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Chemical Bonding: Covalent Bonding: Learning Goal
Chemical Bonding: Covalent Bonding: Learning Goal
Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
• describe, using electron diagrams, the formation of single, double and triple covalent bonds
+
8.3 • describe the formation of the dative covalent bond by means of electron diagrams using NH4 and
+
H3O as examples
8.4 • interpret chemical formula of covalent compounds in terms of the elements present and the
ratios of their atoms
• write the names and formulae of covalent compounds based on their component atoms
• communicate scientific ideas with appropriate use of chemical symbols and formulae
8.5 • define and distinguish the terms: relative molecular mass and formula mass
• perform calculations related to relative molecular masses and formula masses of compounds
8.6 • recognize the chemical bonding and constituent particles in different substances
Chapter 8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
We cannot distinguish between salt and sugar very easily from their appearance. In fact, salt and sugar
have many different properties (e.g. taste). Salt and sugar belong to different classes of compounds
although they look alike. Salt is an ionic compound while sugar is a covalent compound.
salt sugar
Salt and sugar look alike, but they differ a lot in a microscopic point of view.
Think about...
What is a covalent compound?
A covalent compound is a compound in which the atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
What is the major difference between an ionic compound and a covalent compound?
An ionic compound is usually produced by combining a metal with a non-metal. It consists of positive ions and negative ions held together
by ionic bonds. In a covalent compound, non-metal atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
What are other examples of covalent compounds?
Refer to Table 8.2 on p.9 of this chapter for more examples.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.
3D Model
(Water)
a water molecule
hydrogen atoms
oxygen atom
ammonia 氨
carbon dioxide 二氧化碳
diamond 金剛石
graphite 石墨
methane 甲烷
molecule 分子
3 8
Molecules in elements
Up till now, you have learnt that some compounds consist of ions,
while some consist of molecules. But how about elements? What
particles do they consist of?
chlorine atoms
3D Model
(Chlorine)
Figure 8.3 Chlorine consists of chlorine molecules. Each chlorine molecule Cl2 consists of
two Cl atoms chemically joined together.
Key point
A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which
can exist on its own under room conditions.
Note 1
Remind students that the atomic
symbol of an element represents
Atomicity
also its chemical formula only in the
cases of metals, carbon, semi- The number of atoms in a molecule of an element or a compound is called N1
metals and noble gases. This is atomicity. Table 8.1 summarizes the atomicity of molecules of some
because the smallest particle of
such elements is just one single elements.
atom.
Argon Ar 1
Hydrogen H2 2
Chlorine Cl2 2
Oxygen O2 2
3D Model
(Oxygen)
Nitrogen N2 2
Ozone O3 3
Phosphorus
P4 4
(White phosphorus)
Sulphur S8 8
3D Model
(Sulphur)
Table 8.1 The atomicity and the simple model of molecules of some elements. (More details about simple models of molecules
will be discussed on p.10.)
atomicity 原子數
diatomic 雙原子的
ozone 臭氧
triatomic 三原子的
5 8
The chlorine atom (Cl) is very unstable. Its outermost shell contains
only seven electrons i.e. one electron less than an octet. It needs one
more electron to get the electronic arrangement of a stable argon atom
(2,8,8). Each chlorine atom shares its outermost shell electron with
another chlorine atom (one electron from each chlorine atom), forming a
single covalent bond. Therefore, a chlorine molecule (Cl2) consists of
two chlorine atoms. In the molecule, each chlorine atom has a stable
octet. See Figure 8.4.
a shared pair of electrons
forms a single covalent bond
electron
sharing a lone pair
Figure 8.4 Electron diagrams Cl Cl + Cl Cl Cl Cl
Cl Cl of electrons
showing the sharing of a pair
of electrons in the formation of
a chlorine molecule (only the 2,8,7 2,8,7 2,8,8 2,8,8
outermost shell electrons are chlorine atom (Cl) chlorine atom (Cl) chlorine molecule (Cl2)
shown).
Key point
CE2007(II)2 A covalent bond forms by the sharing of outermost shell
CE2011(I)8
electrons between two atoms.
electron
a lone pair
sharing
Figure 8.5 Electron diagrams of electrons
O O + O O O O O O
showing the sharing of two
pairs of electrons in the
formation of an oxygen 2,6 2,6 2,8 2,8
molecule (only the outermost oxygen atom (O) oxygen atom (O) oxygen molecule (O2)
shell electrons are shown).
electron
sharing a lone pair
Figure 8.6 Electron diagrams
N N + N N N NN N of electrons
showing the sharing of three
pairs of electrons in the
formation of a nitrogen 2,5 2,5 2,8 2,8
molecule (only the outermost nitrogen atom (N) nitrogen atom (N) nitrogen molecule (N2)
shell electrons are shown). Note 2
Cl−Cl is a structural formula. It shows
that the two chlorine atoms in the
Molecular formula and structural formula molecule are joined by a single
covalent bond.
Learning tip A bond pair of electrons is often represented by a stroke (–) between the
When we say the
atomic symbols. Hence, a chlorine molecule Cl2 can be written as Cl–Cl, N2
‘formula’ of a
molecular substance, O 2 as O= O, and N2 as N≡ N. Cl2, O2 and N2 are the molecular N3
we usually refer to its formulae of the elements, while Cl – Cl, O = O and N ≡ N are their
‘molecular formula’. Note 3
structural formulae.
In the examinations, some students wrongly wrote ‘N’, ‘H’ and ‘O’ as the
chemical formulae for nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen respectively.
double covalent bond 共價雙鍵
molecular formula 分子式
structural formula 結構式
triple covalent bond 共價三鍵
stroke 橫線
7 8
II Microscopic world I
Key point
The molecular formula of a molecular substance is the formula
which shows the actual number of each kind of atoms in one
molecule of the substance.
Key point
The structural formula of a molecular substance is the formula
which shows how the constituent atoms are joined up in one
molecule of the substance.
1 2,8,7 2 2,8,8
hydrogen atom (H) chlorine atom (Cl) hydrogen chloride (HCl)
Figure 8.7 Electron diagrams showing the sharing of electrons in the formation of a
hydrogen chloride molecule (only the outermost shell electrons are shown).
Table 8.2 gives electron diagrams that show the formation of covalent
bonds in some simple molecules. All of them are molecules of covalent
compounds.
Electron diagrams showing covalent bond formation Molecular formula Structural formula
CE1999(I)6(a)(i)
CE2008(II)19 DSE2013(IB)1(a)
H O H H O H
H2O H O H
a lone pair
of electrons
H N H H N H
NH3 H N H
H a bond pair
H of electrons H
1 nitrogen atom + 3 hydrogen atoms 1 ammonia molecule
H
H
H
H C H H C H
CH4 H C H
H
H
H
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl C Cl Cl C Cl
CCl4 Cl C Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
CE2002(I)8(b)(i)
DSE2013(IB)1(a)(iii)
O C O O C O O C O
CO2
Table 8.2 Electron diagrams showing the formation of covalent bonds in molecules of some simple molecules (only the
outermost shell electrons are shown). CE2000(II)1
tetrachloromethane 四氯甲烷
9 8
II Microscopic world I
CE2001(II)1
Number of electrons contributed for sharing CE2001(I)7(a)(i)
CE2002(II)36
After studying the molecules just mentioned, we may notice that an atom
involved in covalent bond formation contributes a certain number of
electrons for sharing. This number is equal to the additional number of
electrons needed to get the electronic arrangement of the nearest noble
gas. See Table 8.3 for some examples.
Additional number of
Number of electrons needed to Number of electrons
Atom outermost shell get the electronic contributed by an
electrons arrangement of the atom for sharing
nearest noble gas
Hydrogen 1 1 1
Carbon 4 4 4
Nitrogen 5 3 3
Oxygen 6 2 2
Fluorine 7 1 1
Table 8.3 Number of electrons contributed by an atom for sharing when forming covalent
bonds.
Molecule H2 Cl2 O2 N2
Ball-and-
stick model
Space-filling
model
Ball-and-
stick model
Space-filling
model
Table 8.4 Ball-and-stick models and space-filling models for some simple molecules.
Cl
11 8
II Microscopic world I
PowerPoint
In a normal single covalent bond, each atom contributes one electron for
the shared pair. However, in some compounds, a covalent bond forms by
sharing a pair of electrons coming from the same atom.
Key point
A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a covalent bond
formed between two atoms where both electrons of the shared pair are
contributed by the same atom.
Atoms which have lone pairs of electrons may form dative covalent
bonds. Let us consider the following examples.
DSEPP2012(IA)3
+
Dative covalent bond in ammonium ion (NH4 )
Animation When an ammonia molecule combines with a hydrogen ion to form an
(Formation of
ammonium ion, a dative covalent bond forms between the lone pair of
dative covalent
+
bonds) electrons on the N atom in NH3 and a H ion (Figure 8.8). The symbol
‘ ’ is used to represent the dative covalent bond.
H H
H N H H N H
H H
ammonium ion
H H
+
or H N H H N H
H H
Figure 8.8 Electron diagrams and structural formulae showing the formation of an
+
ammonium ion (NH4 ).
+
Dative covalent bond in hydronium ion (H3O )
When hydrogen chloride gas is passed into water, hydrogen chloride
+ –
molecules break down to give hydrogen ions (H ) and chloride ions (Cl ).
+
A dative covalent bond forms between a H ion and a lone pair of
electrons on the O atom in H2O. A more stable ion, hydroxonium ion
+
or hydronium ion (H3O ), is obtained as a result. See Figure 8.9.
H O H Cl H O H Cl
H H
hydronium ion
or H O H Cl H O H Cl
H H
+
Figure 8.9 Electron diagrams and structural formulae showing the formation of hydronium ion (H3O ).
F B F
F
boron trifluoride 三氟化硼
hydronium ion 水合氫離子
hydroxonium ion 鋞離子 identical 相同的
13 8
II Microscopic world I
2,5 1
3 ecide the number of electrons each atom needs to attain the
D ➌ C Cl
4 1
stable electronic arrangement. Write the numbers down.
N H
3 1
4 Take the number of electrons required by each atom across to ➍ C Cl
the other. 4 1
= C1 Cl4
N H
3 1
= N1 H3
5 Combine the symbols and simplify the ratio. ➎ CCl4
NH3
(Omit the numeral ‘1’)
8 14
8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
Key point
Note 4 Relative molecular mass = Sum of relative atomic masses of all N4
Some students may find difficulty in
writing the relative molecular mass
of an element or a atoms present in a molecule of the
of a diatomic molecule. For example, compound element or compound
students may think that the relative
molecular mass of Cl2 is 35.5 instead
of 71.0.
hydrogen atom
oxygen atom
Figure 8.10 The mass of a water molecule (H2O) is equal to the sum of the mass of one
oxygen atom and the mass of two hydrogen atoms.
For a pure substance with a formula, the simplest unit is its formula
unit. In ionic compounds, like magnesium chloride, a formula unit of
2+ –
magnesium chloride is MgCl2, which consists of one Mg ion and two Cl
ions.
Key point
Formula mass of a = Sum of relative atomic masses of all
substance (or species) atoms present in a formula unit of the
substance (or species).
Learning tip
Never speak of the
relative molecular
mass of magnesium
Take magnesium chloride (MgCl2) as an example.
chloride, as there are
Formula mass of MgCl2 = 24.3 + 35.5 × 2 = 95.3
no molecules in this
compound.
relative atomic mass relative atomic mass
of magnesium of chlorine
Solution
C6 H12 O6
Learning tip
(a) Formula mass of C6H12O6 = 12.0 × 6 + 1.0 × 12 + 16.0 × 6
• The formula mass of C6H12O6 is
= 180.0 equal to its relative molecular
mass. This is because this
S O4
2– compound consists of molecules.
(b) Formula mass of SO4 = 32.1 + 16.0 × 4 • It is wrong to speak of the relative
2–
= 96.1 molecular masses of SO4 or
Al2(SO4)3 because they consist of
Al2 (SO4)3 ions only, not molecules.
(c) Formula mass of Al2(SO4)3 = 27.0 × 2 + (32.1 + 16.0 × 4) × 3
= 342.3
formula mass 式量
formula unit 式單位
17 8
II Microscopic world I
(b) 12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 = 30.0 (a) CH4 (b) C2H6 (c) C12H22O11
(c) 12.0 × 12 + 1.0 × 22 + 16.0 × 11 = 342.0
2. (a) 23.0 + 35.5 = 58.5 2. Calculate the formula mass of:
(b) 12.0 × 2 + 1.0 × 6 = 30.0 (same as relative 2–
molecular mass) (a) NaCl (b) C2H6 (c) CO3 (d) Cu(NO3)2․3H2O
(c) 12.0 + 16.0 × 3 = 60.0
(d) 63.5 + (14.0 + 16.0 × 3) × 2 + 3 × (1.0 × 2
+ 16.0) = 241.5
8 18
8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
elements
molecules argon (Ar)
non-metals (exception: chlorine (Cl2)
carbon) sulphur (S8)
Pure substances
compounds
compounds made ions potassium oxide (K2O)
up of metal(s) sodium chloride
and non- (NaCl)
metal(s)
Key terms
PowerPoint
7. diatomic 雙原子的 5
9. formula mass 式量 17
13. molecule 分子 3
8 20
8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
Progress check
PowerPoint
Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.
Page
1. What is a molecule? 3
3. How can we describe the formation of single covalent bond using electron diagrams? 6
4. How can we describe the formation of double covalent bond using electron diagrams? 7
5. How can we describe the formation of triple covalent bond using electron diagrams? 7
10. How do we write the names and formulae of covalent compounds based on their
14–15
constituent atoms?
13. How can we perform calculations related to relative molecular mass and formula mass? 17
14. What are the differences between metallic bond, ionic bond and covalent bond? 18
21 8
II Microscopic world I
Summary
PowerPoint
1. A molecule is the smallest part of an element or a compound which can exist on its own under
room conditions.
2. Compounds made up of only non-metals usually consist of molecules. Elements are made up of
either atoms or molecules. All metals consist of atoms. Most non-metals consist of discrete
molecules.
4. A covalent bond forms when one or more pairs of outermost shell electrons are shared between
two atoms. For example,
H Cl H Cl
5. Covalent bond is the strong directional electrostatic attraction between the shared electrons and
the two nuclei of the bonded atoms.
6. A shared pair of electrons (bond pair) makes a single covalent bond, e.g. H–Cl.
Two shared pairs of electrons make a double covalent bond, e.g. O=C=O.
Three shared pairs of electrons make a triple covalent bond, e.g. N≡N.
7. Some atoms have unshared pairs of outermost shell electrons. These are known as lone pairs,
e.g. a lone pair of electrons
H O H
1 water molecule
8. The molecular formula of a molecular substance shows the actual number of each kind of
atoms in one molecule of the substance, e.g. CH4.
9. The structural formula of a molecular substance shows how the constituent atoms are joined
up in one molecule of the substance, e.g.
H
H C H
8 22
8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
10. A dative covalent bond (or coordinate bond) is a covalent bond formed between two atoms
where both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by the same atom.
11. The formulae of covalent compounds can often be constructed using a quick method. Refer to
‘Problem-solving strategy 8.1’ on p.14.
12. The system for naming covalent compounds is different from that used for naming ionic
compounds. Refer to the rules stated on p.15.
23 8
II Microscopic world I
Concept map
PowerPoint
Outermost
come(s) from
is the electrostatic
Single covalent bond
attraction between
can be
COVALENT BOND Double
covalent bond
can be Triple
found in covalent bond
both exist as
Molecular
formulae
(Hints: Cl2, double, electrostatic, H2O, nuclei, molecular, outermost, relative molecular mass, shared,
triple)
8 24
8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
Chapter exercise H Br F N F H P
H
H
H Si H
F
H
S C S
Cl C Cl
Practice questions
Cl
Section 8.2
13. Draw the electron diagram of the compound formed from each of the following pairs of elements. (Assume
that each atom in the compound has attained the electronic arrangement of a noble gas.)
(a) Carbon and chlorine
14. Electron diagram of NH4Cl: Electron diagram of CHCl3:
(b) Carbon and sulphur + H
(c) Hydrogen and bromine H
Cl C Cl
(d) Nitrogen and fluorine H N H Cl
25 8
II Microscopic world I
14. Draw the electron diagrams of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl) and trichloromethane (CHCl3) respectively
(showing electrons in the outermost shells only). (Answers on p.8-25.)
Section 8.4
15. Give the molecular formula and the name of the compound formed from each of the following pairs of
elements. (Assume that each atom in the compound has attained the electronic arrangement of a noble gas.)
Molecular formula of
Constituent elements Name of the compound
the compound
Y 2,8,4 B. Hydrogen N2 3
C. Oxygen H2 1
Z 2,8 O2 2 B
D. Ammonia
NH3 3
Which of the two elements would probably form 19. Which of the following substances contains the
a covalent compound? greatest number of lone pair of electrons?
19. No. of lone pair
A. W and X 16. W reacts with X to form ionic A. Hydrogen chloride
of electrons
B. X and Z compound instead of covalent B. Ammonia HCl 3
compound.
C. W and Y C. Nitrogen NH3 1
Z is a noble gas. It does not form
C A
D. Y and Z compounds with other elements. D. Water N2 2
H2O 2
17. The following shows the electron diagram of a 20. Which of the following correctly represents the
compound formed from elements X and Y (only molecular formula of hydrogen?
the outermost shell electrons are shown). A. H 20. (A): It is the chemical symbol of
hydrogen.
B. H–H
(B): It is the structural formula of
C. H2 hydrogen.
Y X Y C
D. H H (C): It is the molecular formula of
hydrogen.
(D): It is the electron diagram of
17. (Explanation on p.8-28.) hydrogen.
8 26
8 Chemical bonding: covalent bonding
Group
I II III IV V VI VII 0
Period
2 A B C D
3 E F
(d) Write the molecular and structural formulae of the covalent compound formed between elements B
and C.
(e) Both elements C and F consist of diatomic molecules. What is meant by ‘diatomic molecule’?
(f) Draw electron diagrams (showing electrons in the outermost shells only) to show the bonding in
(i) the diatomic molecule C. 23. (f) (i) (ii)
(ii) the diatomic molecule F. C C F F
Section 8.3
24. You are given the following substances:
ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), chlorine (Cl2), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen (N2), water (H2O), sodium
chloride (NaCl), oxygen (O2), helium (He)
24. (a) Chlorine, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, water,
(a) Which of the above are molecular substances? oxygen, helium
(b) Which of the above are covalent compounds? (b) Carbon monoxide, water
(c) Ammonium chloride, chlorine, carbon monoxide,
(c) Which substances contain covalent bonds? nitrogen, water, oxygen
(d) Ammonium chloride
(d) Which substance(s) contain(s) dative covalent bond?
(e) Ammonium chloride, sodium chloride
(e) Which substance(s) contain(s) ionic bond?
27 8
II Microscopic world I
17. (A): An ionic compound, NaF, forms when sodium reacts with fluorine.
(B): A covalent compound, CS2, forms when carbon reacts with sulphur.
S C S
(C): A covalent compound, NO2, forms when nitrogen reacts with oxygen.
O O
(D): A covalent compound, Cl2O, forms when oxygen reacts with chlorine.
Cl O Cl
25. (a)
H N H
H
(ii) Molecular formula: HCl Structural formula: H Cl
(e) Ammonium chloride
(f) In ammonium chloride, there are four N–H covalent bonds, in which three are normal covalent bonds and one is dative covalent bond.
+ –
Ionic bond is present between NH4 and Cl ions.
Electron diagram of ammonium chloride:
+
H
H N H Cl
8 28