SPE-WVS-218

The Impact of Layering on Production Predictions from Observed Production Signatures,

Shushufindi Project, Ecuador
Chip Corbett, SPE, Jean-Paul Lafournere, SPE, Jorge Bolanos, SPE, Maria Janeth Bolanos, SPE, Mik Frorup, SPE,
Gustavo Marin, SPE, Schlumberger
Section: #8 - Reservoir Characterization/Reservoir Description (Part 1)
This paper was prepared for presentation at the 2013 SPE WVS Second South American Oil and Gas Congress held in Porlamar, Edo. Nueva Esparta, Venezuela, 22–25 October 2013.

This paper was selected for presentation by the SPE Western Venezuelan Petroleum Section Program Committee, following review of information contained in an abstract submitted by the
author(s). Contents of the paper have not been reviewed by the SPE Western Venezuelan Petroleum Section Program Committee and are subject to correction by the author(s). The material does
not necessarily reflect any position of SPE Western Venezuelan Petroleum Section, its officers, or members. Electronic reproduction, distribution, or storage of any part of this paper without written
consent of the SPE Western Venezuelan Petroleum Section is prohibited. Permission to reproduce in print is restricted to an abstract of not more than 300 words; illustrations may not be copied.

Abstract
The Shushufindi field (Fig. 1) was discovered in 1972 and is sparsely developed, with only 181 wells covering an area of
approximately 400 km2. Recovered whole core from the well SSF-151D presents very thin streaks of quartz material, along with
carbon and amber, which form vertical permeability barriers in the cored section, approximately one inch thick. Production
profiles for many wells in the field present a very gradual increase in the water cut from an active edgewater drive aquifer and
demonstrate a layered system. This implies that the vertical permeability barriers are areally extensive, and that they have a
substantial impact on production predictions and development scenarios. The challenge for the subsurface team is to represent
these thin barriers in a predictive simulation model.

A standard Kv:Kh ratio is insufficient to mimic the

observed production response. A very fine-scale
geomodel could be considered but is computationally
expensive. Vertical transmissibility multipliers are useful
in a simulation model, but experiments demonstrate that
the lateral extent of the barriers is discontinuous.
Diagnostic plots of the well water/oil ratio (WWOR)
versus the cumulative liquid production (WLPT) can
identify groups of wells with layered production profiles.
This information provides a basis to infer the potential for
a layered production response from existing well logs. To
introduce such discontinuities, a series of randomly
generated vertical baffles have been created which
provide an improved simulation response in a relatively
coarse simulation model.

Fig. 1: The Shushufindi field location, Oriente Basin, Ecuador Early water breakthrough, and excessive water production
in some wells caused premature re-completions into other
zones. This type of sub-surface modeling provides support for the introduction of intelligent completions to isolate specific layers
as part of the development plan.

This paper presents the techniques implemented by the team, the results to date, and a prognosis for the future of the field.

Introduction
The Shushufindi field, located in the Oriente basin of Ecuador, has been under production since 1972. There are only about 181 wells
in the field, providing a roughly 125-acre well density. One of the interesting features of the reservoir is revealed in the recovered
whole core from the SSF-151D well (Fig. 2).
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The core clearly shows white streaks of quartz material, along with
carbon and amber, un-invaded by hydrocarbons which represent a
correlatable vertical permeability barrier. These barriers are on the
order of one inch thick. An analysis of the production profile for the
well SSF-094 shows a very gradual increase in the water cut (Fig. 3),
the ratio of the daily water production rate to the daily oil production
rate. This is very difficult to match using traditional variations in the
vertical to horizontal permeability ratio (Kv:Kh).
In this paper, a technique is presented to address layering schemes in a
full-field model, which may be sufficient to represent the flow
characteristics of the fine-scale model without having to resort to the
generation of micro-layers. These vertical barriers have a substantial
impact on production predictions and development scenarios considered
for this field.

Fig. 2: Recovered whole core from SSF-151D showing thin

impermeabile barriers

Fig. 3: Water cut history for the SSF-094 well.

Micro-Layer Models
Geomodels have advanced over the years from coarse to progressively finer layering schemes. Originally a 'layer cake' model might
have a single layer to represent a flow unit, and those flow units might be very thick, perhaps on the order of tens of feet. Geocellular
models facilitated the introduction of sub-layers at scales conformant with the resolution of standard logging devices, perhaps
something on the order of two-foot to five-foot thick sub-layers would be sufficient to mimic the vertical heterogeneity of the logging
devices.
However, nature is not forgiving to the geoscientist, and real-world variations occur at progressively finer scales, right down to the
atomic level (Tidwell 2000). In the recovered core from the SSF-151D well it is clear that impermeable layers exist at a thickness of
one to two inches (Fig. 2).
Typically, such a thin item might be safely ignored in an upscaled simulation model. However, the paleo-depositional environment
for this field is extremely challenging. The Shushufindi field (SSFD) covers an area that, in the Cretaceous era, encompased a near-
shore shallow marine setting that appears to have substantially tidal dominated elements (Slatt 2006). Elongated sand ridges form in a
generally N45W orientation.
Within the modern field extent, at different times during the depositional history, various elements were present including a shallow
marine environment, sand bars from longshore currents, shoreface sands, the previously mentioned tidal dominated estuaries, fluvial
channels, and marshlands.
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The complexity of this environment is captured in a

modern-day depositional analog (Fig. 4). Various
elements would have been located in different spatial
locations during the cyclical depositions. However,
depending upon the eustatic sea level, this area
periodically experienced relatively short durations of
extremely low energy environments that gave rise to
marshlands and perhaps brackish water forests, similar to
mangrove forests today.
The evidence for this conjecture lies in the sedimentary
record, where thin coal streaks are present, and quite
surprisingly, a distinct concentration of amber is
observable both in the coal streaks (Fig. 5) and in the
extremely thin fine-grained siltstone impermeable layers.
Tree sap, which may have come from allogenic
continental sources moved downstream with very finely
grained quartz and could have been captured in a coastal
Fig. 4: Modern day depositional analog for the field. swamp or deposited on tidal flats.
However, the sap may have come
from marshy near-shore coniferous
forests as dscribed by Greg et al.,
where sap would have simply fallen
off the trees and come to rest at
precisely the position where we have
found it in our recovered whole core
(Greg 2006); essentially an
extremely low energy depositional
environment. These thin,
impermeable layers are thus areally
extensive and have the potential to
substantially impede vertical fluid
migration.
One could construct a geomodel
Fig. 5: Very fine layering with yellow amber in coal streaks and a microscope photograph
with millimeter-thick sub-layers to (x100) clearly showing the amber.
mimic this observed layering, and
call it a micro-layer model. With such a system, the lateral extent of the impermeable layers could explicitly be defined, if it were
known. Unfortunately, the number of cells in such an exercise quickly becomes unwieldy, especially for a full-field model.
Many investigators have presented very elegant techniques to upscale geomodels, and typically these efforts involve three-
dimentional averaging of adjacent cells after some consideration of the similarity of adjacent layers (Li 2000). For this field, the total
number of vertical layers is relatively small, and apparent flow units can be inferred from the petrophysical results, which then leaves
the question of upscaling within the flow units to the discretion of the simulation engineer. The flow between adjacent flow units is
of critical importance, and the question of how to adequately characterize vertical permeability barriers is addressed below.
Transmissibility Multipliers to Impede Vertical Flow
Traditionally reservoir engineers are accustomed to
introducing a vertical flow reduction by the use of a
vertical to horizontal permeability ratio, Kv:Kh. As
is shown for the well SSF-094 (Fig. 6), this is clearly
not sufficient even at excessive Kv:Kh ratios as high
as 1:1000. Vertical flow could be impeded by
introducing low or non-permeable sub-layers, but
without the use of a micro-layering scheme, the
volume reductions would be excessive.
Commercial dynamic fluid-flow simulation engines
contain many techniques which may be applied to
address unusual reservoir behaviors. A particularly
useful example of this is the transmissiblity
multiplier. For a full-field model it is advantageous Fig. 6: Various Kv:Kh ratios in the simulation do not match the observed water
to modify the vertical transmissibility to impede cut data.
4 [SPE-WVS-218]

vertical flow using the keyword MULTZ (Schlumberger, 2012). The keyword implies that fluid flow is impeded at the cell face,
which has no thickness in the simulation model and does not required the introduction of additional cells into the dynamic fluid-flow
simulation calculations, thus eliminating the need for a micro-layer model.

Fig. 7: Transmissibility multiplier baffles shown in red.

The introduction of a zero transmissibility multiplier cell prevents vertical flow, constraining flow to only the horizontal layer (IJ)
directions. The green curve in the example (Fig. 7) shows the impact of a zero vertical flow imposed at each sub-layer in the
geomodel. The result is much closer to the observed production behavior.

Vertical Flow Baffles

One of the interesting features of the observed water cut is that it progresses in a relatively smooth fashion and takes a very long time
to reach a maximum value, typically on the order of ten years. The water-cut curve developed using zero vertical flow barriers across
the entire field does not have the same behavior (Fig. 7). Water influx from each sub-layer is constrained to only that sub-layer and
provides a distinct jump as the water breaks through at the well.
Fine-scale geomodeling software tools (Hoffman 2013) provide various random distribution schemes and can generate a series of
zero and one values in a three-dimentional grid. These data values can be exported as an ascii file in a format compatable with the
reservoir simulation engine. Although the 3D grid assumes that these values represent a block volume, the simulation input file can
be modified to represent the MULTZ (or MULTZ-) keyword which then implies that the data values actually represent one face of a
three dimensional block, in this case the top or bottom of the block respectively, depending on the keyword used. A zero value in the
transmissibility multiplier introduces a vertical flow baffle, whereas the value of one allows vertical flow as would normally be
calculated between adjacent cells.
With such a system, a series of baffle realizations can be considered. For this
study, the extremes were addressed as a fully sealing system (no vertical flow)
and a 50% random baffle system, neither of which was optimal. Various
intermediate systems provided baffle densities from 100% down to 50%, and
it was found that for the particular grid studied, a baffle density of about 80%
provided a reasonable match to the observed well water production rates.
For this example, a normally distributed random value with a mean value of
zero and a standard deviation of two provided a grid as shown (Fig. 8). A
calculator script has reduced all values in excess of one back down to one.
For this particular example, the red curve (Fig. 7) shows a much smoother
behavior, similar to the observed data, and an improvement on the zero
vertical flow example. Additional runs allow for a general scoping of the
density of no-flow barriers.
Additionally, the transmissibility multiplier itself can be considered as a
variable. Assisted history match (AHM) software tools (Schulze-Reigert
2013) provide techniques to introduce and adjust variables in a simulation
Fig. 8: Uniform and Random distributions in a 3D grid. data deck. Taking the absolute value of the transmissibility multiplier as an
[SPE-WVS-218] 5

uncertain value between zero and one, a series of simulation runs were performed using a Markov Chain Monte Carlo simulation to
inspect the impact of variations. In the end, a fixed zero and one value set was determined to be sufficient for this simulation case.

Production Signatures
Other wells in the field exhibit similar
behaviors. Taking a look at some of the wells
closest to the SSF-094, there is a very similar
behavior for the well SSF-069 on a
normalized well water cut (WWCT) curve.
However in that same plot other wells, such
as SSF-127D and SSF-128D show behavior
that is more consistent with vertical flow in a
less highly layered system. This behavior is
most clearly illustrated by a plot of the well
water-oil ratio (WWOR) against the
cumulative liquid production (WLPT) as
shown (Fig. 9) (Flores 2008).
Expanding this analysis to all wells in the
field, we can see specific areas that exhibit a Fig. 9: Diagnosic plot of water-oil ratio to cumulative liquid production.
highly layered system and, from that, infer
the areal extent of these features. A comparison to the geologic depositional model provides a logic for the existence of these features
and a method to expand the areal extent across under-developed portions of the field. Specific areas can then be evaluated with the
baffled system described above and these results will provide a more realistic representation of the predicted cumulative fluid
production.

Impact on Field Development Planning

The field development plan (FDP) is complex and must consider several development options. The apparent existence of laterally
extensive permeability barriers has distinct implications for the types of well trajectories considered in this field. The field, at present,
has a sparse well density with wells spaced at a nominally 125-acre spacing (about 2,750 ft between wells). Infill wells are planned
to increase the well density to about a 60-acre spacing, and
this would be convenient if the waterflood pilot indicates that
an inverted five-spot pattern would be beneficial. However,
the FDP has already considered that there is room for
additional infill opportunities, and these wells might be
placed between the existing wells at a mid-point between
them (Fig. 10).
The Shushufindi field is located in an environmentally
sensistive Amazon rainforest. Each of the development wells
in the field are planned to be drilled from surface pads, with
several wells per pad, to reduce the environmental impact on
the area. The initial pads in the field supported six wells, and
this may be increased to ten wells or more per pad.
Because each well will need to be deviated to reach the target Fig. 10: Planned well trajectories at a common intersection point
within the reservoir, we have several options for the
trajectory of the well at the target intersection. Currently wells are drilled in an s-shaped pattern so that they are near vertical as they
progress through the target zones. Wells are typically drilled though each of the U sands (U Superior and U Inferior) and the T sands
(T Superior and T Inferior) as the additional cost is minimal to achieve an initial contact with each of the prospective reservoirs.
However, it would be relatively straightforward to plan a well trajectory so that it reached the target zone at a specific deviation angle,
and then maintained that angle through the zone of interest. Using a simulation model with the baffle system described above, a series
of well trajectories was tested through an example zone of interest in the U Inferior. The wells were designed to pass through the
mid-point of the U Inferior precisely midway between the two closest wells, at right angles to the line between those two closest
wells. Trajectories were considered in 15-degree increments from a vertical well, out to 75 degrees from vertical, with a final
trajectory at 85 degrees from vertical (Fig. 10). Water disposal is a concern in this field and the volume of water that can be
adequately treated is limited. Current practices tend to shut in wells when the water cut exceeds 50%. In a highly layered system, an
intelligent completions system can be designed to let sliding sleeve ports be closed for specific layers as they exceed specific water-
cut limits.
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The plot (Fig. 11) shows the impact of this type of

intelligent completion. For both vertical and highly
deviated wells, the effective well life is dramatically
extended. For a well at 75 degrees from vertical, an
additional 1.6 MMbbl of oil recovery over 20 years could
be expected according to the simulation model.
Implementation in a vertical well is more difficult, as the
distances between layers are smaller.
In any example with a highly layered system, an
intelligent completion system would provide substantial
improvements in the oil production profile. The
simulation model provided the prediction of a 20-year
cumulative oil production for each of the well deviation
options, all of which considered the impact of intelligent
completions. The results are shown in the cumulative oil
production plot below (Fig. 12). The most advantageous
Fig. 11: The impact of intelligent completions on well life in vertical and
well trajectory maintains a 75-degree deviation from deviated wells.
vertical through the zone of interest.
This study of well trajectories in a highly layered system
shows that slanted wells provide increased well control
opportunities where intelligent completion technology can
be used to shut off water production zones once
breakthrough occurs. This optimizes oil production, and
reduces the cost of produced water production. The
difference between the use of this technology and standard
vertical wells implies, in a specific location, as much as 3
million bbls of oil recovery over a 20-year period.
Conclusions
The Shushufindi field presents areal regions that present
water production profiles typical of a highly layered
Fig. 12: Cumulative oil production predictions using Intelligent system. Recovered whole core demonstrates fine
Completions in deviated wells. laminations that are clearly vertical permeability barriers
over geologic time. In our conceptual depositional model
it is quite probable that these thin barriers are laterally extensive, and could provide the layering that we see in the production profiles.
Dynamic fluid-flow simulation models using a Kv:Kh ratio do not produce the very long water cut increases that are observed. A
simple absolute vertical permeability barrier between layers appears to be too severe with respect to the observed production profiles.
These concerns have been resolved by developing a technique to construct a random baffle system that allows limited areas of
vertical flow, and larger areas of impeded vertical flow.
This paper demonstrates techniques to mimic the flow characteristics of a highly layered system at the scale of a full-field simulation
model. These techniques are applicable wherever such a system may be encountered.
The flow characteristics of the reservoir have specific implications for the types of well trajectories and completion techniques
deployed in the development of the Shushufindi field. The baffled layering system created here facilitates the study of proposed well
trajectories and completion systems in a simulation model. The results of this study have a significant impact on the production
predictions for the Shushufindi field.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Consorcio Shushufindi for the opportunity to present these results. Our appreciation also
goes to Jean-Pierre Bourge for the recovered whole core photomicrograph.
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