and the guidebook). Guidebooks have a “maternal function” (tourist as a
child, Dann-1989), he/she evolves under the guidance of the writer. Socialization purpose, which
is more prominent in subjective guidebooks; when the writer use the first person narration, he
take on the role of guide through a journey (in space, but also in culture). The author’s voice
takes on a pedagogical value: the author becomes a teacher who instructs the reader and tells
him what is appropriate and what is not. The language of tourism is a form of language of social
control; it is performed not only through instructions (imperative mood) and advice, but also
through the subjective description of the destination and its culture. Evaluative elements
highlight the cultural clash (or gap) between the home-culture of the tourist and the foreign
destination. The author is a mediator: he translates the foreign culture into the culture of the
traveller (Cronin, 2000).

REPRESENTATION OF THE OTHER:

 Metaphors, similes and comparisons to reduce the cultural distance, creating a bridge
between two placesince they compare aspects of the destination culture with aspects of
the tourist’s culture, or with famous place for example San Gimignano, a Reinaissance
Manhattan.
 Stereotypes or appellative clichés in order to make a “reassuring contact with the reader
in the presence of cross-cultural differences” (Margarito, 2000). They are labels that help
identify and understand a place for example Italy has boot.

In guidebooks both positive and negative evaluations are provided, where as in brochure a
laudatory tone prevails. Sometimes the reader is discourages from visiting a certain place or
attraction, as example: “The sea isn’t as clean as it might be, and the closer you get to the mouth
of the Arno and Livorno, the less savoury it becomes” (Cadogan Guide, p.261). There is also the
presence of colloquialism (to convey a sense of belonging between the reader and the
destination) and irony (to show the writer’s participation in the tourist experience and to create
a bond between the writer and the reader):
 Italy as food-obsessed;
 A Stuffed Christmas stocking;
 Swilling; loosen that belt;
Informal lexical items sometimes build an ironic tone. Irony is more prominent when the gap
between the two cultures is wider. Often it has a benevolent nuance; but sometimes it can turn
into satire, highlighting the contrast between the superior homeland and the inferior foreign
destination.

THE TOURIST GAZE (John Urry, 2002)

A model of perception tourists adopt while performing the practice of sightseeing. It acts as a
lens which (de)codifies new images by working with pre-given and planned filters: guidebooks,
pictures and postcards fix the reality of a tourist resort. It is more a textual construction
intended as a confirmation of previous sights than an autonomous and critical gaze. The tourist
gaze is based on a process of legitimation: tourist guide provide lists of must-see destinations;
sightseeing has been deprived from its unpredictable and natural aspect and systematized. The
tourist gaze is circular since “travellers demonstrate they really have been there by showing
their versionof the image they had seen before they set off” (Urry); in fact, pictures and
postcards play a crucial role. Hence, the visualisation of a tourist resort is not a form of
individual perception but a confirmation of pre-existing images (cross-cultural encounters are
based on a set of systematised socio-cultural beliefs). The British tourist gaze on Italy is
informed by the notion of extraordinariness, which is the result of discursive practices
combined with historical, geographical, political and socio-cultural issues. The British tourist
gaze upon Italy has been shaped by the Grand Tour, practised by the sons of the aristocracy as
a sort of a rite of passage to enter the adult society; the image of Italy was the result of a
simplified and emotional gaze; tourists come to Italy expecting medieval romance, eternal
Mediterranean sun and romantic ruins. (Vestito, 2005). The image of a feminine Italy (Buzard),
in contrast with Nothern Europe: beauty of its landscape, warmth of the climate, welcoming
attitude of its inhabitants. Italy is inscribed with the Mediterranean area, embracing France,
Spain and Greece: tourists are attracted by the 3S formula that is Sea, Sand, Sunand by the
unique cultural heritage and by its proximity. The Italian southern regions beyond Naples
were excluded from the Grand Tour, because they were perceived as dangerous, unsafe,
barbaric. The British knowledge of the Italian territory was mainly urban (Venice, Padua,
Florence and Rome were visited for example). Urban centres were home to artistic treasures;
this perception leads to the use of stereotyped adjectivation. Margarito speaks of clichés
d’appellation, labels with a high degree of generalisation which help memorization:
 Rome, the eternal city;
 Puglia, the heel of Italy; codified and widespread formulae.

THE CONTEMPORARY GAZE: British people are still attracted to Italy for art and landscape, but
romantic contemplation has been replacedby a search for the authentic:
 Interest in country restaurants, farm holidays, Venice narrow and quiet streets.
 Southern Italy is becoming increasingly attractive.
 Sophistication is rejected.
The language of tourism as specialized discourse
Interest in specialized discourse dates back to the early decades of linguistic investigation. In the
1920s-1930s, scholars belonging to the Prague school turned their attention to the so-called
''functional style'' which characterises scientific and technical discourse, they approach was
conservative.
The communicative situation combines several contextual factors, making it difficult to attribute a
given linguistic feature to a single originating factor. These genres are highly codified and typically
exhibit standardised; there are also less predictable genres which allow for a greater degree of
spontaneity and variation, both in content and expressiveness (economic discourse, legal
discourse, scientific discourse, etc).
The choice of terminology may appear secondary but is in fact central, because of the close link
between term and referent which also reflects different ways of looking at language from a
theoretical standpoint. Sometimes specialized discourse has been thought comparable to the
''restricted language''. However, the term ''restricted code'' cannot be applied to the language of
tourism because the latter exploits the language code in a far more creative and varied way.
Elsewhere, the term ''special languages'' has been used; an example in this class is Code Q, which
is used in the telecommunications sector. But here the code is non-linguistic, even if it involves
numbers and punctuation marks borrowed from language, it follows independent conventions.
The term ''special language'' could also be applied to languages sharing the communicative
conventions of a given language but also possessing other conventions which are not part of these
resources. However this term cannot be applied to the language of tourism because it may be
distinguished from general language not for its use of special linguistic rules absent from general
language but for its more specific use of such conventions. The term ''microlanguage'', often
employed in specialized discourse studies, is also inappropriate for its reference to a microcosm
lacking the expressive richness of standard language.
The world of specialized discourse is by no means as homogenous as it may at first appear. There
is a clear distinction between different specialized languages. Language is not a uniform entity but
contains many varieties, common rules and features of specialized discourse coexist with specific
ones separating each variety from the others.
There is a further distinction to be made in the field of specialized language, which determines its
level of specialization, there are 3 different situations in which a specialist may address a topic
relating to his profession:
1. the expert addresses other specialists to debate issues within his professional field, to discuss a
project, report results, etc; if they share a considerable amount of knowledge they can use a
specialized terminology;
2. the specialists address non-specialists to explain notions pertaining to their domain, illustrating
the meaning of specialized lexis whenever it occurs for the first time (textbooks, instruction
manuals);
3. the specialist provides information of a professional nature mainly through everyday lexis, to
reach out a wider audience (newspaper, magazine articles).
Also the language of tourism has different levels of expression:
1. this language represents an instance of highly specialized discourse used by experts in the field
of tourism to communicate to one another (specific expressions, codified textual genres), for
example in written documents, professional meetings etc;
2. interactions between specialists and non-specialists tend to be more similar to general discourse
(vocabulary items related to the topic, but all the other discursive features are more in common
with everyday language), for example in travel agencies, hotels, printed materials and oral
communicative events.
Monoreferentiality: This term is not used here to idnicate that each term has only one referent,
indeed specialized lexis stands out not only for its limited, highly specific occurrence but also for its
semantic uniqueness; denotation is prevalent, the term and concept are related and the term
cannot be substituted by a synonym but only by its definition or a paraphrase.
The need for a single referent generally means that users are forced to create new terms, rather
than use existing terminology to define new concepts without ambiguity or misunderstandings.
The language of tourism has developed its own terminology to express new concepts, like tour
operator and package holidays, the former refers to specialized companies which organize
holidays and tours; the latter refers to holidays arranged for a fixed price (hotel, transport, meals
and entertainment).
Conciseness : concepts are expressed in the shortest possible form, as for example blending, that
is, in the process of merging 2 lexemes into a single term -> Campsite= camping+site;
Ecotourism= ecological+tourism; Motel= motor+hotel.
Sometimes conciseness in the language of tourism relies on acronyms and abbreviations: ID=
identity document; O/W= one way.
Semantic evolution: very often originates from the specialisation of word meanings in the general
language; the specialized meaning added to such terms often prevails over the general one:
voucher-> a word used since 1696 to indicate a written document serving to attest the correctnes
of accounts or monetary transactions; in tourism it is a receipt which can be exchanged for goods
or services as token of payments made.
Indebtedness to other specialized languages: great indebtedness to semantic fields belonging
to other specialized languages; several terms have also been borrowed from other fields most
closely linked to tourism. The most common specialized languages whose lexis occurs in tourism
discourse are economics (payments), geography ( describing tourist resorts and destinations), the
history of art (description of monuments and other important sights), cuisine and craftsmanship
(typical specialities), transport.
Emphatic language: a feature of specialized languages often highlighted in the literature is their
lack of emotive connotations; the tone is neutral, the informative purpose prevails. However, the
lack of emotion prevails whenever a text is usually mainly informative. if the pragmatic purpose is
persuasive, the emphasis on emotion surfaces also in specialized texts. This highlights the
pragmatic purpose of discourse.
The lexis used is often very emphatic and highly evaluative, usually extolling the positive features
of the places described and the services offered. Examples: unique shopping centre/ smart
boutiques / welcoming pubs.
Adjectives superlative forms: friendly locals/ breath-taking views.
Syntactic features:
Expressive conciseness: Compact syntactic structure in order to obtain shorter and clear
expressions, to avoid relative clauses and make the sentence structure ''lighter''. A possibility is the
substitution of relative clauses with lexemes obtained by means of affixation;
the prefixes and suffixes adopted have precise semantic values: InterCity sleeper= an InterCity
train in which you can sleep.
These processes obey the criteria of conciseness and transparency; the resulting expressions are
shorter than the original ones containing relative clauses.
Premodification: the phenomenon of relative clause reduction shows a frequent switch from
postmodification to premodification. This transition is straightforward in English because its
syntactic rules allow several adjectival uses of phrasal elements. English can easily employ right-
to-left construction, which shortens sentences and makes the noun phrase especially dense: tour
operator / airline ticket.
Compounds consisting of 2 short nouns soon merge into a single term after a certain period of use
(airline, railcard, timetable, travelcard). This noun phrase contains a premodifying past participle,
which is premodified by an adverb : Freshly laundered linen= linen which has recently been
washed and ironed.
Text genres: in the world of tourism. the most typical genres are:
1. Tourist guides: aimed at the traveller or visitor, they contain descriptions of places (history,
monuments), practical information (means of transport, times of opening).
2. Articles in specialized journals and general magazines which give information about places, they
also provide details of various offers for the same destination comparing prices, services offered
and their quality; their descriptions tend to be subjective.
3. Brochures and other advertising materials: their main aim is to attract the holidaymarker /
traveller in order to sell tourist ''products'', such as flights; their aim is persuasive.
4. Itineraries: a typical leaflet provides detailed information about the places to be visited, the
activities offered during a package tour organized for a specific group or costumer.
5. Professional correspondences: used by individual agencies to communicate with other
agencies, tour operators, hotels, etc.