Topic 1A.7 The Changing Face of Australian Art Education - New Horizons or Sub-Colonial Politics

National Art Education Association
The Changing Face of Australian Art Education: New Horizons or Sub-Colonial Politics?
Author(s): Doug Boughton
Source: Studies in Art Education, Vol. 30, No. 4 (Summer, 1989), pp. 197-211
Published by: National Art Education Association
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STUDIES in Art Education Copyright by the
A Journal of Issues and Research National Art Education Association
1989, 30 (4) 197-211
The Changing Face of Australian

New Horizons or Sub-Colonial Politics?
Doug Boughton
South Australian College of Advanced Education

Underdale Campus, South Australia
The development of Australian art education over the past one hundred years is
traced through three main phases, the "hand-eye training period," the "creativity
period" and the "studio discipline period." Influences for these developments are
identified as coming from overseas, largely via Britain and Europe. It is proposed
that, at present, a variety of factors, including economic, technological, and social,
have precipitated favourable circumstances for productive development in visual arts
education in Australia. Misconceived educational policies developed by the Federal
Government, however, appear likely to negate the positive effects of these factors at a
time when the potential for development of a self-determined tradition in Australian
art education is at its greatest.
Until recently Australian art education has reflected overseas ideologie

practice shaped only slightly by local interests, educational theory, and polit
Not surprisingly the most significant influences have come via Britain, and
recently, North America. Large distances within the country, and its iso
from the rest of the world, together with the lack of a research tradition i
field have, in the past, inhibited development of art education theory
practice that is uniquely Australian in its character.
Origins of Australian Art Education

During the past one-hundred years Australian art education has demon
ed three clearly identifiable phases similar to the development evident in Br
ain, America, and Canada. These were the 'hand-eye training' period from
late nineteenth-century to World War One, the 'creativity' period from
Forties to the Sixties, and the 'studio discipline' phase from the Sixties t
, 0
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X... .. r . cl. 4.F X

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4-At I /
; t*> ge"
a _' :cg~?-~
A Lesson in Drawing, circa 1906. South Australian Education Gazette
198 DOUG BOUGHTON
present (Hammond, 1981). Each of these phases mirrored ove

ments although the time lag between implementation of new
England or America, and subsequent adoption in Australia
occasion, close to forty years.
The Hand-Eye Training Phase
In 1852 the Department of Practical Art was established within
Trade at South Kensington in England, to improve, among oth
design skills of British workers. By 1856 a Department of Sci
added to the Department of Practical Art, and both were administ
a newly created Department of Education (Mandelson, 1985). T
concern of the British government was to maintain industrial sup
international market place, particularly in textiles manufactur
ology chosen to do this was to develop design skills in school stude
rigorous drawing exercises. Through such exercises it was believed
would not only acquire important co-ordination skills, but dev
memory, observation skills, enhanced intelligence, good taste,
ues. The mode of teaching was teacher centered and highly pre
delson, 1985). The major influence upon the South Kensington
grams was derived from Eighteenth Century European Acad
(Hammond, 1981).
Similar concerns about industrial competitiveness in the Un
sulted in the appointment of Walter Smith, an Englishman, who w
to implement the South Kensington principles in Massachuset
1870's. As was the case in England and America, early colonis
were anxious to nurture newly developing manufacturing indu
the early 1890's, however, there is little evidence of systemat
promote industrially appropriate skills throughout schools. Until t
ment of school-system bureaucracies opportunities in art and d
dren were supported by various influential colonists who held
about the value of the educational outcome of such experienc
vested interests in promoting skills useful to their own manuf
tries, while others were concerned about offering opportunitie
complishment and the growth of moral values. The major thrust o
tion after the 1880's had more to do with industrial design s
minerals and pastoral boom than it did with fine art (Emery, 1988
tion of drawing in schools is illustrated by the fact that all p
teachers were required to hold a Certificate of Proficiency in
they could gain their Diploma (Emery, 1988).
Although there was some evidence that the South Kensington m
used in South Australia in the early 1870's (Young, 1986), the first
a systematic attempt to implement them occurred in New South W
publication of the South Kensington ideology in the NSW Educ
(Woodhouse, 1891). Frederick Woodhouse was appointed in 18
superintendent of drawing in NSW schools responsible for the im
instruction in that subject. Woodhouse, it appears, was given
mandate in Australia to that addressed by Walter Smith in th
almost twenty years before (Hilson, 1987). The drawing cours
included five main forms of drawing: object, memory, design,
scale drawing. Expressive drawing was also included, but less fr
delson, 1985). In all, the time lag between establishment of the So
AUSTRALIAN ART EDUCATION 199
ton Department of Education and publication of Woodhouse's drawing courses

in NSW was over thirty-five years.
A second element of the hand-eye training phase in Australia was 'manual
training,' which consisted of wood sloyd, paper work, and needlework. The
origins of these interests can be traced to Russia, Scandinavia, and Germany.
Although derived from different sources both manual crafts and drawing were
linked by common beliefs in the virtues of hand-eye training (Hammond, 1981).
The Creativity Phase
After World War One, art education in Australia entered a transition phase,
largely due to the ideas of the Austrian Franz Cizek. Prior to World War One
art in Australia was called 'drawing;' by World War Two it was called 'art.' The
development of art within Australia between the wars was curiously disjointed
(Mandelson, 1985). Cizek's influence came to Australia from Europe, via Brit-
ain. Cizek's ideas first came to the attention of British educators in 1921
through an exhibition of his students' work. Cizek's notions of the crea
potential of young children, and the belief that the mind of the child
qualitatively different from that of the adult, resulted in an art educ
pedagogy that was distinctly different from the prevailing hand-eye discipl
Cizek's ideas were popularised in Britain by educators such as Tomlinson
Richardson, and by 1931 were widely accepted (Dimmack, 1958). In the U
States the work of John Dewey provided fertile ground for the acceptan
Cizek's philosophy and the re-definition of child art. Acceptance of the creat
ity doctrine in Australia was very slow.
Despite early exposure to Cizek's philosophy in South Australia, the
state to recognize overseas developments before 1940 was Western Aust
M.P. Harris, a Scottish trained educator, lectured in South Australia on
Cizek methodology in 1922 (Mandelson, 1985). She also published an arti
the South Australian Educational Gazette outlining the essence of these teach
procedures (Harris, 1923). It was not until the 1936 syllabus rewrite that We
ern Australia expressed an interest in creativity, albeit in the form of comp
mise. Noticeable in that document was the replacement of geometric dra
with pattern or design making (Mandelson, 1985).
In his documentation of the slowness of the Australian response to ove
developments Mandelson (1985) also commented:
Until 1937 and in particular until Australian complacency was disturb
by overseas experts in art education who came to this country in 1937 for
the New Education Conference, states other than Western Australia an
Tasmania operated as if the new concepts of child art did not exist
developments in Western Australia and Tasmanian experiments receive
no mention outside their own state. Even those who travelled abroad
failed to notice the new approach. (p. 40)
Roy Knudson, an Inspector of art in New South Wales, observed that
creativity movement had no influence in New South Wales until after 1947,
that influence was short lived, giving way to a more 'disciplined' approach b
mid fifties (Knudson, 1988). One influence, which may be regarded as a turn
point for Australian art education, was the 1937 New Education Conf
organized by Dr. K.S. Cunningham for the Australian Council for Educa
Research. This was a travelling conference which moved from Brisban
Sydney, Canberra, Melbourne, Hobart, Adelaide, and Perth over a per
seven weeks. Various prominent overseas speakers, such as Paul Dengler
200 DOUG BOUGHTON
Austro-American Institute of Education in Vienna, and Arthur

tional Supervisor of the Toronto Art Gallery, were featured on th
program. In some states the response to the conference pres
reflected in curriculum change. New South Wales effected an
mise between a teacher-centered approach and a child-center
South Australia recommended, in a similar attempt to retain e
approaches, that children should have unrestricted opportuni
the one hand, while at the same time claiming that drawing requ
lessons and formal training to acquire the necessary conven
placed more emphasis upon formal work and the developmen
while Queensland made no change until 1952 (Mandelson, 198
until the early fifties that evidence of a commitment to th
expression' ideology was apparent in every state and territory in
catalyst appears to have been the UNESCO seminar, The Role of
in Education, held in Victoria in 1954. The proceedings from
reflected strong support for creative expression as the major aim
tion in Australian schools (Smith, 1958). This support was express
teachers, inspectors, and administrators, who met at the conferen
time to discuss the intended outcomes of art education in this
The proceedings of the Victorian seminar demonstrated alm
mitment to the creativity ideology. A paper by Oeser, The Im
Teaching How to Paint (1958) typified the sentiments of the c
nard Smith's (1958) editorial support of Oeser demonstrates so
mood of the seminar:
The natural creativeness of children and its usually fatal contact with
stereotyped attitudes imposed by society is one of Professor Oeser's spe-
cial interests and his essay should be brought to the notice of everyone in
the country charged with the care of children. (p. viii)
John Dabron (1958), Supervisor of Art in the New South Wales Departmen
of Education, in another paper, outlined the principles he believed should
guide art education, the most important of which was creative activity. Dabron's
influence from the time of his appointment in 1947 was powerful and convinc-
ing. His influence and belief in the primacy of creative expression was felt in th
schools until his retirement in the early seventies.
One of the more unusual developments to arise from the Victorian UNESCO
Seminar was the resolution that the Australian Broadcasting Commission be
urged to conduct regular sessions on art appreciation in a popular way over the
national network as it does in connection with other arts (Smith, 1958. p. 87). As an
extension of this idea, and an attempt to overcome the enormous problems o
distance in the state of NSW, John Dabron produced a series of radio broad
casts which were widespread in their impact and effective in promoting th
creativity doctrine. Activities and topics such as rhythm patterns (brushes load-
ed with paint), emotive topics (to draw out a child's expressionist tendencies
and topics that tapped the imagination (drawn from the child's more direct
experience) were promoted over public radio in the 1950's (Knudson, 1988)
Again the gap between change in British practice and Australian recognition
of that ideological shift was twenty years. Factors responsible for softening the
educational inertia during the forties in Australia were the writings of Herbert
Read, and the popularization of Cizek's philosophy by Viktor Lowenfeld.
The impetus of the creative-expression ideology is still manifest in som
Australian schools today. The 1972 Queensland Department of

Program in Art for Primary Schools, which is the current guideline i
(under review), submits as its first aim to develop creativity. In
section the stages of child development in art, (derived from Low
Lansing) are outlined with recommendations for the teacher to assist
progress through them. This is despite the decline in interest in creat
'natural' artistic development as a central concern of art educatio
The Studio Discipline Phase
From the mid-sixties Australian art education entered a transit
from 'free' to 'disciplined' expression in specific studio areas. Alth
disciplines were dominant, earlier themes also persisted. Drawing
powerful element of art programs in some states. The South Aus
curriculum was still called 'Drawing,' and reflected interest in tech
ing and design applications until the next revision. In New Sout
1911 Drawing Syllabus for High Schools clearly associated design w
art, a concept which continued until 1965.
Art history, or appreciation, was another element in all state cu
quiring significant proportion of teaching time, particularly at s
school level. References to substantive components of art theory,
appreciation in state school curricula from the turn of the century to
are frequent.
In North America the art education debate shifted focus from 'creativity' to
'aesthetic education' with Barkan's (1966) now widely popularized notion of a
problem and disciplined-centered art education using as role models the trium-
virate of artist, critic, and historian. That Barkan's notion of aesthetic education
could be so hotly debated in the North American literature, and be so widely
ignored in terms of its effect in the development of Australian art curricula for
twenty years is, in some ways, difficult to understand. One of the most powerful
reasons is probably a deep seated cultural orientation deriving from the tradi-
tional links existing between Australia and Britain. The Australian art educator
Max Dimmack in his 1958 book Modern Art Education in the Primary School
commented on this phenomenon:
It is considered natural that the pattern of art education here should
follow the English because of cultural ties. Developments in education in
England sooner or later appear in education in Australia, and art proves
no exception. Art education in Australia is English in character. A strong-
er influence from America could be absorbed; the benefits of two strong
streams of overseas thought would prove of inestimable value. (p. 10)
The development of a conception of discipline-based art education in Aus-
tralia in the sixties should not be confused with the American term as outlined
by Greer (1984). In Australia several possible directions were explored follow-
ing the rejection of instrumentalist values characterized by the 'creativity'
claims. These included some isolated experiments with aesthetic education,
design education, integrated arts education, and 'art from social relevance
perspective' (Hammond, 1981). However, the dominant model has become a
'disciplined' form of studio, skill-based, product oriented expression widely
accepted throughout the country. Students in both schools and colleges engage
in disciplined study, through studio practice, of traditional fine art and craft
disciplines such as painting, drawing, printmaking, metal-crafts, ceramics, and
so on.
202 DOUG BOUGHTON
A model of Victorian teacher education described by Ham

characterized the practice in Australian institutions for the past tw
In the initial years of the art teacher education course students stud
fine arts disciplines in studios which have been set up along t
school lines. Emphasis is upon skilled production of 'art' objec
production of original and personal forms of expression. In the
the program, students select a specific studio for 'depth' study.
usually a minor strand of study which supports the major studio e
the end of the program, the graduate teachers regard themselves a
painter, or ceramicist etc. depending on their area of specialization
these teachers have had on secondary schools is to establish speciali
school art rooms and to construct curricula based on fine art or craft studio
disciplines.
Current state curriculum guides in South Australia, The Northern Territory,
and Queensland clearly illustrate this studio focus. The 1984 South Australian
Art Craft and Design in Schools requires learning opportunities to be provided
for the students in design, drawing, painting, film and photography, printmak-
ing, sculpture, and appreciation. The 1987 Northern Territory core curriculum
The Arts for Primary Schools years T-7 recommends that art and craft be offered
through drawing, painting, printmaking, sculpture, fibres, and fabrics, as five
major areas of expressive activity. In the Northern Territory junior secondary
document, TheArtsforJunior Secondary Years 8-10 (1987), the five major studio
areas are maintained, with the additional requirement that these areas are to be
studied through the elements of line, shape, colour, texture, and tone. In
Queensland the 1972 Program in Artfor Primary Schools directs student experi-
ence through painting and drawing, textiles, construction, modelling and carv-
ing, printmaking, and enjoyment of art.
It is not difficult to understand the reasons for this commitment to disci-
plined studio expression if one reflects upon the origins of Australian art
education. Given the slowness of the state education systems to respond to
overseas development together with the lack of a tradition of systematic re-
search and theory generation within the country, it is not surprising that the
elements of 'discipline' characteristic of the 'hand-eye' phase should marry with
the 'expressive' qualities of the 'creativity' era. An indication that elements of
both ideologies would persist can be seen in the reluctance of art teachers to
abandon disciplined drawing in favour of creative expression in Victorian and
South Australian curricula of the nineteen-forties.
The struggle to resolve the tension between these two philosophies is typified
by the development of art education spearheaded by two influential personal-
ities with antithetical philosophies in NSW from the late fifties to the early
seventies. John Dabron, Inspector of Art in NSW, as mentioned before, was
tireless and convincing in his promotion of the creativity approach in that state.
Equally effective in the promotion of a more formal structured approach to art
teaching during the same period was Nita Playford. Playford's approach was
based essentially upon formalism, directed observation for the development of
representational drawing skill, and formal analysis of artists' work in order to
develop an understanding of the 'language of vision.' Because of their funda-
mental philosophic disagreement these two influential personalities each
agreed to focus upon different levels within the school system. Playford devel-
oped the primary (elementary) art program, while Dabron concentrated upon
secondary schools.
These contrasting philosophies co-existed uneasily in NSW un
of the two approaches were woven together in 1974 in NSW Visual
lum for Primary Schools. This Curriculum 'maintained allegiance w
losophy of expressionism, yet was supported by a focus on formal
1987, p. 2). In many ways it exemplified the paradigm of art educ
throughout the country in the seventies.
At present there are signs of a change in Australian art educatio
a break away from the dominance of fine art studio disciplin
recommendation to the Australian Institute of Art Education (B
a National Policy (1986) was developed by that organization, an
ratified by the art education associations of every state and t
country. That national policy is significant in two respects. First
that the visual arts be studied as two interrelated, and equally imp
ponents: reflecting upon and responding to visual art forms, and
arts. Second it recommends the broadening of visual arts stu
design arts (environmental, graphic, and product design), popular
primitive arts, and fine arts. The overall impact of the policy
increased emphasis upon the study of art theory and a de-em
making and traditional fine art study, with concomitant increase
standing of visual arts in various social contexts. In a sense th
expression of the mood of change which is finding expression
revisions which have recently been conducted in most states.
One of the most recent revisions in Tasmania has clearly and dir
nized the AIAE policy in that the four main areas of study in
been identified as Design Arts, Fine Arts, Folk Arts, and Popular A
hall, 1988). This constitutes a clear and deliberate broadening
riculum beyond traditional fine arts study.
Similarly in Victoria the newly developed Arts Framework P-10
the studio discipline approach. Popular arts and design have bee
stress has been placed upon the relationship between making a
art as equally significant and interrelated learning activities
changes are responsive to the AIAE policy recommendations.
curriculum has retained elements of the 'creativity' era in that ar
is still promoted as a vehicle for the expression of feeling, to
importance of the individual, and as a means to enhance self-
The 1987 the Western Australian curriculum Arts and Craft
significant break with the established tradition in Australia. T
proposes a course comprising five elements. At the center is 's
the most conventional aspect. The more unusual elements are '
'visual enquiry,' 'art criticism,' and 'art history.' The structure of
reflects the spirit of the AIAE policy, in that greater emphas
'reflection and response to visual arts', while the differentiati
history and art criticism echoes some of the same concerns which
the American DBAE debate.
In South Australia the current curriculum Art Craft and Design in Sch
12 (1984) stresses the significance of the 'consumer-critic' in a tripa
gram comprising learning experiences students are to have as artist/desi
craftspersons, and consumer critics. In 1988-89 New South Wales imp
three new visual arts syllabuses. These are documents designed to
204 DOUG BOUGHTON
guidance for grades K-6, 7-10 and 11-12. A feature of the plann
guides is a consistent theoretical framework throughout to achi
development in the learner from K-12. The interest reflected here
the structural concerns central to the DBAE debate. A studio sp
does not appear in this set of documents. The platform upon w
grams are constructed is that students learn in the visual arts by c
interpreting images. Emphasis is still heavily upon students' person
and expression through materials, although greater weight ha
upon reflection and response to visual images by students than
case in the past, particularly in the K-6 program.
A characteristic of almost all senior school visual arts programs in
which sets them apart from the North American tradition, is t
state public examinations in art for the purpose of achieving unive
status. Systems of state accreditation have produced senior scho
lum heavily weighted with theory (art history) components in orde
university entrance expectations of academically rigorous study
quence intensive study of art history, chronologically or thematica
normal expectation of senior level visual arts study for over twenty
states.
Present Influences
Despite the almost apathetic response of Australian art educators to contem
porary thought in the past, current indications are that Australia is pois
the brink of a new intellectual tradition. Since the influential International
Society for Education Through Art Congress in Adelaide in 1978 a new period
of transition has become evident. Through the INSEA conference Australian
art educators were confronted with a powerful new set of ideas equivalent in
impact to the Victorian UNESCO seminar of 1954. In the past ten years at least
forty Australians have obtained overseas research degrees and subsequently
taken up influential positions in the field. A spin-off effect of this overseas
connection has been a greatly accelerated series of visits and lecture tours by
influential overseas art educators. Many of these visits have occurred in con-
junction with the national conferences of the Australian Institute of Art Educa-
tion. This professional association has grown significantly over the past twelve
years since the publication of the first edition of the journal in 1976. The annual
national conferences, and the journal, published three times each year, have
provided an enormous stimulus to professional debate in Australia which has
not previously been evident on a national scale.
Despite these encouraging signs, however, the future of Australian art educa-
tion is beset by a variety of conflicting forces, some of the more powerful being
social, technological, economic, and political influences. The DBAE debate has
won some space in the literature, although it is uncertain if curriculum effects
mentioned before are the consequence of that debate or have occurred through
independent decision making by regional curriculum developers. The most
insidious of current influences are political forces, both federal and state, which
are likely to overwhelm the positive impetus provided by other factors. These
are examined below.
Social Change
Four social changes are likely to affect the future of arts education in Aus
lia. The first is a rising level of education within the community. This effec
occur as a direct result of government policy to improve Australia's internat
al competitiveness on overseas markets. Preoccupation with th

place is the hallmark of governments in all Western countries, a
no exception. In comparison with other industrial nations A
badly in terms of participation rates in tertiary education, a
popularly viewed with some concern because of the implicatio
opment of an advanced technological and marketing base f
improve levels of education within the Australian community
has developed strategies to increase the year 12 retention rate fr
in 1987 to 65 percent by the early 1990's (Dawkins, May 23, 1
sents a substantial gain in less than ten years given the 1982
rate of only 35 percent. Further, in a recently released gov
outlining the future of tertiary education in Australia (Mini
ment Education and Training, Media Release August, 1988),
the federal Minister for Education, committed government
achievement of a ten percent increase in tertiary education place
means an additional 40,000 students enrolled in Australian
future impact upon the arts of increased levels of education wit
tion is likely to be an increase in size of arts audiences. Hil
(1986) in his analysis of the arts in Canada reported an incre
ences in that country attributable to rising levels of education.
ed around the world, and across Canada, indicate that fine ar
characterized by high levels of education (McCaughy, 1984)
the fine arts audience no longer constitutes a small statistical
it represents a significant plurality of the adult population at
by the year 2000 it will represent almost half of all taxpayers
who are the most socially active, politically aware, and econom
erful members of society. (Hillman-Chartrand, 1986, p. 32
As has been the case in Canada and America, with rapidly
education in Australia, considerable increase in arts participa
concomitant outcome of such participation is pressure for increa
tion in schools, colleges and universities, although this effect
until after the year 2000 when the numbers of more highly edu
have made their way through the education system.
A second demographic effect which is more likely to increase
tion in the Australian community is aging of the populatio
becomes, the more likely one participates in arts-related activ
1984). Australia is currently experiencing the same demogr
other Western countries as a consequence of the aging of t
generation.
A third social change which indicates potential increases in arts education is
an increasing participation in arts related occupations by Australian workers.
Comparison of the census figures 1976 to 1981 show the number of people
employed in arts related occupations increased by 37 percent while the increase
in the total Australian workforce was only 9 percent (Sumner, 1985). This
demand for workers with art skills and interests is likely to increase pressure for
senior school arts curriculum choices with vocational potential. Already design
courses are evident in South Australia, NSW, and Victorian secondary curricu-
lum guides, while a review of the craft curriculum in NSW primary schools
recommended a shift in focus to more contemporary design related practice
(Sullivan and Gibson, 1988).
206 DOUG BOUGHTON
A fourth social change which has fundamentally altered the fab

lian society since World War Two is the exceptionally high levels o
accepted into the country. Except for Israel, Australia has ac
immigrants than any other country. Forty percent of all Aust
product of post-war immigration, while twelve percent of all
dren were born overseas (Grassby, 1978). The impact of such
culturally different people who are attempting to re-establish
new community has been to place enormous pressure upon sch
programs that will assist in this process. Despite an expressed p
culturalism and government support for such programs, attem
and implement multicultural curricula have not been particularly
date (Boughton, 1986). At present enormous political potential
educators to explore cultural traditions through the arts curri
Realization of this potential will depend upon the strength o
organizations and the ability of art administrators to interest teac
ing emphasis upon fine art studio approaches to teaching. In t
there is some indication multicultural interest expressed in th
Statement (1986), as discussed before, which could foreshado
sciousness in Australian art education.
Technological Changes
Technological development is ubiquitous in the Western world, and the
factors at work in Australia are little different than elsewhere. Again four kin
of change are likely to have influence in the future of art education. The first
change in educational delivery systems of the kind that have been much docu-
mented in popular educational literature (Berman, 1987). These include acc
through computer technology to increased data banks of information and i
ages: rapid retrieval of data, access, and delivery of information over larg
distances, and increased ease of generation and manipulation of images, bo
still and moving. As schools acquire relatively inexpensive and powerful des
top computing equipment, delivery of the theoretical components of visual art
programs are likely to be significantly altered. Similarly the addition of compu
er generated imagery as a studio focus is likely to broaden the range of images
explored by students, particularly in design applications.
A second impact upon Australian society of technological development
change in the popular image world of the kind documented by Nadaner (19
in the North American context. The content of contemporary images found in
movies, toys, and particularly video games has become bizarre, aggressive, a
intellectually reactionary. Nadaner's concern about the cultural content o
these kind of images because of their violence, militarism, xenophobia, nihilism
escapism, and anti-humanism is equally appropriate in Australia. Of particu
concern is the proliferation of computer video-games which are not subject
appropriate censorship laws in Australia, and are easily copied and swapped
school-age children for widespread consumption. Attention by art educators to
the burgeoning popular image world is inevitable. Again, response to popu
arts by Australian art educators is endorsed by the AIAE policy statement
A third effect of technological development upon art education is change
the nature of studio teaching. Phelan (1984) described the aesthetic turmoil
New York created by new technologies. He predicted that the advent of po
modernism, availability of relatively inexpensive and easily used video-cameras
and equipment, availability of user friendly micro-computers with considerable
power, and the development of alternatives to current gallery

fundamentally alter the nature of studio art teaching in the futu
the case in the past it is certain that overseas influences will
practice in this area.
The fourth effect of technology likely to change the nature of
education is the impact of systems theory derived from the w
past, application of management strategies have increased t
mass production in an increasingly technological workplace.
seventies the spin-off effect in education has been evident in var
implement models of curriculum derived from behavioural
systems theory. At present, pressure from the business comm
Australian government to ensure students graduating from
quately equipped to take their place in a 'skilled and adaptab
(Dawkins, 1988) has resulted in government initiatives to dev
curriculum framework, and assessment procedures for all Au
(Dawkins, 1988). Such action demonstrates the first serious e
systematic model of education to the country as a whole. The
education, and all other subjects for that matter, could be fa
profound.
Economic Factors
Perhaps the most powerful force to shape the nature of all education
immediate future is the economic condition of the country. If one reflects
the origins of Australian art education, it is possible to experience a s
deja vu in that the nation's economic struggle is again showing indicat
influence upon educational practice.
Two of the effects described by Hillman-Chartrand (1986) in the con
the Canadian economy are particularly relevant in Australia. These a
increasing importance of design in the marketplace, and the role of advert
As a consequence of the emergence of 'the narrowest marketplace' the
of goods has assumed critical significance. The narrowest marketplace
scribed by Hillman-Chartrand is comprised of small but economically
markets catering to the tastes of increasing numbers of young upwardly m
professionals with high credit ratings and discriminating tastes. Manufactu
are increasingly attempting to develop more styles, models and sizes of
thing from cars to clothes to golf clubs. Ultimately the pressure upon desi
to generate distinctively different and better designs is enormous. The dem
for good designers continues to grow. More and more marketing companie
employing design consultants due to the realization that if the potenti
sumer does not like the look of a product he or she may never get close en
to find out how well it works. The highly discriminating nature of the cont
rary consumer is highlighted by the willingness of customers to pay high
for the reputation of goods imported from Europe. This is particularly evi
in terms of the car market where enormous import duties in Australia
seem to inhibit the import and sales of German, Swedish, and Italian
vehicles. Scitovsky (1976) suggested that this kind of consumer behavio
rives benefit (for the North American consumer) from the finicky deman
European shoppers. The North American shopper is, in Scitovsky's view, 'a
rider, enjoying the benefits of other people's careful shopping without
his share of the cost, in terms of time and effort, that careful and agg
shopping involves' (p. 178). The case is the same for the Australian sh
208 DOUG BOUGHTON
who is likely to be paying even more for imported goods

American consumer.
Coupled with the demand for skilled designers brought about by the fierce
competition for consumer dollars is the need to develop highly effective adver-
tising strategies. Advertising lubricates the market economy, so much so tha
even well designed products will not sell unless properly marketed. Both design
and advertising are derived from the arts, and particularly from the visual arts.
Television advertising employs actors, singers, musicians, dancers, choreog-
raphers, copy writers, graphic artists, cartoonists, and editors to sell every kind
of consumer item from lawn mowers, to champagne, to mouthwash. Recent
government educational policy has clearly indicated a concern to respond to the
demands of business and for graduates from schools who are adequately pre
pared with flexible, and broad ranging skills appropriate to the changing nature
of Australian industry. While it is clear that a central issue for industry is the
production of a discriminating public in terms of design awareness and the
development of gifted designers, government policy in Australia, (as described
below), has focussed largely upon science, technology, and business, and has
not recognized the central role of the arts.
Unless art educators in Australia are able to demonstrate the integral rela
tionship which exists between the visual arts, design, craftsmanship, and engi-
neering, it is certain that misconceived government policy in education will
force the arts to the periphery of educational priorities in the future. Ironically
this may occur as a consequence of an unrecognized and unprecedented de-
mand by industry for arts skills in high school graduates.
The DBAE Debate
To date the DBAE debate has had some impact in Australia. In 19
Rush outlined the principles of the DBAE proposals at a national con
Perth, then later published her remarks in the AIAE journal (1986). A re
to the Rush paper by Emery (1986) was less than enthusiastic, comment
the priorities and curriculum principles for Australian art education
be different to those contained in the DBAE proposals.
It is not likely, in the absence of the stimulus of the alleged Getty m
that the passions and commitment of Australian art educators will
excited by the DBAE doctrine as a few of their American counter
some extent the DBAE ideas are not likely to quickly convince Au
secondary art teachers that they are not already teaching in this
tradition of art historical study, discussed before, has long been establis
Australian schools in all states and is a significant component of sen
publicly examined art curricula in all states. Increasingly art criticism h
identified as a strategy for art study separate from history, as may be se
current South Australian and Western Australian state curriculum g
support materials. Studio art has been studied in a 'disciplined' manner f
twenty years. Few secondary art teachers would debate that the orig
study derive from history, criticism, studio, and aesthetics, while many
confess difficulty interpreting 'aesthetics' in terms of teaching practice
lian primary (elementary) school art education practice, however, is stil
studio oriented. In the current climate of educational and fiscal constraint it is
not likely that human or material resources are likely to be available to initiate
significant or rapid in-service work in the teaching of art criticism, history, or
aesthetics in the near future.
The demands upon Australian art education at present are likely

development of a conception of the discipline of art which is driv
for broadly based vocational applications. An indication of this pos
model of tertiary education proposed by Brown and McKeon
secondary school level government proposals to initiate nation
structures and assessment practices (Dawkins, 1988) are likel
emphasis upon the theory components of visual art examina
more conventional assessment strategies for assessment in the
way the issues which characterize the DBAE debate may also re
attention in Australia.
Political Factors
In March, 1987, the Commonwealth Tertiary Education Commission
quested a review of design in tertiary education. This review, called The Re
siveness of Tertiary Education to the Design Needs of Australian Industry (
and Broadbent, 1987), was initiated because of the reasons outlined abo
to assist Australian industry to win market success and to achieve econ
growth through overseas acceptance of Australian designed goods. Two s
cant recommendations for art education were made in that report:
Education about design in teacher education and thus in the primary
secondary school systems, be substantially improved to create a broa
societal awareness of the nature of technological change and design activ-
ity. (p. 4)
and
The Commission encourage and provide necessary resources for the in-
corporation of design components into courses in teacher education,
management, marketing, engineering and technology. (p. 6)
Despite the recommendations two government papers released by the Feder-
al Minister for Education (Dawkins, 1987 and 1988) have not recognized the
potential contribution of art and design to the education of school children.
Instead emphasis has been placed upon maths, science, and technology. In the
policy discussion paper which is directed towards restructuring of the content
and focus of schooling (Dawkins, 1988) a common national curriculum frame-
work is proposed to achieve higher levels of literacy, numeracy, and analytical
skills across the nation. Priority, however, is given to maths and science courses
which are relevant to a technologically oriented society. Significantly, the role
of the arts and design is not mentioned in the paper.
Similarly in the Higher Education discussion paper (Dawkins, 1987) the
higher priority areas are identified as engineering, sciences and technology,
economics and business studies, and Asian studies. Again the arts are over-
looked. The power of government policy in education in Australia is as formida-
ble as it is myopic. The future of art education is not secure. To demonstrate the
benefit of an art education to industry, particularly through design programs in
schools, teachers and professional organizations face an enormous task in the
years ahead.
The vision demonstrated by Australian governments in the past is not en-
couraging. In the late 1940's pioneering work by Australian scientists in com-
puting was discontinued because the government believed that computing had
no future. Other pioneering work on transistors, wet-color photocopying, and
black-box flight recording were all discontinued for similar reasons (Horne,
1989). Future growth in the arts in the 1990's in a political climate typified by a
210 DOUG BOUGHTON
tradition of sub-colonial conservatism is without doubt the mo

uncertainty to confront art educators at present. In short, presen
that ill-conceived, business driven, short-sighted, unimaginati
educational priorities will serve to stunt the growth of the visual ar
Australia at the moment of greatest potential.
Summary
At present Australia is demonstrating the beginning of another transition
phase stimulated by a variety of somewhat contradictory forces. These are:
social change, technological development, economic factors, political forces,
and possible influence from the DBAE debate in the United States. Social
change such as aging of the population, increased levels of education, and
increased participation of workers in art related industries indicate for the
future an increased pressure for art subjects in school and continuing education
courses, although this demand may not be experienced immediately. The in-
creased multicultural composition of Australian society, coupled with an ex-
pressed government policy of multiculturalism is likely to provide unique op-
portunities for art courses to develop significant units of study which examine
the relationship of art and culture.
Technological developments are changing the nature of educational delivery
systems, and will shortly provide enormous potential for students in isolated
areas who previously lacked access to written and visual data resources. Tech-
nology has also changed the nature of studio instruction in that video and
computer technology is increasingly employed in the visual arts. A concern in
Australia is the change in the popular image world of young children, with some
acknowledgement of the need to broaden the focus of art study from fine arts to
popular, design, and primitive and folk arts indicated in the national policy
statements of the Australian Institute of Art Education.
Economic changes in the country indicate an escalating demand for art skills
in the workforce, while government policy fails to recognize the significance of
visual arts, stressing instead maths, science, business, and technology both a
the school and tertiary education level. There is also some evidence of a recog
nition of a substance of the discipline based art education movement, howev
this concern is not a slavish acceptance of a new 'ideology.'
The force of government policy in Australia is opposed to many of the
positive indicators for growth evident in visual arts education. A strong tradi-
tion in Australian government of unimaginative and ill-informed policies ap
pears likely to cripple development in the immediate future. Significantly,
current policy has failed to recognize the potential contribution of art an
design to prevailing economic imperatives in the marketplace and to important
social and cultural understanding within the community.
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National Art Education Association

The Changing Face of Australian

South Australian College of Advanced Education

Until recently Australian art education has reflected overseas ideologie

Origins of Australian Art Education

X... .. r . cl. 4.F X

A Lesson in Drawing, circa 1906. South Australian Education Gazette

present (Hammond, 1981). Each of these phases mirrored ove

ton Department of Education and publication of Woodhouse's drawing courses

Austro-American Institute of Education in Vienna, and Arthur

Australian schools today. The 1972 Queensland Department of

A model of Victorian teacher education described by Ham

al competitiveness on overseas markets. Preoccupation with th

A fourth social change which has fundamentally altered the fab

power, and the development of alternatives to current gallery

who is likely to be paying even more for imported goods

The demands upon Australian art education at present are likely

tradition of sub-colonial conservatism is without doubt the mo

Boughton, D. (1986). How do we prepare art teachers for a multicultural soc

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