Part IV

Acids and Bases

Part IV
Acids and Bases

The sour taste of many fruits is due mainly to the

presence of citric acid.

Chapter 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Chapter 15 Concentration of solutions
Chapter 16 Indicators and pH
Chapter 17 Strength of acids and alkalis
Chapter 18 Salts and neutralization
Chapter 19 Volumetric analysis involving acids and
alkalis
Chapter 14
Introduction to acids and alkalis
14.1 Common acids in daily life and in the laboratory
14.2 Characteristics and chemical reactions of acids
14.3 Role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of acids
14.4 Basicity of acid
14.5 Common alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory
14.6 Characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis
14.7 Role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of
alkalis
14.8 Corrosive nature of concentrated acids and alkalis

Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

14.1 • recognize that some household substances are acidic

• state the common acids found in the laboratory

14.2 • describe the characteristics of acids and their typical reactions

• write chemical and ionic equations for the reactions of acids
+
14.3 • relate acidic properties to the presence of hydrogen ions H (aq)
• describe the role of water for acids to exhibit their properties

14.4 • state the basicity of different acids such as HCl, H2SO4, H3PO4, CH3COOH

14.5 • define bases and alkalis in terms of their reactions with acids
• recognize that some household substances are alkaline
• state the common alkalis found in the laboratory

14.6 • describe the characteristics of alkalis and their typical reactions

• write chemical and ionic equations for the reactions of alkalis
–
14.7 • relate alkaline properties to the presence of hydroxide ions OH (aq)

14.8 • describe the corrosive nature of acids and alkalis and the safety precautions in handling them
Chapter 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

When making cakes, water, baking powder which contains tartaric acid (an acid) and sodium
hydrogencarbonate (an alkaline substance) are added to the flour. In the presence of water, the acid and
the hydrogencarbonate react to form carbon dioxide gas. The gas formed makes the cake rise.

Baking powder is used to make the cake rise.

In fact, many household substances contain acids or alkalis. Acids and alkalis are very important
to our daily life.

Think about...
In addition to carbon dioxide, what would form in the reaction between an acid and a metal
hydrogencarbonate?
In addition to carbon dioxide, salt and water would also form in the reaction.
Can you give some household substances which contain acids or alkalis?
Refer to Figure 14.1 on p.3 and Figure 14.15 on p.15 of this chapter for some examples of household substances which contain acids
and alkalis respectively.
What are the general properties of acids and alkalis respectively?
Refer to p.4 to 8 and p.16 to 22 of this chapter for the general properties of acids and alkalis respectively.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

sodium hydrogencarbonate 碳酸氫鈉 baking powder 泡打粉

tartaric acid 酒石酸
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

14.1 Common acids in daily life and in the

PowerPoint laboratory

E
XTRA
Do you know?
Common acids in daily life CE1998(II)43
S

The word ‘acid’ comes
from the Latin word
‘acere’ which means
‘sour’.
Acids are commonly found in daily life. Many foods, drinks and seasonings
contain acids. They are characterized by a sour taste. Figure 14.1 shows
some examples of foods, drinks and seasonings that contain acids.

tomato sauce – soft drinks –

contains contain
vinegar –
ethanoic acid carbonic acid
contains
ethanoic acid

yoghurt – contains
lactic acid
Note 1
There is a more detailed description tea – contains
of the importance of vitamin C, its tannic acid
sources and production in Chapter
50 (Book 5: Industrial Chemistry)
of the Chemistry course.

Note 2
citrus fruits – contain
The above mentioned acids grape – contains
spinach – contains ascorbic acid (vitamin C) N1
(except carbonic acid) are often tartaric acid
oxalic acid and citric acid
called organic acids. They are
usually composed of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen. Figure 14.1 Foods, drinks and seasonings that contain acids. N2

Activity 14.1
PowerPoint Naturally occurring acids and their chemical compositions
Acids are very common in daily life. They can be found in substances around
us. In this activity, you are going to search the Internet (or other sources) for
examples of naturally occurring acids and their chemical compositions. After
the search, present your findings by designing a poster.

Common acids in the laboratory

The acids that are commonly used in the school laboratory are:
• hydrochloric acid (HCl)
• sulphuric acid (H2SO4) (Figure 14.2)
• nitric acid (HNO3)

acid 酸
ascorbic acid 抗壞血酸
citric acid 檸檬酸
ethanoic acid 乙酸
lactic acid 乳酸
nitric acid 硝酸
sulphuric acid 硫酸
tannic acid 丹寧酸
3 14

carbonic acid 碳酸 hydrochloric acid 氫氯酸 oxalic acid 草酸

 IV Acids and bases

These three acids are often called mineral acids as they were
Note 3 manufactured from minerals in the past. N3
Mineral acids were produced many
years ago from inorganic minerals
(such as sodium chloride and
sodium nitrate). They are also
called inorganic acids.

Figure 14.2 The three mineral acids commonly used in the school
laboratory.

14.2 Characteristics and chemical

PowerPoint
Learning tip
Pure acids may be
gases (e.g. hydrogen
chloride, HCl),
liquids (e.g. sulphuric
acid, H2SO4, nitric
acid, HNO3) or solids
(e.g. citric acid).
reactions of acids
Dilute acids in the laboratory are usually in the form of dilute aqueous
solutions. They show some common characteristics and have typical
chemical reactions.
Experiment 14.1 PowerPoint Experiment
Experiment Workbook 2
Video
Investigating characteristics and chemical reactions of dilute acids
In this experiment, you are going to investigate some characteristics and
chemical reactions of dilute hydrochloric acid.

Note 4
Taste
Electrolytes are compounds which
allow electricity to pass through
Dilute acids have a sour taste. However, NEVER taste any acid in the
them only when molten or in laboratory!
aqueous solution.
CE2005(II)29

Electrical conductivity
* Book 1, Section 9.2, p.7–8 Acids are *electrolytes. They conduct electricity when they dissolve in
water to form an aqueous solution. N4

14 4 dilute acid 稀酸
electrolyte 電解質
mineral acid 礦酸
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Effect on litmus paper CE2009(II)7

Note 5 Dilute acids turn blue litmus paper red (Figure 14.3). N5
Litmus is a water-soluble mixture of
different dyes extracted from
lichens. It is often absorbed onto
filter paper (i.e. litmus paper) for
testing the acidity and alkalinity of blue litmus paper
aqueous solutions. Neutral litmus
paper is purple in colour. Blue
litmus paper turns red under acidic
conditions and red litmus paper
turns blue under alkaline
conditions.

dilute acid
Figure 14.3 Blue litmus paper
turns red in a dilute acid.

CE2001(I)2(a) CE2005(I)3(b) CE2008(I)4(a)

Reaction with metals CE2003(I)4 CE2005(II)38 DSE2012(IA)4
CE2004(II)38 CE2007(I)5(a) DSE2012(IA)19
Dilute acids react with metals which are higher than copper in the
* Book 1, Section 11.1, p.10 *metal reactivity series to form salt and hydrogen. Less reactive metals
like copper and silver do not react with dilute acids.

Learning tip e.g. Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g) (Figure 14.4(a))

Only very dilute nitric
acid reacts with metals
Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) FeSO4(aq) + H2(g) (Figure 14.4(b))
to give hydrogen. Dilute
Ca(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g) N6
nitric acid reacts with (very dilute)
metals in a different way. Note 6
Dilute nitric acid reacts with metals to give nitrogen
This will be discussed in
monoxide, NOT hydrogen.
Book 3B, Chapter 30.

colourless bubbles
of hydrogen

magnesium
Figure 14.4 (a) Magnesium reacts ribbon iron
rapidly with dilute hydrochloric acid. nail
(b) Iron reacts slowly with dilute
(a) (b)
hydrochloric acid.

Key point
Note 7 acid + metal salt + hydrogen N7
General word equations are very
useful and should be memorized
instead of specific examples.

litmus paper 石蕊試紙

5 14
 IV Acids and bases

H20 Example 14.1

Reaction of dilute acid with metal
In an experiment, a few zinc granules are added to a test tube of dilute hydrochloric acid.
(a) State THREE observable changes during the experiment.
(b) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved.
(c) Write the ionic equation for the reaction involved.

Solution
(a) Zinc granules dissolve. Learning tip
–
Effervescence occurs (or colourless gas bubbles • Cl (aq) in this case is a spectator ion, which
evolve). The test tube becomes warm as heat is should NOT be included in the ionic
equation.
given out. • Covalent molecules (e.g. H2, CO2 and H2O)
(b) Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g) should NEVER be written in ionic form.
+ 2+
(c) Zn(s) + 2H (aq) Zn (aq) + H2(g)

Class practice 14.1

Write the chemical equation and the ionic equation for each of the following
reactions: A14.1
(a) 2Al(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2(g)
(a) aluminium + dilute sulphuric acid +
2Al(s) + 6H (aq)
3+
2Al (aq) + 3H2(g)
(b) Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2(g)
(b) calcium + dilute hydrochloric acid + 2+
Ca(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + H2(g)

CE2002(I)6(a)(ii)
CE2002(II)32
CE2005(II)38
CE2008(II)33
Reaction with metal hydroxides and metal oxides
CE2003(I)4 CE2010(I)10(c)
CE2003(II)27 DSE2014(IA)24 Dilute acids react with metal hydroxides and metal oxides to form salt and
water. Metal hydroxides and metal oxides are examples of bases. The
* Book 2, Section 18.1, p.3 reaction between acids and bases is known as *neutralization.

Learning tip Reaction of dilute hydrochloric acid with calcium

In an ionic equation,
solid or insoluble ionic
hydroxide
compounds (e.g.
Ca(OH)2(s) in this case)
Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with calcium hydroxide to form calcium
should NOT be written chloride and water.
as separate ions (e.g.
2+ –
Ca (aq) and OH (aq)). Ca(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O(,)
white colourless

+ 2+
Ionic equation: Ca(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + 2H2O(,)

14 6 base 鹽基
effervescence 泡騰現象
neutralization 中和作用
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with copper(II) oxide

Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with copper(II) oxide to form copper(II) sulphate
and water (Figure 14.5).
CE2006(I)7(a)(ii)
CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(,)
black blue

+ 2+
Ionic equation: CuO(s) + 2H (aq) Cu (aq) + H2O(,)

copper(II)
sulphate
Figure 14.5 Dilute sulphuric acid solution
reacts with copper(II) oxide to form copper(II) oxide
copper(II) sulphate solution.

Key point
acid + metal hydroxide salt + water
acid + metal oxide salt + water

Class practice 14.2

A14.2
Write the chemical equation and the ionic equation for each of the following
(a) Mg(OH)2(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + 2H2O()
reactions: + 2+
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + 2H2O()
(a) magnesium hydroxide + dilute sulphuric acid
(b) ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O()
(b) zinc oxide + dilute nitric acid + 2+
ZnO(s) + 2H (aq) Zn (aq) + H2O()
(Hint: magnesium hydroxide and zinc oxide are insoluble in water.)

CE1999(I)2(a) CE2001(II)35 CE2003(I)4 CE2005(II)38 CE2009(I)1(b)

CE2000(II)22 CE2002(I)7(a)(i) CE2003(II)27 CE2006(II)48 DSE2013(IA)19

Note 8
Reaction with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates N8

Action of acids on carbonates and

hydrogencarbonates is a chemical Dilute acids react with carbonates and hydrogencarbonates to form salt,
test for carbonates and
carbon dioxide and water.
hydrogencarbonates. Effervescence
(liberation of carbon dioxide) is the
e.g. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(,)
characteristic observation.
+ 2+
Ionic equation: CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(,)

e.g. 2NaHCO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(,)

– +
Ionic equation: HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(,)

7 14
 IV Acids and bases

In the reaction between dilute acids and carbonates or

hydrogencarbonates, colourless gas bubbles of carbon dioxide form
and effervescence occurs (Figure 14.6). The carbon dioxide formed can be
tested by limewater and it turns limewater milky.

Key point
acid + carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water
Figure 14.6 Effervescence acid + hydrogencarbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water
occurs when dilute hydrochloric
acid reacts with calcium
carbonate.

H20 Example 14.2 CE2006(II)48

Reaction of dilute sulphuric acid with calcium carbonate

A student added a small lump of calcium carbonate to a test tube of dilute sulphuric acid.
(a) Write the chemical equation for the reaction involved.
(b) The student found that the calcium carbonate reacted very slowly and then the reaction stopped.
A part of the lump of calcium carbonate remained. Suggest a reason.
(c) If dilute sulphuric acid was replaced by dilute nitric acid, what would be observed?

Solution
(a) CaCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CaSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(,)
(b) When dilute sulphuric acid reacted with calcium carbonate, the insoluble calcium sulphate formed
would coat on the surface of calcium carbonate. This prevented the calcium carbonate from further
reaction with the acid, so the reaction stopped.
(c) The small lump of calcium carbonate dissolved and effervescence occurred.

A14.3
(a) Magnesium dissolves to give a colourless solution/effervescence occurs (or colourless
gas bubbles evolve)/the solution becomes warm. (Any ONE)
Mg(s) + 2HCl(aq) MgCl2(aq) + H2(g)
+
Mg(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
Mg (aq) + H2(g) Class practice 14.3
(b) Aluminium oxide dissolves to give a
colourless solution/the solution
For each of the following reactions, (i) state ONE observable change, (ii) write
becomes warm. (Any ONE)
Al2O3(s) + 3H2SO4(aq) the chemical equation involved, and (iii) write the ionic equation involved.
Al2(SO4)3(aq) + 3H2O()
+ (a) magnesium + dilute hydrochloric acid
Al2O3(s) + 6H (aq)
3+
2Al (aq) + 3H2O() (b) aluminium oxide + dilute sulphuric acid
(c) Iron(II) hydroxide dissolves to give a
pale green solution/the solution (c) iron(II) hydroxide + dilute hydrochloric acid
becomes warm. (Any ONE) (d) copper(II) carbonate + dilute sulphuric acid
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq)
FeCl2(aq) + 2H2O() (Hint: aluminium oxide, iron(II) hydroxide and copper(II) carbonate are
+
Fe(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) insoluble in water.)
2+
Fe (aq) + 2H2O()
(d) Copper(II) carbonate dissolves to give a pale blue solution/effervescence occurs (or
colourless gas bubbles evolve). (Any ONE)
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) CuSO4(aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
+ 2+
CuCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Cu (aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
14 8
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

14.3 Role of water in exhibiting

PowerPoint characteristic properties of acids
So far we have only considered the aqueous solutions of acids. What
would happen if water is absent? Would this affect the properties of
acids?

Role of water in exhibiting characteristic

properties of citric acid
Learning tip
The chemical structure of Solid citric acid has no effect on dry blue litmus paper (Figure 14.7(a)).
citric acid is: When water is added to dissolve the solid acid, an aqueous solution of
H O citric acid forms, which turns dry blue litmus paper red (Figure 14.7(b)).
CE2006(II)28
H C C O H
O

H O C C O H
O
dry blue
H C C O H
dry blue litmus
H . litmus paper
paper turned red

Figure 14.7 (a) Solid citric

acid has no effect on dry
blue litmus paper. (b)
Aqueous solution of citric
solid citric acid aqueous solution of citric acid
acid turns dry blue litmus
paper red. (a) (b)

Solid citric acid has no reaction with magnesium (Figure 14.8(a)). But
CE1999(II)37
CE2006(II)28 when water is added to the solid acid, the aqueous solution of citric acid
formed would react with magnesium to give hydrogen (Figure 14.8(b)).

colourless
bubbles of
Figure 14.8 (a) Solid citric
hydrogen aqueous
acid has no effect on
solution of
magnesium. (b) Aqueous citric acid
magnesium
solution of citric acid reacts
with magnesium, forming solid citric
colourless gas bubbles (i.e. acid
hydrogen). (a) (b)

9 14
 IV Acids and bases
Test
Electrical conductivity
Action on solid
copper(II) oxide
Action on anhydrous
sodium carbonate
Action of solid
sodium
hydrogencarbonate
Table 14.1 Comparison of properties of solid citric acid and aqueous solution of citric acid. N9 Note 9
CE2010(II)28
Concept check
✘ Solid citric acid
contains hydrogen
ions.
✔ Solid citric acid
does NOT contain
hydrogen ions.
Hydrogen ions form
only when the acid
molecules ionize in
water.
Figure 14.9 Solid citric acid
14 10 citrate ion 檸檬酸根離子
hydrogen ion 氫離子
ionization 電離作用
ionize 電離
Table 14.1 compares other properties of solid citric acid and an
aqueous solution of citric acid.
Solid citric acid Aqueous solution of citric acid
does not conduct electricity conducts electricity
solution becomes blue when the mixture is
no observable change
warmed
colourless bubbles of carbon dioxide evolve
no observable change 2– +
CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(,)
colourless bubbles of carbon dioxide evolve
no observable change – +
HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(,)
In other words, substances which
we call ‘acids’ do not behave as
acids in the absence of water.
From the above comparisons, water must be present for citric acid
to show its acidic properties.
Experiment 14.2 PowerPoint Experiment
Experiment Workbook 2
Video
Studying the role of water in exhibiting properties of acids
In this experiment, you are going to study the role of water in exhibiting
properties of acids, using solid citric acid and aqueous solution of citric acid.
Ionization of acid in water
Ionization of citric acid in water
Pure citric acid is a white solid (Figure 14.9). It is a covalent compound
which consists of citric acid molecules. When it dissolves in water, some
of its molecules ionize (forming ions) in water to form hydrogen ions,
+
H (aq) (Figure 14.10). This process is called ionization.
CE2006(II)28
water
citric acid hydrogen ion + citrate ion
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Learning tip
Citrate ion is the anion citric acid
formed when a citric acid molecule
molecule ionizes in water. H ion
+

Figure 14.10 An aqueous CE2005(II)29

solution of citric acid contains
citric acid molecules, hydrogen
ions and citrate ions. (Note:
water molecules are not shown citrate ion
in the diagram. Also, the
diagram does not show the
actual numbers and sizes of
The hydrogen ions are responsible for all the acidic properties of
particles in the aqueous
solution of citric acid.) aqueous solution of citric acid.

Ionization of hydrogen chloride, sulphuric acid and nitric

acid in water
Hydrogen chloride is a colourless gas. It is a covalent compound which
consists of hydrogen chloride molecules. It does not show acidic
properties because no hydrogen ions are present. However, when
hydrogen chloride dissolves in water, its molecules ionize in water to
+
form hydrogen ions, H (aq) (Figure 14.11).
water + –
DSE2014(IA)13 HCl(g) H (aq) + Cl (aq)

–
Cl ion
+
H ion

Figure 14.11 Hydrochloric

acid contains hydrogen ions
and chloride ions. (Note: water
molecules are not shown in
the diagram. Also, the diagram
does not show the actual
numbers and sizes of particles
in hydrochloric acid.)

Pure sulphuric acid and pure nitric acid are colourless liquids. They
are covalent compounds which consist of sulphuric acid and nitric acid
molecules respectively. They do not show acidic properties because no
hydrogen ions are present. But when they dissolve in water, hydrogen
+
ions, H (aq) form.
water
+ 2–
H2SO4(,) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
DSE2014(IA)13
water + –
HNO3(,) H (aq) + NO3 (aq)

11 14
 IV Acids and bases Note 10
This is the Arrhenius definition of acid which is more suitable for HKDSE level. But there are other different definitions for
higher levels, e.g. the Bronsted-Lowry definition (acids are proton donors) and the Lewis definition (acids are electron pair
acceptors).
Acidic properties and hydrogen ions CE2003(I)4

Note 11
The common properties of all dilute aqueous solutions of acids are due
Some chemicals dissolve in water
+
+
to form H (aq) together with other to hydrogen ions, H (aq). Chemists define an acid in the following way:
cations. For example, sodium
hydrogensulphate, NaHSO4, is
not regarded as an acid because Key point
it forms two types of cations
+ +
(H (aq) and Na (aq)) when An acid is a covalent molecular compound, which forms hydrogen
dissolved in water. Actually, +
NaHSO4 is an acid salt.
ions H (aq) as the only cation when dissolved in water. N10, N11

DSE2014(IA)24
+
Hydrogen ion H (aq) cannot exist alone in aqueous solution. It always
* Book 1, Section 8.3, p.13 combines with water molecule to form *hydronium ion (or
+
hydroxonium ion) (H3O (aq)). See Figure 14.12. As a convention, we can
+
simply use H (aq) to represent hydronium ion in aqueous solution when
writing equations.

+
Figure 14.12 H does not contain
H + O H H O H
any electrons. It tends to form a
dative covalent bond with the lone H H
pair of electrons on the oxygen atom
in a water molecule. As a result, hydrogen ion water molecule hydronium ion
+
hydronium ion H3O forms. (or hydroxonium ion)

H20 Example 14.3 CE2001(II)40 CE2004(II)44 CE2005(I)10(a)

Explaining why ‘fizzy drink’ powder effervesces in water

The photo on the right shows a bottle of ‘fizzy drink’ powder which
contains citric acid and sodium hydrogencarbonate as the active
ingredients. When a spoonful of ‘fizzy drink’ powder is added to a beaker
of water, the mixture fizzes (or effervesces).
(a) Explain, with the aid of an ionic equation, why effervescence occurs
when a spoonful of ‘fizzy drink’ powder is added to water.
(b) Suggest how this bottle of ‘fizzy drink’ powder should be stored at
home.

Solution
+
(a) When dissolved in water, the solid acid ionizes to form H (aq) ions, which react with the sodium
hydrogencarbonate to give carbon dioxide. (Note: The carbon dioxide formed causes the fizz.)
+ –
H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(,)
(b) It should be stored in a cool and dry place.
Try Chapter Exercise Q30

14 12 hydronium ion 水合氫離子

hydroxonium ion 鋞離子
fizzy drink 起泡飲料
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

A14.4 Class practice 14.4

1. Magnesium reacts with the hydrogen
ions (from ascorbic acid) to give
hydrogen gas.
1. When a piece of magnesium ribbon is put into an aqueous solution of
+
Mg(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
Mg (aq) + H2(g) ascorbic acid (vitamin C), effervescence occurs. With the aid of an ionic
2. (a) There is no colour change to the equation, explain the observation.
blue litmus paper.
When there is no water, liquid 2. Explain the colour change (if any) when a piece of dry blue litmus paper is
ethanoic acid (pure) cannot ionize put into
+
to give H (aq) and thus cannot
exhibit acidic properties. (a) pure liquid ethanoic acid, and
(b) The blue litmus paper turns red. (b) an aqueous solution of ethanoic acid.
In the presence of water, ethanoic
+
acid ionizes to give H (aq) and
thus can exhibit acidic properties.

14.4 Basicity of acid

PowerPoint
When an acid dissolves in water, its molecules ionize in water to give
hydrogen ions. Different acids may give different numbers of hydrogen
ions per molecule in aqueous solution. The maximum number of
hydrogen ions produced by one molecule of the acid is called the basicity
of the acid.

• Each hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule ionizes in water to give one

hydrogen ion. Therefore, the basicity of hydrochloric acid is 1. It is a
monobasic acid.
+ –
HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl (aq)

Learning tip • Each sulphuric acid (H2SO4) molecule ionizes in water to give two
A single arrow ‘ ’ hydrogen ions. Therefore, the basicity of sulphuric acid is 2. It is a
indicates that the dibasic acid. The ionization of sulphuric acid molecule in water occurs
ionization is complete.
A double arrow ‘ ’ in two steps:
indicates that the + –
H2SO4(aq) H (aq) + HSO4 (aq)
ionization is incomplete.
– + 2–
HSO4 (aq) H (aq) + SO4 (aq)

• Each phosphoric acid (H3PO4) molecule ionizes in water to give three

hydrogen ions. Therefore, the basicity of phosphoric acid is 3. It is a
tribasic acid. The ionization of phosphoric acid molecule in water
occurs in three steps:
+ –
H3PO4(aq) H (aq) + H2PO4 (aq)
Note 12 – + 2–
For a polybasic acid, ionization H2PO4 (aq) H (aq) + HPO4 (aq)
(release of hydrogen ion) is a step- 2– + 3–
by-step process. The ease of losing
HPO4 (aq) H (aq) + PO4 (aq)
the first hydrogen ion is the greatest.
Then it becomes more difficult to Acids that can give more than one hydrogen ion per molecule are
lose further hydrogen ions. Thus, the
+ called polybasic acids. Polybasic acids ionize in steps. Sulphuric acid and N12
[H (aq)] for 1 M H2SO4 is about 1 M,
not 2 M. phosphoric acid are examples of polybasic acids.

basicity 鹽基度
dibasic acid 二元酸
polybasic acid 多元酸
tribasic acid 三元酸
13 14

monobasic acid 一元酸

 IV Acids and bases

Table 14.2 shows the equations for the ionization of different acids in
water and hence their corresponding basicity.

Learning tip
Acid Ionization in water Basicity of acid
The structural formula of
oxalic acid is
+ –
Hydrochloric acid HCl(aq) H (aq) + Cl (aq)
O O + –
Nitric acid HNO3(aq) H (aq) + NO3 (aq) 1
H O C C O H . + –
Nitrous acid HNO2(aq) H (aq) + NO2 (aq) (monobasic)
Another name of oxalic + –
Ethanoic acid CH3COOH(aq) H (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
acid is ethanedioic acid.

+ 2–
Sulphuric acid H2SO4(aq) 2H (aq) + SO4 (aq)
+ 2–
Sulphurous acid H2SO3(aq) 2H (aq) + SO3 (aq) 2
+ 2–
Carbonic acid H2CO3(aq) 2H (aq) + CO3 (aq) (dibasic)
+ 2–
Oxalic acid H2C2O4(aq) 2H (aq) + C2O4 (aq)

+ 3– 3
Phosphoric acid H3PO4(aq) 3H (aq) + PO4 (aq)
(tribasic)

Table 14.2 The basicity of some common acids.

H O Note that the basicity of an acid is not necessarily equal to the total
number of hydrogen atoms in the acid molecule. For example, the basicity
H C C O H
of ethanoic acid (CH3COOH) is 1 but not 4 even though the acid molecule
H
only this hydrogen has 4 hydrogen atoms (Figure 14.13).
atom can form
hydrogen ion CE2002(II)48
+ –
CE2005(II)14 CH3COOH(aq) H (aq) + CH3COO (aq)
Figure 14.13 Ethanoic acid
(CH3COOH) is monobasic
because each molecule can
only give one hydrogen ion. N13
Key point CE2008(II)17

Note 13 The basicity of an acid is the maximum number of hydrogen ions

Usually, the ionizable hydrogen atom
produced by one molecule of the acid.
is the one directly attached to an
oxygen atom in an acid molecule.

Class practice 14.5

A14.5
(a) 1 (monobasic) What is the basicity of
(b) 2 (dibasic)
(a) nitrous acid, HNO2, and
(b) butanedioic acid, HOOCCH2CH2COOH?

14 14 butanedioic acid 丁二酸

ethanedioic acid 乙二酸
nitrous acid 亞硝酸
sulphurous acid 亞硫酸
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

14.5 Common alkalis in daily life and in

PowerPoint the laboratory
Bases are compounds that behave differently from acids. They are regarded
as ‘chemical opposites’ of acids. They react with acids to form salt and
water only. Metal oxides and metal hydroxides are bases.

Learning tip
Calcium hydroxide is
only slightly soluble
in water.
Only a few bases are soluble in water. These soluble bases are called
alkalis. Sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide,
sodium oxide and potassium oxide are examples of alkalis. Ammonia is
also an alkali. When ammonia gas dissolves in water, an alkaline solution is
produced. This alkaline solution can neutralize acids to give salt and water
only.

In fact, all alkalis are bases, but not all bases are alkalis (Figure 14.14).

bases (compounds which

react with acids to form
salt and water only)

alkalis (bases
which are
soluble in water)

Figure 14.14 All alkalis are bases,

but not all bases are alkalis.

Key point
A base is a compound which reacts with an acid to form salt and
water only. An alkali is a base which is soluble in water.

Common alkalis in daily life

Many substances used in daily life contain alkalis (Figure 14.15). Examples
of these alkalis are:
• sodium hydroxide — in drain cleaners and oven cleaners CE2009(II)32

• ammonia — in window cleaners

• calcium hydroxide — in slaked lime, added to acidic soil to make it less
Figure 14.15 These household acidic CE2000(II)49
cleaners contain alkalis.

alkali 鹼
ammonia 氨
metal hydroxide 金屬氫氧化物
metal oxide 金屬氧化物
15 14

base 鹽基
 IV Acids and bases

Common alkalis in the laboratory

Learning tip
Pure alkalis are solids
(except ammonia,
which is a gas). They are
The common alkalis found in the laboratory are sodium hydroxide
(NaOH), potassium hydroxide (KOH), calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2) (as
limewater) and aqueous ammonia (NH3). See Figure 14.16. N14, N15

in the form of aqueous

solutions when used in
the laboratory.

Note 14
The common names for sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide are
caustic soda, caustic potash and slaked lime
respectively. The ‘caustic’ sold in hardware
shops is sodium hydroxide flakes.

Figure 14.16 Alkalis commonly

used in the laboratory.

Note 15
Sodium hydroxide and potassium
hydroxide solutions have similar Activity 14.2 PowerPoint
chemical properties. However,
sodium hydroxide is more
Naturally occurring bases and their chemical compositions
commonly used in laboratories
than potassium hydroxide because Bases are very common in daily life. They can be found in a variety of
the former is much cheaper. substances around us. In this activity, you are going to search the Internet (or
other sources) for examples of naturally occurring bases and their chemical
compositions. After the search, present your findings by designing a poster.

14.6 Characteristics and chemical

PowerPoint reactions of alkalis
Dilute aqueous solution of alkalis usually show some common
characteristics and have typical chemical reactions.

Taste
Dilute alkalis usually have a bitter taste. However, NEVER taste any
alkali in the laboratory!

Note 16
Dilute alkalis have slippery feel
Feel N16

because they react with the grease

on the skin to form soap. This is
called saponification. So it is not
actually the dilute alkali that is
slippery.
Dilute alkalis have a slippery feel. Concentrated solutions of potassium
hydroxide and sodium hydroxide attack and burn the skin. For this reason,
these two alkalis are called caustic alkali (‘caustic’ means burning).

14 16 caustic alkali 苛性鹼 bitter 苦澀的

slippery 滑溜的
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Electrical conductivity CE2011(II)12

Like acids, alkalis are electrolytes. They conduct electricity when they
dissolve in water to form an aqueous solution.

Effect on litmus paper DSE2014(IA)21

Dilute alkalis turn red litmus paper blue (Figure 14.17).

red litmus paper

dilute alkali

Figure 14.17 Red litmus paper turns blue in a

dilute alkali.

Reaction with acids

Dilute alkalis react with acids to form salt and water. For example, dilute
sodium hydroxide solution reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form
sodium chloride and water.

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(,)

Key point
alkali + acid salt + water

Reaction with non-metal oxides

Dilute alkalis react with some non-metal oxides such as carbon dioxide
(CO2). For example, calcium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form
calcium carbonate and water.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(,)

colourless white insoluble
solid

17 14
 IV Acids and bases
Note 17
In the limewater test, if excess CE2010(I)6(a)
carbon dioxide is bubbled into
Limewater is actually a saturated aqueous solution of calcium
the milky solution, the limewater
becomes clear again. This is hydroxide. It turns milky when carbon dioxide is passed into it. This is
because excess carbon dioxide
because the white insoluble calcium carbonate formed suspends
reacts with calcium carbonate to
give the soluble calcium throughout the solution. Limewater is commonly used in the school
hydrogencarbonate.
CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O()
laboratory to test for carbon dioxide. N17
Ca(HCO3)2(aq)
Learning tip Sodium hydroxide reacts with carbon dioxide to form sodium
The sodium carbonate carbonate and water.
formed from the
reaction between 2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(,)
carbon dioxide and CE2002(II)24
colourless soluble in
sodium hydroxide water
dissolves in water.
Thus, this reaction Key point
CANNOT be used to
alkali + carbon dioxide metal carbonate + water
test for carbon dioxide.

CE1999(I)8(a)(iii) CE2010(II)20 Reaction with ammonium compounds N18

CE2000(II)27 DSEPP2012(IA)20
CE2002(II)17 DSE2012(IA)19
On heating, a dilute alkali reacts with an ammonium compound to form
CE2003(I)6(a)(i) DSE2012(IB)7(a)
CE2004(I)2(b) DSE2013(IA)9 a salt, water and ammonia, which has a pungent smell. For example, when
CE2010(I)2(a)(ii)
sodium hydroxide is heated with ammonium chloride, sodium chloride,
Note 18
water and ammonia are produced. The ammonia gas turns a moist red
A chemical test for ammonium litmus paper blue (Figure 14.18).
compounds is the action of alkali
on them. Upon heating, the heat
reaction will give an alkaline gas, NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(,)
NH3. This reaction appears
frequently in public examinations. heat
+ –
Ionic equation: NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O(,)

moist red moist red

litmus litmus
paper paper
turned
blue

Figure 14.18 An ammonium ammonium

compound + alkali
compound reacts with an
alkali to form ammonia,
which turns moist red litmus
paper blue.

Key point
heat
ammonium compound + alkali salt + ammonia + water

14 18 ammonium compound 銨化合物

 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Class practice 14.6

A14.6
1. (a) (i) Potassium hydroxide
+ –
1. Consider four compounds: potassium hydroxide, magnesium oxide, zinc
(ii) H (aq) + OH (aq)
H2O() hydroxide, copper(II) oxide
(b) (i) Magnesium oxide, zinc hydroxide (a) (i) Which of the above substances is/are alkali(s)?
and copper(II) oxide
+ (ii) Write ionic equation(s) for the reaction of dilute hydrochloric
(ii) MgO(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
Mg (aq) + H2O() acid and the alkali(s) mentioned in (a)(i).
+
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2H (aq) (b) (i) Which of the above substances is/are insoluble base(s)?
2+
Zn (aq) + 2H2O()
+ (ii) Write ionic equation(s) for the reaction of dilute sulphuric acid
CuO(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
Cu (aq) + H2O() and the insoluble base(s) mentioned in (b)(i).
2. (a) 2KOH(aq) + CO2(g)
2. Write the chemical equation and the ionic equation for each of the
K2CO3(aq) + H2O()
–
2OH (aq) + CO2(g)
following reactions:
2–
CO3 (aq) + H2O() (a) potassium hydroxide solution + carbon dioxide
(b) 2NH4Cl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq)
2NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + 2H2O()
(b) ammonium chloride solution + calcium hydroxide solution (with
+ –
NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) heating)
NH3(g) + H2O()

Experiment 14.3 Experiment Workbook 2

PowerPoint Experiment Investigating the action of dilute alkalis on ammonium compounds

Video In this experiment, you are going to investigate the action of dilute alkalis on
ammonium compounds.

Reaction with metal ions in aqueous solution

Metal hydroxides (except sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide) are
insoluble or slightly insoluble in water. When aqueous solutions of alkalis
CE2003(I)8(b)(i) are added to solutions containing metal ions, metal hydroxides would be
precipitated out.

For example, when a few drops of sodium hydroxide solution are

added to magnesium sulphate solution, a white precipitate of magnesium
hydroxide forms.

MgSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Mg(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

white precipitate

Ionic equation:
2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)

19 14
 IV Acids and bases

–
Aqueous ammonia contains hydroxide ions (OH (aq)). Hence, when a
Learning tip
You will know why few drops of aqueous ammonia are added to magnesium sulphate solution.
aqueous ammonia A white precipitate of magnesium hydroxide also forms.
contains hydroxide ions
in Section 14.7, p.24. Table 14.3 summarizes the reactions of some metal ions in aqueous
solution with sodium hydroxide solution and aqueous ammonia
respectively. Figure 14.19 shows the colours of the precipitates formed in
the reactions.

Action of excess Action of excess

Precipitation with a small amount of NaOH(aq) on NH3(aq) on
Metal ion
NaOH(aq) or NH3(aq) precipitate precipitate
DSE2012(IA)20
With NaOH(aq):
2+ –
Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ca(OH)2(s) insoluble
white
2+
Ca (aq) precipitate

With NH3(aq): no observable

no observable change change
CE2006(II)7 2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
2+
Mg (aq) colourless white insoluble insoluble
CE2010(II)20 DSE2013(IA)3 precipitate

3+ –
Al (aq) + 3OH (aq) Al(OH)3(s) dissolves to form a
3+
Al (aq) colourless white insoluble
precipitate
colourless solution

CE2002(II)17 2+ –
Zn (aq) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s) dissolves to form a dissolves to form a
2+
Zn (aq) colourless white
precipitate
colourless solution colourless solution
CE2006(II)7 DSE2012(IA)20

CE2001(I)2(b) 2+ –
Fe (aq) + 2OH (aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
2+
Fe (aq) pale green dirty green insoluble insoluble
CE2006(II)17 CE2009(II)37 DSEPP2012(IA)20 precipitate
3+ –
CE1998(II)25 Fe (aq) + 3OH (aq) Fe(OH)3(s)
3+
Fe (aq) yellow or brown reddish brown insoluble insoluble
CE1999(I)5 DSE2013(IA)9 precipitate

CE1999(II)20 2+ –
Pb (aq) + 2OH (aq) Pb(OH)2(s) dissolves to form a
2+
Pb (aq) colourless white insoluble
precipitate
colourless solution
CE2001(II)11 DSE2013(IA)11

CE2002(II)17 2+ –
Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s) dissolves to form a
2+
Cu (aq) blue pale blue insoluble
AL2010(I)3(b)(ii) DSE2014(IA)21 DSE2014(IB)9(a) precipitate
deep blue solution

+ –
2Ag (aq) + 2OH (aq) Ag2O(s) + H2O() dissolves to form a
+
Ag (aq) colourless dark brown insoluble
precipitate
colourless solution

Table 14.3 Reactions of some metal ions in aqueous solution with sodium hydroxide solution and aqueous ammonia
respectively.

14 20 precipitation 沉澱作用
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Mg(OH)2(s) Al(OH)3(s) Zn(OH)2(s) Fe(OH)2(s) Fe(OH)3(s) Pb(OH)2(s) Cu(OH)2(s)

Figure 14.19 The precipitates formed by the addition of a small amount of sodium hydroxide solution or aqueous ammonia
to some aqueous solutions containing metal ions.

When aqueous ammonia (even in excess amount) is added to an

Learning tip
The colour and the
solubility of a metal
hydroxide in excess
aqueous alkalis may
help us identify the
metal ions in an
aqueous solution.
aqueous solution of calcium ions, no precipitate is seen. This is because
there are not enough hydroxide ions present to form calcium hydroxide.
Precipitates that redissolve in excess sodium hydroxide
solution
Aluminium hydroxide, zinc hydroxide and lead(II) hydroxide are white
precipitates. They all dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide solution to
give a colourless solution. This is because soluble complex ions form
when excess sodium hydroxide solution is added to them respectively.
– –
Al(OH)3(s) + OH (aq) [Al(OH)4] (aq)
white from excess tetrahydroxoaluminate ion
precipitate sodium hydroxide solution colourless solution

– 2–
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) [Zn(OH)4] (aq) (Figure 14.20)
white from excess tetrahydroxozincate ion
precipitate sodium hydroxide solution colourless solution

– 2–
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) [Pb(OH)4] (aq)
white from excess tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ion
precipitate sodium hydroxide solution colourless solution

add a small amount add excess

of NaOH(aq) NaOH(aq)

Zn(OH)2
precipitate solution
containing
Zn(NO3)2(aq) 2–
[Zn(OH)4] (aq)
ions

Figure 14.20 Zinc hydroxide dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution to form a colourless solution.

tetrahydroxoaluminate ion 四羥合鋁酸根離子

complex ion 絡離子
tetrahydroxoplumbate(II) ion 四羥合鉛(II) 酸根離子
tetrahydroxozincate ion 四羥合鋅酸根離子
21 14
 IV Acids and bases

Precipitates that redissolve in excess aqueous ammonia

Zinc hydroxide and copper(II) hydroxide dissolve in excess aqueous
ammonia to give a colourless solution and a deep blue solution
respectively. These metal hydroxides react with excess aqueous ammonia
to form soluble complex ions.
2+ –
Zn(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Zn(NH3)4] (aq) + 2OH (aq)
white tetraamminezinc ion
precipitate colourless solution

2+ –
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4] (aq) + 2OH (aq) (Figure 14.21)
AL2010(I)3(b)(ii) pale blue tetraamminecopper(II) ion
precipitate deep blue solution

adding a small adding excess

amount of NH3(aq) NH3(aq)

solution
CuSO4(aq) Cu(OH)2 containing
precipitate 2+
[Cu(NH3)4] (aq)
ions

Figure 14.21 Copper(II) hydroxide dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia to form a deep blue solution.

A14.7
Class practice 14.7
2+ –
1. (a) (i) Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq)
Mg(OH)2(s) 1. Consider the following experiments:
(ii) The colour of the (a) Adding potassium hydroxide solution to magnesium nitrate solution
precipitate is white.
(iii) There would be no (b) Adding aqueous ammonia to iron(II) sulphate solution
observable change. For each of the above experiments,
2+ –
(b) (i) Fe (aq) + 2OH (aq)
Fe(OH)2(s) (i) write an ionic equation for the reaction.
(ii) The colour of the (ii) state the colour of the precipitate formed.
precipitate is dirty green.
(iii) There would be no (iii) describe, with the aid of an equation, what would happen when the
observable change. alkali stated in the question is added in excess.
2. Complete the following table.

Metal Colour of the Is the metal hydroxide soluble in

ion metal hydroxide excess NaOH(aq)? excess NH3(aq)?
3+
Al (aq) white yes no

2+
Cu (aq) pale blue no yes

2+
Pb (aq) white yes no

2+
Zn (aq) white yes yes

14 22 tetraamminecopper(II) ion 四氨合銅(II) 離子

tetraamminezinc ion 四氨合鋅離子
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Experiment 14.4 Experiment Workbook 2

PowerPoint Experiment Investigating the action of dilute alkalis on metal ions in aqueous solution
Video In this experiment, you are going to investigate the action of dilute alkalis on
metal ions in aqueous solution to form metal hydroxide precipitates.

14.7 Role of water in exhibiting

PowerPoint characteristic properties of alkalis
Alkaline properties and hydroxide ions
–
When alkalis dissolve in water, they give hydroxide ions, OH (aq).
Hydroxide ions are responsible for the characteristic properties of alkalis.

Dissociation of sodium hydroxide in water

+ –
Sodium hydroxide is an ionic compound which consists of Na and OH
ions. In the solid state, these ions are not mobile; but in water, these ions
separate and become mobile (Figure 14.22). This process is called
dissociation.
water
+ –
NaOH(s) Na (aq) + OH (aq) dissociation

ions not mobile mobile ions

(no change in bonding)

–
OH ion Na ion
+

DSE2013(IA)9

Figure 14.22 Sodium hydroxide solution contains sodium ions and chloride ions. (Note:
water molecules are not shown in the diagram. Also, the diagram does not show the actual
numbers and sizes of the particles in the solution.)

dissociation 離解作用
hydroxide ion 氫氧離子
23 14
 IV Acids and bases

Ionization of ammonia in water

Learning tip
It is inappropriate to call
ammonia solution as
‘ammonium hydroxide’
or write its chemical
formula as ‘NH4OH’.
This is because there is
no evidence for the
existence of NH4OH
compounds in the
solution.
Ammonia is a covalent compound which contains ammonia molecules.
When ammonia dissolves in water, it ionizes (forming ions) slightly to
– +
form hydroxide ions (OH (aq)) and ammonium ions (NH4 (aq)) (Figure
14.23). Aqueous ammonia is also known as ammonia water or ammonia
solution.
water
NH3(g) NH3(aq)
+ –
NH3(aq) + H2O() NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) ionization N19

Note 19
molecules mobile ions
Aqueous ammonia is alkaline
because it contains high DSEPP2012(IA)17 (change in bonding)
–
concentration of OH (aq). The DSE2014(IA)13
–
formation of OH (aq) can be
+
illustrated by writing the equation NH4 ion NH3 molecule
for the reaction between NH3(aq) –
OH ion
and H2O().

Figure 14.23 Aqueous ammonia contains

ammonia molecules, ammonium ions and
hydroxide ions. (Note: water molecules are
not shown in the diagram. Also, the diagram
does not show the actual numbers and
sizes of the particles in the solution.)

Now, an alkali can be defined more specifically as follows:

Key point
An alkali is a base that dissociates or ionizes to give hydroxide
–
ions OH (aq) when dissolved in water.

A14.8
(a) They all contain hydroxide ions.
Class practice 14.8 water + –
(b) (i) KOH(s) K (aq) + OH (aq)
Consider three alkalis: potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and ammonia.
When each of these alkalis dissolves in water, an aqueous solution of the alkali is obtained.
water
(a) What do these aqueous solutions of alkalis have in common? (ii) Ca(OH)2(s)
2+ –
Ca (aq) + 2OH (aq)

(b) Write an equation to show what happens when (i) solid potassium hydroxide, (ii) solid calcium hydroxide
water
and (iii) ammonia gas dissolve in water separately. (iii) NH3(g) NH3(aq)
+ –
(c) Write an ionic equation for each of the following reactions: NH3(aq) + H2O() NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
+ –
(c) (i) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O()
(i) Heating potassium hydroxide with ammonium nitrate +
(ii) Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2H (aq)
2+
Ca (aq) + 2H2O()
2+ –
(iii) Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
(ii) Adding limewater to dilute hydrochloric acid
(iii) Adding a few drops of aqueous ammonia to copper(II) sulphate solution

14 24 dissociate 離解
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

XTRA
E Historical note

S
The Arrhenius theory of acids and bases
In 1887, Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius
proposed that acids were substances which
produce hydrogen ions in solution and that
bases were substances which produce
hydroxide ions in solution. His idea explained
the properties of acids and bases in solution. In
1903, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry.

Svante Arrhenius (1859–1927)

STSE connections 14.1

PowerPoint
Caustic soda from chloroalkali industry
The chloroalkali industry is a very important chemical industry. It manufactures sodium hydroxide (caustic
soda), hydrogen, chlorine and other products by the electrolysis of brine (concentrated sodium chloride
solution). These products are sold almost entirely to industry for the production of paper, soaps, detergents,
fibres, plastics, petrochemicals, fertilizers, solvents, disinfectants, etc. Membrane cell is the most common
electrolytic cell used in the industry.
The basic reaction in the chloroalkali industry is as follows:
electrolysis
brine sodium hydroxide + hydrogen + chlorine

chlorine hydrogen

anode cathode

saturated water
brine Na
+

+
Na
+
Na
–
Cl H
+
–
titanium anode Cl +
nickel cathode
– H
– OH
Cl –
OH
used sodium
brine hydroxide
ion-permeable membrane
Electrolysis of brine by a membrane cell

Questions for discussion:

STSE connections 14.1
1. What is meant by the term ‘caustic’? 1. Caustic means burning or causing corrosion.
2. Conduct a search from the Internet or elsewhere. Suggest the functions of caustic soda in the following
applications: 2. (a) Caustic soda breaks down the fibres of wood for
paper making.
(a) Making paper (b) Making soaps
(b) Caustic soda hydrolyzes fats or oils to make soaps.
(c) Manufacturing of bleach (c) Chlorine gas can be bubbled into caustic soda to
make sodium hypochlorite, which is the active
ingredient of chlorine bleach.
chloroalkali industry 氯鹼工業
electrolysis 電解
membrane cell 膜池
electrolytic cell 電解池
25 14
 IV Acids and bases

14.8 Corrosive nature of concentrated

PowerPoint acids and alkalis
CE2006(II)11
CE2007(I)9
Corrosive nature of concentrated acids
CE2009(I)4(a)
CE2010(II)42
Concentrated acids are usually corrosive (Figure 14.24). A corrosive
DSE2014(IA)15 substance would ‘eat away’ other substances such as metals, clothes, paper
and the skin (Figure 14.25).

Figure 14.24 This hazard warning Figure 14.25 Holes appear in clothes which
label means ‘corrosive’. Concentrated have been in contact with concentrated
mineral acids always carry this label. sulphuric acid.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid

–3
Learning tip Concentrated hydrochloric acid has a concentration of about 11 mol dm
• ‘M’ — the molarity, (or about 11 M) which contains 35% hydrogen chloride by mass.
which is the unit for
concentration of a
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is a volatile colourless liquid. It gives out
solution. It will be acid mist and a strong smell in air (Figure 14.26).
further discussed in
Chapter 15. AS2004,11(b)(i)
• When concentrated
hydrochloric acid is
exposed to air,
hydrogen chloride gas
liberated dissolves in
the water vapour in air
to form acid droplets
(i.e. acid mist).

Figure 14.26 Concentrated hydrochloric

acid is a volatile colourless liquid. The white
fumes in the photo are acid mist.

Concentrated hydrochloric acid attacks skin and eyes. Its corrosive

nature is due to its high concentration of hydrogen ions.

14 26 acid mist 酸霧
concentrated acid 濃酸
hazard warning label 危險警告標籤
molarity 摩爾濃度
corrosive 腐蝕性 volatile 具揮發性的
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

CE2004(II)5 Concentrated nitric acid

Concentrated nitric acid (about 16 M) contains about 70% nitric acid by
CE1999(II)38
mass. It is a volatile colourless liquid. It gives out acid mist and a strong
CE2004(II)5 smell in air. However, concentrated nitric acid often turns yellow on
AS2008(I)2
storage. This is because it would decompose to give nitrogen dioxide,
which dissolves in water to form a yellow solution.
light
Note 20 4HNO3(aq) 2H2O(,) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g) N20
To remove the yellow colour of brown gas
concentrated nitric acid, simply
bubble air into the acid. As the decomposition is speeded up by light, concentrated nitric acid
is usually stored in a brown bottle (Figure 14.27).

Figure 14.27 Concentrated nitric

acid is a colourless or pale yellow
liquid. It is stored in a brown bottle
as it would decompose much more
quickly under light.

Concentrated nitric acid attacks the skin very readily and stains it
* Book 3B, Section 30.8, p.27 yellow. Its corrosive nature is due to its *oxidizing property.

CE2003(I)4 Concentrated sulphuric acid

Learning tip Concentrated sulphuric acid (about 18 M) contains about 98% sulphuric
Concentrated sulphuric acid by mass. It is a colourless oily liquid (Figure 14.28). As it is non-
acid differs quite a lot
from dilute sulphuric volatile, it does not give an acid mist when exposed to air. N21
acid in chemical
properties. Thus, it is
important to specify
‘concentrated’ or ‘dilute’
whenever sulphuric acid
is referred to.

Note 21
The boiling point of pure sulphuric acid is
340°C, which is higher than that of other
mineral acids. Thus, concentrated
sulphuric acid is involatile. When exposed
to air, it would not give out acid mist.

Figure 14.28 Concentrated sulphuric acid is a colourless oily liquid.

decompose 分解
decomposition 分解作用
oxidizing property 氧化性質
27 14
 IV Acids and bases

Concentrated sulphuric acid quickly dehydrates (removes water from)

the skin upon contact, causing severe burns. Its corrosive nature is due to
* Book 3B, Section 30.9, p.29 its *oxidizing and dehydrating properties. N22, N23

Note 22
The severe burns caused by TRA
X
concentrated sulphuric acid on skin are E Do you know?

S
due to the large amount of heat
produced when the acid dehydrates the Onions and eye irritation
skin. When onions are sliced, onion cells are
broken. Some sulphur compounds in the
Note 23
onion cells would be released to the air.
Concentrated sulphuric acid can act as
a dehydrating agent. When these compounds come into
conc. H2SO4 contact with our eyes, they react with the
e.g. CuSO4․5H2O CuSO4 + 5H2O moisture there to form sulphuric acid.
conc. H2SO4
e.g. C12H22O11 12C + 11H2O This acid irritates our eyes and causes a
burning sensation. Consequently, our
eyes produce tears to dilute and flush out the acid.

Corrosive nature of concentrated alkalis

CE2002(II)24 Concentrated sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions are
DSE2012(IB)7(b)
DSE2013(IA)9 very corrosive especially when they are hot (Figure 14.29).
Concentrated alkalis attack the skin readily and stain it yellow or even
black (Figure 14.30). The highly corrosive nature of these alkalis is due to
their high concentration of hydroxide ions.

Figure 14.29 Bottles of concentrated sodium Figure 14.30 The skin and flesh
hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions. of the chicken foot are attacked
The hazard warning label ‘corrosive’ is displayed by concentrated sodium
on their bottles. hydroxide solution.

14 28 dehydrating property 脫水性質 stain 染污

 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Safety precautions in handling concentrated acids

and alkalis DSE2014(IB)5(a)
Take the following safety precautions when you handle concentrated acids
and alkalis:

1. Wear protective gloves and safety spectacles.

2. Perform the experiments in fume cupboards to avoid breathing in any

acid mist.

3. In diluting concentrated acids or alkalis, add them slowly to a large

amount of water with stirring, but not vice versa. This is because
when concentrated acids or alkalis are mixed with water, a large amount
Note 24 of heat is given out. This can cause the liquids to splatter (Figure N24
Dilution of concentrated
sulphuric acid is a highly
14.31).
CE2000(I)8(c)(ii)
exothermic process because
CE2007(I)9
concentrated sulphuric acid
AS2009(I)4(a)
has a high affinity for water.

concentrated acid (or

water
concentrated alkali)

Figure 14.31 Proper procedure

water
for diluting concentrated acids concentrated acid (or
and alkalis. concentrated alkali)

Experiment 14.5 Experiment Workbook 2

PowerPoint Experiment Investigating the corrosive nature of concentrated acid and concentrated
Video alkali
In this experiment, you are going to investigate the corrosive nature of
concentrated sulphuric acid and concentrated sodium hydroxide solution.

Class practice 14.9

A14.9
(a) Wear safety spectacles.
(b) Stopper properly the bottles of
concentrated acids or concentrated
alkalis.
Perform the experiments in fume
cupboard to avoid breathing in any of
their vapours.
(c) Wear protective gloves and laboratory
coat.
(d) When diluting concentrated sulphuric
acid, add the acid to a large amount
of water slowly with constant stirring.
Some potential hazards of concentrated acids and alkalis are shown below.
Suggest the corresponding safety precautions that should be taken when
handling them.
(a) Concentrated acids or concentrated alkalis can cause blindness when they
get into the eyes.
(b) The vapour of concentrated acids or concentrated alkalis is corrosive.
(c) Concentrated acids or concentrated alkalis can burn skin and flesh.
(d) A large amount of heat is released when concentrated sulphuric acid is
diluted with water.

splatter 濺潑
29 14
 IV Acids and bases

Key terms
PowerPoint

English term Chinese translation Page

1. acid 酸 3

2. alkali 鹼 15

3. ammonia 氨 15

4. base 鹽基 15

5. basicity 鹽基度 13

6. corrosive 腐蝕性的 26

7. dibasic acid 二元酸 13

8. dissociate 離解 24

9. dissociation 離解作用 23

10. hydrochloric acid 氫氯酸 3

+
11. hydrogen ion, H (aq) 氫離子 10
–
12. hydroxide ion, OH (aq) 氫氧離子 23

13. ionization 電離作用 10

14. ionize 電離 10

15. metal hydroxide 金屬氫氧化物 15

16. metal oxide 金屬氧化物 15

17. monobasic acid 一元酸 13

18. nitric acid 硝酸 3

19. polybasic acid 多元酸 13

20. sulphuric acid 硫酸 3

21. tribasic acid 三元酸 13

14 30
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

Progress check
PowerPoint

Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.

Page
1. Can you give some examples of acids in daily life and in the laboratory? 3

2. What is the effect of dilute acids on blue litmus paper? 5

3. What happens when dilute acids such as hydrochloric acid and sulphuric acid react with
5
metals?

4. What happens when acids react with metal oxides, metal hydroxides, carbonates and
6–8
hydrogencarbonates?

5. What is the role of water in exhibiting the characteristic properties of acids? 10–11

6. What is the common ion formed when acids dissolve in water? 12

7. What is meant by ‘basicity’ of an acid? 13

8. Can you give some examples of alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory? 15–16

9. What is the effect of dilute alkalis on red litmus paper? 17

10. What happens when alkalis react with acids? 17

11. What happens when alkalis react with non-metal oxides? 17

12. What happens when alkalis react with ammonium compounds? 18

13. What happens when an alkali is added to metal ions in aqueous solution? 20

14. What is the common ion formed when alkalis dissolve in water? 23

15. What is the role of water in exhibiting the characteristic properties of alkalis? 24

16. What hazardous nature do concentrated acids and alkalis have in common? 26

17. What safety precautions should be taken when handling concentrated acids or alkalis? 29

31 14
 IV Acids and bases

Summary
PowerPoint

14.1 Common acids in daily life and in the laboratory

1. Common acids in daily life are citric acid (in lemons), ethanoic acid (in vinegar) and carbonic acid
(in soft drinks).

2. Common acids used in the laboratory are hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid and nitric acid.

14.2 Characteristics and chemical reactions of acids

3. The characteristics and chemical reactions of dilute acids include:

• sour taste

• turn blue litmus paper red

• conduct electricity

• acid + metal salt + hydrogen (only for metals above copper in the metal reactivity series)
• acid + metal hydroxide salt + water

• acid + metal oxide salt + water

• acid + carbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water

• acid + hydrogencarbonate salt + carbon dioxide + water

14.3 Role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of acids

+
4. An acid is a covalent molecular compound, which forms hydrogen ion H (aq) as the only
cation when dissolved in water.

5. Water is essential for acids to show acidic properties. This is because an acid ionizes in water
+
to form hydrogen ions H (aq), which are responsible for the typical acidic properties.

14.4 Basicity of acid

6. The basicity of an acid is the maximum number of hydrogen ions produced by one molecule of
the acid.

14.5 Common alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory

7. A base is a compound which reacts with an acid to form salt and water. Alkalis are soluble
bases.

8. Common alkalis in daily life and in the laboratory are sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide
(limewater) and ammonia (in window cleaners).

14 32
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

14.6 Characteristics and chemical reactions of alkalis

9. The characteristics and chemical reactions of dilute alkalis include:

• bitter taste

• soapy feel

• turn red litmus paper blue

• conduct electricity

• acid + alkali salt + water

• non-metal oxide + alkali salt + water
heat

• ammonium compound + alkali salt + ammonia + water

• form precipitates with some metal ions

14.7 Role of water in exhibiting characteristic properties of alkalis

–
10. An alkali is a base that dissociates or ionizes to give hydroxide ions OH (aq) when dissolved in
water. Hydroxide ions are responsible for the typical alkaline properties.

14.8 Corrosive nature of concentrated acids and alkalis

11. Concentrated acids and alkalis are corrosive. A corrosive substance would ‘eat away’ other
substances such as metals, clothes, paper and the skin.

12. Concentrated sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide solutions are very corrosive
especially when they are hot. The highly corrosive nature of these alkalis is due to their high
concentration of hydroxide ions.

33 14
 IV Acids and bases

Concept map
PowerPoint

Complete the following concept maps.

Monobasic Polybasic
acid acid

+ +
One H (aq) ion formed per molecule Two or more H (aq) ions formed per molecule

Hydrogen ions +
, H (aq)
• citric acid (in lemons) in daily life
• ethanoic acid (in vinegar)
• carbonic acid (in soft drinks) dissolve in water to form
examples
ACIDS

• hydrochloric acid, HCl(aq)

• sulphuric acid , H2SO4(aq)
• nitric acid, HNO3(aq) in the laboratory

Dilute acids Concentrated acids

characteristics and
hazard hazard hazard
chemical reactions
of HCl of H2SO4 of HNO3

• taste sour Corrosive Corrosive Corrosive

• turn blue litmus paper red because of because of because of
• conduct electricity high dehydrating oxidizing

• react with some metals to concentration and oxidizing property

form salt and hydrogen of hydrogen ions properties
• react with metal oxides

and hydroxides to form salt

and water
• react with carbonates and
hydrogencarbonates to form (Hints: carbon dioxide, dehydrating, electricity,
carbon dioxide
salt, ethanoic acid, hydrogen, hydrogen ions, hydrogen
and water
ions, metal oxides, monobasic, oxidizing, polybasic,
red, sulphuric acid)

14 34
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

examples • metal oxides

BASES • metal hydroxides
• ammonia
dissociate or
ionize in water
hydroxide ions , to give
Soluble bases ( alkalis ) Insoluble bases
OH (aq)

Dilute alkalis Concentrated alkalis

characteristics and
chemical reactions hazard

• taste bitter Very corrosive

• soapy feel because of high
• turn red litmus paper blue concentration of
hydroxide ions
• conduct electricity

• react with acids to

form salt and water
• react with non-metal oxides to
salt
form and water
• react with ammonium compounds

to form salt, ammonia and

water
• form precipitate with some
metal ions in aqueous solution

(Hints: acids, ammonium compounds, alkalis, blue, electricity, hydroxide ions, hydroxide ions, metal
hydroxides, precipitate, salt)

35 14
 IV Acids and bases

Chapter exercise
Fill in the blanks Section 14.7
5. When alkalis dissolve in water, they dissociate
Section 14.3 hydroxide
or ionize to give ions,
1. An acid is a covalent molecular compound, which
–
OH
(aq), which are responsible for
hydrogen ion
forms as the only cation when the characteristic properties of alkalis.
dissolved in water.
Section 14.8
water
2. In the presence of , acids show
6. The corrosive nature of concentrated hydrochloric
typical acidic properties. This is because acids
water hydrogen acid is due to its high concentration of
ionize in to form hydrogen ions
H
+ , that of concentrated
ion, (aq). oxidizing
nitric acid is due to its property,
and that of concentrated sulphuric acid is due to
Section 14.4 oxidizing dehydrating
its and
basicity
3. The of an acid is the maximum properties.
number of hydrogen ions produced by one
molecule of the acid. For example, hydrochloric 7. Concentrated solutions of alkalis are highly
acid (HCl) is a monobasic acid and sulphuric corrosive
. This is due to the high
acid (H2SO4) is a dibasic acid. hydroxide ions
concentration of of alkalis.

Section 14.5 9. (a) The limewater turns milky and then becomes clear again.
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O()
4. A base is a compound which reacts with an acid to CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O()
2+
Ca (aq) + 2HCO3 (aq)
–

salt water
form and only. (b) A pale blue precipitate forms. Then, the precipitate dissolves in
alkali
An is a base which is soluble in excess aqueous ammonia to give a deep blue solution.
2+ –
Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s)
water. 2+ –
Cu(OH)2(s) + 4NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4] (aq) + 2OH (aq)
(c) A white precipitate forms. Then, the precipitate dissolves in excess
sodium hydroxide solution to give a clear colourless solution.
2+ –
Zn (aq) + 2OH (aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
– 2–
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH (aq) [Zn(OH)4] (aq)
Practice questions
Section 14.6
8. For each of the following experiments, 8. (a) (i) The iron nail dissolves slowly to give a pale
green solution/a few colourless gas bubbles
(i) state ONE observable change, and evolve. (Any ONE)
+ 2+
(ii) write an ionic equation (with state symbols) involved. (ii) Fe(s) + 2H (aq) Fe (aq) + H2(g)
(b) (i) Magnesium oxide powder dissolves to give
(a) Adding dilute hydrochloric acid to an iron nail a colourless solution.
+ 2+
(ii) MgO(s) + 2H (aq) Mg (aq) + H2O()
(b) Adding dilute nitric acid to magnesium oxide powder
(c) Adding dilute ethanoic acid to sodium hydrogencarbonate powder
(d) Heating a mixture of sodium hydroxide solution and ammonium sulphate solution
(e) Adding a few drops of potassium hydroxide solution to iron(II) chloride solution
(f) Adding excess aqueous ammonia to aluminium nitrate solution
8. (c) (i) Sodium hydrogencarbonate powder dissolves to give a colourless solution/colourless gas bubbles evolve. (Any ONE)
– –
(ii) HCO3 (aq) + CH3COOH(aq) CH3COO (aq) + H2O() + CO2(g) OR
– +
HCO3 (aq) + H (aq) H2O() + CO2(g)
(d) (i) A colourless gas with a pungent smell evolves. The gas can turn moist red litmus paper blue.
+ –
(ii) NH4 (aq) + OH (aq) NH3(g) + H2O()
(e) (i) A dirty green precipitate forms.
2+ –
(ii) Fe (aq) + 2OH (aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
14 36 (f) (i) A white precipitate forms.
3+ –
(ii) Al (aq) + 3OH (aq) Al(OH)3(s)
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis
10. (a) Add equal masses of calcium granules separately to the two excess but equal volumes of acids. Calcium granules dissolve completely
in dilute hydrochloric acid, but do not dissolve completely in dilute sulphuric acid.
9. For each of the following experiments, state the observable changes and write the ionic equations (with state
symbols) involved. (Answers on p.14-36.)
(a) Bubbling carbon dioxide to limewater until carbon dioxide is in excess.
(b) Adding aqueous ammonia to copper(II) chloride solution until aqueous ammonia is in excess.
(c) Adding sodium hydroxide solution to zinc sulphate solution until sodium hydroxide solution is in
excess.

10. For each of the following pairs of solutions, suggest a chemical test to distinguish one solution from the
other. State the expected observations. 10. (b) Heat the two solutions separately with sodium
(a) Dilute hydrochloric acid and dilute sulphuric acid hydroxide solution. Test any gas evolved with a
piece of moist red litmus paper. Ammonium nitrate
(b) Ammonium nitrate solution and sodium nitrate solution solution gives out a gas which can turn moist red
litmus paper blue. There is no observable change
(c) Potassium carbonate solution and potassium sulphate solution
for sodium nitrate solution.
10. (c) Add dilute hydrochloric acid separately to the two solutions. Test any gas evolved with limewater. Potassium carbonate solution gives out
a gas which can turn limewater milky. There is no observable change for potassium sulphate solution.

Multiple-choice questions 14. Which of the following statements about the

reaction of zinc oxide with dilute sulphuric acid is
Section 14.1 correct? 14. Equation for the reaction: ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq)
ZnSO4(aq) + H2O()
11. Which of the following combinations about acids A. Hydrogen forms.
is INCORRECT? 11. Tea contains tannic acid. B. Carbon dioxide forms.
Acid Present in C. A blue solution forms.
D
A. Ethanoic acid Vinegar D. A colourless solution forms.
B. Citric acid Orange
15. Which of the following reactions about dilute
C. Lactic acid Tea
C acids will NOT produce a gaseous product?
D. Carbonic acid Soft drinks
A. HCl(aq) + CaCO3(s)
Section 14.2 B. HNO3(aq) + KHCO3(s)
12. Which of the following observations can be made C. H2SO4(aq) + Zn(s)
D
when a piece of magnesium is added to dilute D. CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)
hydrochloric acid?
16. Which of the following ionic equations correctly
(1) Colourless gas bubbles form.
represents the reaction between potassium
(2) The solution becomes warm.
carbonate solution and dilute nitric acid?
(3) A ‘pop’ sound is heard. + –
A. K (aq) + NO3 (aq) KNO3(aq)
A. (1) and (2) only 2– +
12. A ‘pop’ sound is heard B. CO3 (aq) + 2H (aq) CO2(g) + H2O(,)
B. (1) and (3) only when the hydrogen gas + +
C. (2) and (3) only formed is burnt with a C. K2CO3(aq) + 2H (aq) 2K (aq) + CO2(g) +
A H2O(,)
D. (1), (2) and (3) burning splint.
2– –
D. CO3 (aq) + 2HNO3(aq) 2NO3 (aq) +
13. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic
CO2(g) + H2O(,)
property of a dilute hydrochloric acid?
15. (A): carbon dioxide is produced. B
A. It turns dry blue litmus paper red.
(B): carbon dioxide is produced.
B. It reacts with copper(II) hydroxide to give salt (C): hydrogen is produced.
and water. (D): Equation for the reaction:
C. It reacts with copper to give hydrogen. CH3COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq) CH3COONa(aq) + H2O()
D. It reacts with copper(II) carbonate to give 16. Ionic equation is an equation which includes only those species
carbon dioxide. C that are produced or changed during the reaction.

13. Dilute hydrochloric acid reacts with metals which are higher than
copper in the metal reactivity series.

37 14
29
 IV Acids and bases

22. (1): 2KOH(aq) + SO2(g) K2SO3(aq) + H2O()

Section 14.3 Section 14.6 (2): 2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O()
17. Which of the following ions is mainly responsible 22. Which of the following gases will react with
for the acidic properties of dilute sulphuric acid? potassium hydroxide solution?
2–
A. SO4 (aq) (1) Sulphur dioxide
+
B. H (aq) (2) Carbon dioxide
–
C. OH (aq) (3) Ammonia
– 17. Refer to Section 14.3 for details. B
D. HSO4 (aq) A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
18. Which of the following substances would react
C. (2) and (3) only
with magnesium metal to give hydrogen gas? A
D. (1), (2) and (3)
(1) Citric acid crystals
(2) Lemon juice 23. Which of the following pairs of substances can be
(3) Hydrogen chloride gas distinguished by using dilute sodium hydroxide
A. (1) only 18. Citric acid crystals and hydrogen solution?
23. Both Pb(NO3)2 and
chloride gas do not contain
B. (2) only + (1) ZnCl2 and MgCl2 Al(NO3)3 react with sodium
H (aq) ions. Hence, they do not
C. (1) and (3) only (2) Pb(NO3)2 and Al(NO3)3 hydroxide solution to form
show the properties of acids.
B a white precipitate. The
D. (2) and (3) only (3) Ca(NO3)2 and Pb(NO3)2
white precipitates dissolve
A. (1) and (2) only in excess sodium
Section 14.4 hydroxide solution to give
B. (1) and (3) only
19. Which of the following acids has the highest a colourless solution.
C. (2) and (3) only
basicity? B
D. (1), (2) and (3)
A. HNO3
19. Both HNO3 and CH3COOH are
B. H2SO4 24. An unknown solution contains two compounds.
monobasic acids. H2SO4 is a
C. H3PO4 dibasic acid. H3PO4 is a tribasic When this solution is heated with excess
D. CH3COOH acid. C NaOH(aq), a pungent gas evolves and a white
precipitate forms. Which of the following
20. Which of the following combinations of acid and compounds is/are likely to be present in the
basicity is correct? unknown solution?
Acid Basicity (1) ZnSO4
A. Carbonic acid 1 (2) MgSO4 24. Upon heating, (NH4)2SO4 reacts
B. Nitric acid 2 with NaOH(aq) to give NH3(g),
(3) (NH4)2SO4
which has a pungent smell. MgSO4
C. Phosphoric acid 3
C
A. (1) only reacts with NaOH(aq) to give a
D. Ethanoic acid 4 white precipitate of Mg(OH)2(s).
B. (2) only
The white precipitate cannot
Section 14.5 C. (1) and (3) only dissolve in excess NaOH(aq).
D
D. (2) and (3) only
21. Which of the following household cleaners
contain an alkali as the active ingredient? 25. Which of the following aqueous solutions form a
(1) Oven cleaner coloured precipitate when mixed with a few drops
(2) Window cleaner of dilute ammonia solution?
(3) Drain cleaner (1) Copper(II) chloride
A. (1) and (2) only (2) Magnesium sulphate
B. (1) and (3) only 21. Refer to p.15 of chapter 14 for details.
(3) Iron(III) nitrate
C. (2) and (3) only A. (1) and (2) only
D
D. (1), (2) and (3) B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
B
D. (1), (2) and (3)
25. (1): a pale blue precipitate of copper(II) hydroxide forms.
(2): a white precipitate of magnesium hydroxide forms.
(3): a reddish brown precipitate of iron(III) hydroxide forms.

14 38
 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis
26. Dry litmus paper does not contain water.
–
Ammonia gas cannot ionize to give OH (aq) ions
Section 14.7 and thus cannot exhibit properties of alkalis. Section 14.8
26. Ammonia gas CANNOT turn dry red litmus 28. Which of the following hazard warning labels
paper blue because should be used for both concentrated sulphuric
A. it is an acid. acid and concentrated sodium hydroxide
B. it is neutral. solution?
–
C. it contains no OH (aq) ion. A. Flammable
+ C
D. it contains no H (aq) ion. B. Oxidizing
C. Corrosive
C
27. Which of the following substances turn(s) moist D. Carcinogenic
red litmus paper blue?
(1) KOH –
29. Which of the following concentrated solutions
27. (1): KOH dissociates in water to give OH (aq)
(2) Cu(OH)2 should be stored in a brown reagent bottle?
ions, which turn the litmus paper blue.
(3) CH3COOH (2): Cu(OH)2 is insoluble in water and hence A. Sulphuric acid
–
no OH (aq) ions form. B. Nitric acid
A. (1) only +
(3): CH3COOH ionizes in water to give H (aq)
29. Refer to p.27 of chapter 14
B. (2) only –
ions, not OH (aq) ions.
C. Ammonia for details.
B
C. (1) and (2) only D. Potassium hydroxide
A
D. (2) and (3) only
30. (a) Carbon dioxide
(b) Gas Y can turn limewater milky. Carbon dioxide reacts with calcium hydroxide to form a white precipitate
(calcium carbonate).
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O()
+

Structured questions (c) In the presence of water, the solid acid ionizes to give H (aq) ions which react with sodium
hydrogencarbonate to give carbon dioxide.
+ –
(d) H (aq) + HCO3 (aq) H2O() + CO2(g)
Section 14.3
(e) 2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O()
30. Baking powder for making bread is usually a mixture of a solid acid, HX, and sodium hydrogencarbonate. In
making bread, water and a little baking powder are added to flour. The flour paste is then heated in an oven.
Gas Y forms in the baking process which escapes from the dough and eventually a ‘spongy’ bread forms.
(a) Name gas Y.
(b) Suggest a chemical test to identify gas Y. Explain the observation of the test and write an equation (with
state symbols) for the reaction involved in the test.
(c) Explain why water is added to the flour in making bread.
(d) Write an ionic equation for the reaction of the acid, HX with sodium hydrogencarbonate in the flour
paste.
(e) Heating solid sodium hydrogencarbonate can also help to generate gas Y in the bread-making process.
Write an equation for this process.

Section 14.4
31. An acid A with formula CH3COOH is the active ingredient in commercial vinegar.
31. (a) Ethanoic acid
(a) Name acid A. (b) 1 (monobasic)
(c) (i) Magnesium ribbon dissolves to give a colourless solution.
(b) State the basicity of acid A.
Effervescence occurs (or colourless gas bubbles evolve).
(c) (i) State FOUR observable changes when a magnesium ribbon reacts with an aqueous solution of acid
A. The solution becomes warm.
A hissing sound is heard.
(ii) Write a chemical equation for the reaction between magnesium ribbon and dilute aqueous solution
of acid A. (ii) Mg(s) + 2CH3COOH(aq) (CH3COO)2Mg(aq) + H2(g)

39 14
29
 IV Acids and bases

(d) A dilute aqueous solution of acid A is allowed to react with sodium carbonate solution, and
effervescence occurs. 31. (d) (i) This is because carbon dioxide forms.
(ii) Na2CO3(aq) + 2CH3COOH(aq) 2CH3COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
(i) Explain why there is effervescence.
(ii) Write an equation for the reaction between acid A and sodium carbonate in aqueous solution.

Section 14.6
2+ 2+ 2+
* 32. Describe how Mg , Pb and Zn ions can be distinguished from each other using sodium hydroxide
solution and aqueous ammonia.

33. Carbon dioxide was bubbled into dilute sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide solutions separately as
shown in the diagrams below. (Answers on p.14-41.)

carbon dioxide carbon dioxide

dilute NaOH(aq) dilute Ca(OH)2(aq)

(a) Write chemical equations (with state symbols) for the reactions involved in the experiments.
(b) Explain the difference in observations of the two experiments.
(c) Suggest a chemical method to show that sodium hydroxide solution has reacted with carbon dioxide in
the diagram. Write a chemical equation for the reaction involved.

Section 14.7
34. Limewater is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide. It is an alkaline solution which can be used as a
medicine to treat stomach upset in babies.
(a) Suggest how limewater is prepared in the laboratory from solid calcium hydroxide.
(b) Name the ion which is responsible for the alkaline properties of limewater.
(c) When limewater is warmed with ammonium nitrate solution, a salt, ammonia gas and water are
produced. Write an equation for the reaction involved.
(d) What would be observed when the following solution is mixed with limewater? Write an ionic equation
for the reaction involved. 34. (a) Add solid calcium hydroxide to water and stir the mixture for a long time. Then, filter the
suspension to get the clear filtrate.
(i) Sodium carbonate solution (b) Hydroxide ion
(c) 2NH4NO3(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O()
(ii) Copper(II) nitrate solution
(d) (i) A white precipitate forms.
2+ 2–
Ca (aq) + CO3 (aq) CaCO3(s)
(ii) A pale blue precipitate forms.
2+ –
Cu (aq) + 2OH (aq) Cu(OH)2(s)

32. Firstly, add aqueous ammonia separately to the solutions of the samples of the three metal ions until a white precipitate is seen. Only the
2+
white precipitate formed from Zn can dissolve in excess aqueous ammonia.
Then, add sodium hydroxide solution separately to the samples of the remaining two solutions of metal ions until a white precipitate is seen.
2+ 2+
Only the white precipitate formed from Pb can dissolve in excess sodium hydroxide solution. The white precipitate formed from Mg neither
dissolves in excess sodium hydroxide solution nor excess aqueous ammonia.

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 14 Introduction to acids and alkalis

35. A few drops of ammonia solution are added separately to the following metal ion solutions.
+ 2+ 2+ 2+
K (aq), Mg (aq), Fe (aq), Cu (aq)

(a) Which metal ion(s) will form coloured precipitate(s)? Name and state the colour of the precipitate(s).
(b) Which metal ion(s) will form white precipitate(s)? Write ionic equation(s) for the formation of the white
precipitate(s).
(c) What ion in ammonia solution is responsible for the formation of the white and coloured precipitates?
Write an equation for the formation of this ion in ammonia solution.
(d) Suggest a common use of ammonia in daily life.

33. (a) Equation for the reaction between carbon dioxide and dilute sodium hydroxide solution:
2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O()
Equation for the reaction between carbon dioxide and dilute calcium hydroxide solution:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O()
(b) There will be no observable change when carbon dioxide is bubbled into dilute sodium hydroxide solution. The sodium carbonate formed
is soluble in water.
The calcium hydroxide solution turns milky and then becomes clear again. The white calcium carbonate formed is insoluble in water.
When excess carbon dioxide is bubbled into the milky solution, it reacts with the calcium carbonate in the solution to form soluble
calcium hydrogencarbonate.
(c) Add excess dilute hydrochloric acid to the resultant solution and see if any colourless gas bubbles evolve. If colourless gas bubbles
evolve, this shows that sodium hydroxide solution has reacted with carbon dioxide.
Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()
(The sodium carbonate formed from the reaction between carbon dioxide and sodium hydroxide solution will react with dilute hydrochloric
acid to give carbon dioxide.)

2+ 2+
35. (a) Fe (aq) and Cu (aq)
Iron(II) hydroxide: dirty green
Copper(II) hydroxide: pale blue
2+
(b) Mg (aq)
2+ –
Mg (aq) + 2OH (aq) Mg(OH)2(s)
–
(c) Hydroxide ion/OH (aq)
+ –
NH3(aq) + H2O() NH4 (aq) + OH (aq)
(d) As an active ingredient of window cleaners.

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