Part V

Fossil Fuels and

Carbon Compounds
Part V
Fossil Fuels
and Carbon
Compounds

Petroleum is one of the major energy sources.

Before petroleum can be used, it is refined in an oil
refinery.

Chapter 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Chapter 21 Homologous series, structural formulae
and naming of carbon compounds
Chapter 22 Alkanes and alkenes
Chapter 23 Addition polymers
Chapter 20
Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels
20.1 Fossil fuels as a major energy source
20.2 Refining petroleum
20.3 Gradation in properties of the various fractions
of petroleum
20.4 Major uses of petroleum fractions
20.5 Heat change during combustion of hydrocarbons
20.6 Consequences of using fossil fuels
20.7 Reducing the emission of air pollutants from
combustion of fossil fuels

Learning goal
After studying this chapter, you should be able to:

20.1 • describe the origin of the fossil fuels including coal, petroleum and natural gas

20.2 • describe petroleum as a mixture of hydrocarbons and its industrial separation into useful
fractions by fractional distillation
• recognize the economic importance of crude oil as a source of aliphatic and aromatic
hydrocarbons (e.g. benzene)

20.3 • relate the gradation in properties (e.g. colour, viscosity, volatility and burning characteristics) to
the number of carbon atoms in the molecules of hydrocarbon of the various fractions

20.4 • explain the demand for the various fractions of petroleum

20.5 • recognize combustion of hydrocarbons as an exothermic chemical reaction

20.6 • identify the sources of pollution which are accompanied by the combustion of fossil fuels
• evaluate the impact of using fossil fuels on our quality of life and the environment
• describe the greenhouse effect and global warming

20.7 • suggest measures for reducing the emission of air pollutants from combustion of fossil fuels
Chapter 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Fossil fuels can be used to generate electricity. In the past, we mainly burnt coal. Today, we increase the
use of natural gas because the burning of natural gas is more environmentally friendly.

Black Point power station is the first power plant that uses natural gas in Hong Kong. Natural gas
is imported to the power station from the western China through very long gas pipelines under the
sea.

Black Point power station is located in Tuen Mun, Hong Kong

Think about...
Where do fossil fuels come from?
Fossil fuels formed from the remains of plants and the remains of sea animals and plants that lived hundreds of millions years ago.
What are the main pollutants produced by the burning of fossil fuels in power plants?
Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and suspended particulates
Why is the use of natural gas for electricity generation more environmentally friendly than using
coal?
The burning of coal produces a lot of air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and suspended particulates. The burning of
natural gas produces carbon dioxide and water only.
After studying this chapter, you should be able to answer the above questions.

coal 煤 natural gas 天然氣 pipeline 喉管

fossil fuel 化石燃料
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

20.1 Fossil fuels as a major energy source

PowerPoint
Energy and fuel
We all need a lot of energy in daily life. For example, we use energy for
lighting, air-conditioning, transport, cooking, etc. Where does all this
energy come from? An important way of getting energy is to burn fuels
(Figure 20.1).

Production Burning
of electricity of fuels

Figure 20.1 Burning fuels provides energy.

A fuel is a substance which is burnt to produce heat. At present, the

most common fuels are fossil fuels. They supply most of the world’s
energy needs.

What are fossil fuels?

Note 1 Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels. They are so called N1
Wood and charcoal are fuels, but
not fossil fuels.
because they formed from the remains of plants and animals that lived
hundreds of millions years ago.

Fossil fuels contain hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons are compounds that

contain only hydrogen and carbon atoms.

fossil fuel 化石燃料 hydrocarbon 烴/碳氫化合物

fuel 燃料 petroleum 石油
3 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Note 2
China was the first country to use Origin of fossil fuels
coal. As early as the Zhou Dynasty
(周朝) (1000 B.C.), the Chinese Coal
used coal in the smelting of steel.
Coal is a black solid, usually quite hard (Figure 20.2). It consists of N2

65%–95% carbon, together with hydrocarbons and some other

compounds. Coal formed from the remains of plants that lived
hundreds of millions years ago. Due to movements of the Earth’s crust,
the plant remains were deeply buried under layers of mud and sand.
Figure 20.2 A sample High pressure, temperature and the action of bacteria gradually changed
of coal. the decaying plants into coal (Figure 20.3).

plants

pressure of
overlying rocks
layer of mud
Note 3 and sand coal
Petroleum is so called because layer of
it is an oily liquid found in rocks decaying plants
(Greek: petra = rock; Latin:
oleum = oil) underlying rock

Figure 20.3 The formation of coal.

CE2011(I)6(a)(i)

Petroleum and natural gas

Petroleum (also called crude oil or oil) is usually a thick, black oily liquid N3

(Figure 20.4). It is a complex mixture consisting mainly of hydrocarbons.

Natural gas is also a mixture consisting mainly of hydrocarbons. The
main component is methane (CH4). Natural gas is often found together N4

with petroleum. They formed from sea animals and plants that lived
hundreds of millions years ago. After the organisms died, they sank to
Figure 20.4 A sample of crude
oil.
the bottom of the seas. They were then covered by sand and mud. High
temperature, pressure and the action of bacteria slowly changed them into
Note 4
A typical composition of natural petroleum and natural gas (Figure 20.5). N5
gas is: methane (93%), ethane
(3%), other gases (4%). sea
remains of oil rig
sea animals
Note 5
Remind students that the origins natural
of coal and petroleum are gas
different. non-porous
petroleum rock
rock porous rock
layer of non-porous
Figure 20.5 (a) Formation decaying
rock
of petroleum and natural sea animals
gas. (b) An oil well is rock
drilled in order to extract
petroleum.
(a) (b)

coal 煤 natural gas 天然氣

20 4 crude oil 原油 petroleum 石油
bury 埋藏
decaying 腐敗的
overlying 上層
porous 多孔的
origin 來源 underlying 下層
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Key point
Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels. Coal formed from
the remains of plants that lived hundreds of millions years ago.
Petroleum and natural gas formed from the remains of sea animals
and plants that lived hundreds of millions years ago.

Extracting coal, petroleum and natural gas

Some coal is close to the ground and can be extracted easily. However,
some coal is found deeply under the ground. To extract it, a deep mine has
to be dug through the ground. Miners and machines are then sent to the
Note 6 coal mine to collect the coal (Figure 20.6). N6, N7
China has a rich resource of
coal. The coal fields are mainly
To extract petroleum, an oil rig has to be built (Figure 20.7). A deep well
in the northern provinces, such
as Shanxi (山西). has to be drilled through the rock layers by the rig. Petroleum is then
pumped up. See Figure 20.5(b) again. Natural gas is extracted in a similar
Note 7
Coal can be changed to a way.
number of useful substances by
a special process called
destructive distillation. It is not
merely a physical separation, as
chemical decompositions are
involved. Coal is changed into
coal gas, ammoniacal liquor,
coal tar and coke by the
process.

Figure 20.6 (left) Extracting

coal from an underground mine.
Figure 20.7 (right) An oil rig.

XTRA
E Everyday chemistry
S

Methane hydrate
Coal, petroleum and natural gas will run out one
day. Scientists believe that methane hydrate may be
a possible new energy source in future.
Methane hydrate has a chemical formula of
CH4․nH2O. It is a white solid which contains
methane. Scientists estimated that there is
enormous deposit of methane hydrate on the sediments under the deep
oceans. They are now finding ways to extract them.

methane hydrate 甲烷水合物 mine 煤礦

sediment 沉澱物 oil rig 石油鑽塔
5 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

A20.1 Class practice 20.1

1. Coal formed from the remains
of plants that lived hundreds of
millions years ago. Petroleum
1. What are the origins of coal and petroleum respectively?
formed from the remains of sea 2. Petroleum and natural gas formed under the seas, yet some oilfields are
animals and plants that lived
millions of years ago.
found on land. Explain why.
2. This is due to the movement of
the Earth’s crust.

Activity 20.1
Locations of deposits of coal, petroleum and natural gas
PowerPoint
In this activity, you are going to search the Internet (or other sources) for the
information about the locations of deposits of coal, petroleum and natural gas
in Mainland China and other countries. After the search, present your findings
by designing a poster.

20.2 Refining petroleum

PowerPoint
Composition of petroleum
Petroleum is a complex mixture of many hydrocarbons, with molecules
ranging from 1 to about 70 carbon atoms. The hydrocarbons obtained from
crude oil can be classified into two main types, namely aliphatic
hydrocarbons and aromatic hydrocarbons.

Aliphatic hydrocarbons are compounds in which carbon atoms are

joined together in straight chains, branched chains or non-aromatic rings.
See Figure 20.8.
H H
H H
H H H H H H H CH2CH3 H H H C C
H H
H C C C C C C H H C C C C C H C C
H H
H H H H H H H H CH3 H H C C
H H
H H
(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20.8 Examples of aliphatic hydrocarbons with (a) straight chain (b) branched chain and (c) non-aromatic rings.

Aromatic hydrocarbons are compounds which contain the benzene

* Book 2, Section 23.3, p.14
aliphatic hydrocarbon 脂肪族烴
20 6 aromatic hydrocarbon 芳香族烴
benzene 苯
ring. Benzene is the simplest example of aromatic hydrocarbons (Figure
20.9(a)). It is mainly used as a starting material to make other chemicals
such as styrene (Figure 20.9(b)). Styrene is commonly used to make
*polystyrene.
non-aromatic ring 非芳香環
polystyrene 聚苯乙烯
styrene 苯乙烯
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

H
H H
H C H H C C
C C
C C H
3D Model C C H C C H
(Benzene) H C H
C C
H
H H
Figure 20.9 Structures of
(a) benzene and (b) styrene. (a) (b)

What is oil refining?

Concept check
✘ Petroleum is a pure
hydrocarbon.
✔ Petroleum is a complex
mixture of hydrocarbons
which can be separated
into different useful
fractions.
* Book 1, Section 2.4, p.14
Petroleum contains a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. It must
be refined before it becomes useful. The process of separating
hydrocarbons in petroleum to give useful fuels and raw materials is called
oil refining.
CE2008(I)7(a) DSEPP2012(IB)5(b)
In oil refining, the mixture of hydrocarbons is separated by
*fractional distillation into less complex mixtures. Fractional distillation
is used because the hydrocarbons in petroleum have different boiling
points. In general, a hydrocarbon with larger molecular size has a higher
boiling point. This is because van der Waals’ forces are stronger between
larger molecules.

Fractional distillation separates petroleum into several parts with

Note 8 different boiling point ranges. These parts (less complex mixtures) are N8
Remind students that fractional
called fractions.
distillation is a physical method of
separation.

Key point
A petroleum (oil) fraction is a mixture of hydrocarbons with similar
boiling points.

The refining process CE2011(II)22

Industrially, the refining of oil is carried out in an oil refinery. Petroleum

is first heated in a furnace to about 400°C. The hot oil, now partly liquid
and partly vapour, is pumped into the bottom of a tall tower called
fractionating tower (Figure 20.10). The liquid part (the residue) falls to
the bottom of the tower. The vapour part rises up the tower.
Figure 20.10 Fractionating
towers in an oil refinery.

fraction 餾分 fractionating tower 分餾塔 oil refinery 煉油廠

fractional distillation 分餾法 oil refining 石油提煉
7 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Note 9 As the vapours rise up the tower, they cool and condense to liquid.
The bubble caps allow the vapour to
rise up the column and the overflow Heavier and higher-boiling fractions condense at lower, hotter levels of
pipes let the liquid descend. It should the tower. Lighter and lower-boiling fractions condense at higher, cooler
be noted that each tray is equipped
with a large number of bubble caps. levels. Hydrocarbons with the lowest boiling point range rise to the top of
the tower and come out as gases.
Note 10
Tell students that the temperature of
each fraction may vary for different Figure 20.11 illustrates the refinery process.
fractionating towers.

Note 11
LPG is the abbreviation for ‘Liquefied Fractions and uses
Petroleum Gas’.

Refinery gas
Animation • LPG as domestic fuel and N11
(Fractional distillation below 40°C fuel for taxis
bubble cap of petroleum) (C1–C4) N10 • raw materials for
condensed
overflow manufacture of chemicals
liquid
pipe

N9 Petrol (gasoline)
• fuel for motor cars

Naphtha
tray 40–170°C • raw materials for
(C5–C10) production of town
rising vapour
temperature decreases

gas, plastics and

tray
other chemicals
170–250°C
(C11–C14) Kerosene
• fuel for aeroplanes
overflow pipe
• domestic fuel
250–350°C
(C14–C25) Diesel oil
400°C • fuel for heavy vehicles
such as lorries and buses

residue Fuel oil

fractionating
tower • fuel for ships
(C25 and • burnt to generate
above) electricity in power
over 350°C
plants
petroleum
furnace Lubricating oils and waxes
Note 12
vacuum • used to make lubricating
Most of the residue is used as fuel oil in large
distillation oils and candles
furnaces such as those in power plants or big
ships. A small proportion of the residue is used to column
make lubricating oils and waxes, which are distilled Bitumen
off in vacuum. The solid left after vacuum distillation N12
• material for covering
is an involatile tarry material — bitumen.
roads
Figure 20.11 Fractional distillation of petroleum.

bitumen 瀝青 fuel oil 燃料油 lubricating oil 潤滑油 petrol (gasoline) 汽油

20 8 bubble cap 泡罩 furnace 熔爐 naphtha 石腦油 refinery gas 煉油氣
diesel oil 柴油 kerosene 煤油 (火水) overflow pipe 溢流管 tray 塔盤
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

There are bubble caps (Figure 20.12) in

each level of the tower. They make the
separation of fractions more effective.

Figure 20.12 Bubble caps in

a fractionating tower.

20.3 Gradation in properties of the various

PowerPoint fractions of petroleum
Relationship between boiling point range and
number of carbon atoms in the molecules of
hydrocarbons
Refining separates petroleum into several fractions. Each fraction consists
of hydrocarbon molecules with similar sizes. These hydrocarbons boil
within a certain temperature range.

For example, the refinery gas fraction consists of hydrocarbon molecules

with 1 to 4 carbon atoms (C1 to C4). This fraction boils below 40°C.
Table 20.1 summarizes the boiling point range and the number of carbon
atoms in the hydrocarbon molecules of different petroleum fractions.

Number of carbon atoms

Boiling point
Petroleum fraction in the hydrocarbon
range (°C)
molecules
CE2008(II)14
Refinery gas below 40°C C1–C4
Petrol (gasoline) and
40–170°C C5–C10
Table 20.1 Relationship naphtha
between boiling point
Kerosene 170–250°C C10–C14
range and number of
carbon atoms in the Diesel oil 250–350°C C14–C25
hydrocarbon molecules
Fuel oil, lubricating oils
of various petroleum over 350°C C25 and above
fractions.
and waxes, bitumen

From Table 20.1, we can notice the following pattern:

Key point
A petroleum fraction consisting of hydrocarbon molecules with
more carbon atoms has a higher boiling point range.

9 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Fractional distillation of petroleum in the

laboratory
Note 13 We can perform fractional distillation of petroleum in the laboratory, using N13
Artificial petroleum may be used in
the set-up shown in Figure 20.13.
the experiment as petroleum
contains suspected carcinogenic
compounds.

stand
thermometer

mineral wool soaked bent delivery tube

CE2000(I)8(a)(i) with petroleum

ice

heat
water
Figure 20.13 Fractional
distillation of petroleum in petroleum fraction
the laboratory.

At the beginning, heat the petroleum soaked in mineral wool very

Note 14
Viscosity means resistance to flow.
A liquid with a high viscosity flows
slowly with difficulty, like honey. A
liquid with a low viscosity flows
readily.
gently. The fraction with the lowest boiling point range distils out first.
Then heat the mineral wool more and more strongly. Fractions with higher
boiling point ranges come out one by one. Collect the various fractions in
turn in separate test tubes. Table 20.2 compares some properties of the
fractions.
CE2008(I)7(b)(i)

Fraction
1 2 3 4
Properties
room temperature
Boiling point range 100–150°C 150–200°C 200–250°C
to 100°C

Colour colourless very pale yellow yellow brown

Volatility (Ease of ease of evaporation decreases

evaporates quickly evaporates slowly
evaporation)
non-viscous (flows viscosity increases
Viscosity N14 fairly viscous
easily)
flammability decreases
Flammability very easy to burn difficult to burn

Colour and sootiness yellow with blue yellow/orange; orange; orange;

of flame when burnt edges; non-sooty slightly sooty sooty very sooty

Table 20.2 Comparison of some properties of fractions obtained from the fractional distillation of petroleum in the laboratory.
DSEPP2012(IB)5(c) CE2011(I)6(a)(ii)
bent delivery tube 彎導管 sootiness 黑煙量
20 10 evaporation 蒸發 viscosity 黏度
flammability 易燃性 volatility 揮發性
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

From Table 20.2, we can state that:

Key point CE2008(I)7(b)

A petroleum fraction with a higher boiling point range has a darker

colour and is more viscous; it is less volatile, less flammable and
burns less completely.

Experiment 20.1 Experiment Workbook 2

PowerPoint
Investigating the colour, viscosity, volatility and burning characteristics of
petroleum fractions
In this experiment, you are going to perform some tests to investigate the
colour, viscosity, volatility and burning characteristics of petroleum fractions.

A20.2
(a) Fractional distillation
(b) A hydrocarbon with more carbon
atoms in its molecules has a
higher boiling point.
(c) There is physical separation but
no chemical decomposition in
the separation process.
CE2010(II)2
CE2011(II)22
Class practice 20.2
Petroleum is a mixture of hydrocarbons which can be separated into different
fractions.
(a) Name the process by which petroleum is separated into fractions.
(b) How does the number of carbon atoms in a hydrocarbon affect its boiling
point?
(c) State whether there is (i) physical separation or (ii) chemical decomposition
in the separation process.

20.4 Major uses of petroleum fractions

PowerPoint
The uses of a petroleum fraction are closely related to its properties. For
example, refinery gas burns more easily than lubricating oils. Hence,
refinery gas is used as fuels. Figure 20.11 on p.8 has already shown the
name, properties and major uses of each petroleum fraction. Refer to the
diagram again.

1. As fuels
From Figure 20.11, we see that most of the petroleum fractions are used
as fuels. LPG is used as domestic fuel and fuel for taxis. Petrol, kerosene,
diesel oil and fuel oil are used as fuels in transportation.

11 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

2. As a source of hydrocarbons
Some petroleum fractions are used as a source of hydrocarbons to
produce other useful chemicals. These chemicals are raw materials for
making some important products used in daily life such as plastic articles,
* Book 4B, Section 46.2, p.7 *detergents and paints (Figure 20.14).

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 20.14 Some petroleum fractions provide a source of hydrocarbons which can be used to make raw materials for the
manufacture of (a) plastic articles (b) detergents and (c) paints.

H20 Example 20.1

Explaining the demand for various petroleum fractions
Petroleum is a mixture of many different hydrocarbons. Fractional distillation of petroleum produces
different fractions. The following graphs show the supply and demand of some petroleum fractions in
the modern society respectively.
Supply Demand
50% 50%
45%
% of petroleum fractions

% of petroleum fractions

40% 40%
35%

30% 30%
25% 25%
20%
20% 20%
15%
10%
10% 10%
5% 5% 5% 5% 5%

0% 0%
refinery petrol naphtha kerosene diesel heavy oils refinery petrol naphtha kerosene diesel heavy oils
gas oil (fuel oil, gas oil (fuel oil,
lubricating oil) lubricating oil)

The percentages of fractions obtained from petroleum. The percentages of fractions required from petroleum
by the modern society.

(a) Describe the principle underlying the fractional distillation of petroleum. CE2000(I)8(a)(i) DSE2014(IB)6(a)(i)

(b) With reference to the graphs, which fraction(s) has/have the demand that outweighs the supply?
(c) With reference to the graphs, which fraction(s) has/have the supply that outweighs the demand?

cont’d

detergent 清潔劑
20 12 heavy oil 重油
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

(d) The demand for petrol is about twice that of the supply in the modern society. Suggest a reason
for this. CE2000(I)8(a)(ii)(1)
(e) Which fraction, petrol or kerosene, has a higher boiling point range? Explain briefly.
(f) Explain why heavy oils are seldom used as fuels.

Solution
(a) Hydrocarbons in petroleum have different boiling points. The more carbon atoms in the
hydrocarbon molecule, the higher is the boiling point.
(b) Petrol, kerosene and diesel oil
(c) Heavy oils
(d) Petrol is mainly used as fuel for motor cars. As there are many motor cars in the modern society,
there would be a great demand for petrol.
(e) Kerosene. Since the hydrocarbon molecules in kerosene have larger sizes, the van der Waals’ forces
between these molecules are stronger. Thus, more energy is needed to separate these molecules.
(f) Heavy oils are difficult to burn. When they burn, they give a very sooty flame. Hence, they are not
suitable for use as fuels.

A20.3 Class practice 20.3

(a) (i) As fuel for aeroplanes and
as domestic fuel (a) State the major uses of the following petroleum fractions:
(ii) As fuel for heavy vehicles
such as lorries and buses (i) kerosene;
(iii) As fuel for motor cars (ii) diesel oil;
(b) Diesel oil has the highest boiling
point range. (iii) petrol.
(c) Diesel oil is commonly used as
fuel for buses and lorries. As
(b) Which of the petroleum fractions has the highest boiling point range?
there are a large number of (c) Explain why the supply of diesel oil cannot meet the demand in the
these vehicles in the modern
society, the demand for diesel
modern society.
oil cannot meet the supply.

Activity 20.2
Major uses of petroleum fractions
PowerPoint
Refining petroleum produces various useful petroleum fractions. In this activity,
you are going to search the Internet (or other sources) for the major uses of
various petroleum fractions and the relation between their uses and properties.
After the search, present your findings by designing a poster.

13 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

20.5 Heat change during combustion of

PowerPoint hydrocarbons
Combustion of hydrocarbons
When hydrocarbons are burnt, the stored chemical energy is released
mainly as heat. Burning is also called combustion. Combustion of
hydrocarbons is an exothermic chemical reaction.

Complete and incomplete combustion

Learning tip A hydrocarbon (CxHy), when burnt completely in plenty of air, forms
Some fuels, particularly carbon dioxide and water. Very little soot (unburnt carbon particles) is
coal, contain a little
produced. The flame is blue, with a high temperature. For example, the
sulphur. When they are
burnt, sulphur dioxide equation for the complete combustion of methane is:
is produced as one of
the products. CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O()
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g) CE2002(II)34
In general:
CE2003(I)9(c)(ii)
y y
CxHy + (x + )O2(g) xCO2(g) + H2O() CE2011(II)18
4 2 DSE2012(IA)24
When oxygen supply is poor, the combustion of hydrocarbons is
CE1999(I)3(a) incomplete. Carbon monoxide and carbon may form, besides carbon
CE2000(I)6(c)(i) dioxide and water. Since a lot of soot is produced, black smoke can be seen.
Besides, the flame is yellow or orange, with a lower temperature.
Note 15
An example of exothermic
reaction: Key point CE2001(II)13
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
An example of endothermic Combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic chemical reaction. N15
reaction:
heat
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)
Class practice 20.4
A20.4
7 Write an equation for the complete combustion of
(a) C2H6 + O2 2CO2 + 3H2O OR
2
2C2H6 + 7O2 4CO2 + 6H2O (a) ethane (C2H6), (b) propane (C3H8).
(b) C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

20.6 Consequences of using fossil fuels

PowerPoint
Fossil fuels are very important to us. They provide most of our energy needs.
They are convenient to use and relatively cheap. However, they create
environmental problems resulting from:
• extraction and processing
• transportation and storage
• combustion
carbon monoxide 一氧化碳 exothermic reaction 放熱反應
20 14 combustion 燃燒 incomplete combustion 不完全燃燒
complete combustion 完全燃燒
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

When fossil fuels are burnt, the products are usually released directly
into the air. This causes some environmental problems such as air
pollution, acid rain and global warming.

Air pollution
Sources of air pollutants
In big cities and industrial areas, harmful substances (called pollutants)
are produced and released into the atmosphere all the time. When the
concentration of pollutants builds up to harmful levels, it may lead to air
pollution.

A major source of air pollutants is the exhaust of motor vehicles,

which is produced from the burning of petrol or diesel oil. Power plants
and factories also produce a lot of pollutants when they burn coal or
petroleum fractions to produce energy. Incinerators pollute the air when
waste is burnt. See Figure 20.15.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Figure 20.15 Some sources of air pollutants produced by human activities:

(a) motor vehicles (b) factories (c) power plants and (d) incinerators.

acid rain 酸雨 global warming 全球增温 incinerator 焚化爐

air pollution 空氣污染 pollutant 污染物
15 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds
CE1999(I)3(a)
AS2005(B)11(a)(i)(1)
CE2000(I)6(c)(i)
Note 16
• Electric power plants in Hong
Kong generate electricity mainly
by burning coal, which contains a
small percentage of sulphur.
• Paper (containing sulphur
compounds) and old tyres
(containing sulphur) are some of
the wastes burnt in incinerators.
CE1999(I)3(b)(1)
AS2005(B)11(a)(i)(2)
carbon monoxide 一氧化碳
20 16 nitrogen dioxide 二氧化氮
nitrogen monoxide 一氧化氮
Main air pollutants
Main air pollutants include gases (e.g. carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, etc.) and small solid particles (e.g. soot, dust, lead, etc.).
•
Carbon monoxide
Carbon monoxide forms when fossil fuels are burnt incompletely. Most
of the carbon monoxide in the air comes from motor vehicles.
Carbon monoxide is a highly dangerous gas. It is toxic, yet colourless
and odourless. It is thus a ‘silent killer’. As little as 0.5% of carbon
monoxide in air is sufficient to kill a person within a short period! Even at
very low concentrations, carbon monoxide causes dizziness and headache.
Why is carbon monoxide so toxic? When there is carbon monoxide,
haemoglobin in blood combines with carbon monoxide more strongly
(about 200 times) than with oxygen. As a result, carbon monoxide reduces
the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood. A person will die of lack of oxygen.
•
Sulphur dioxide
Most fuels contain sulphur (up to 4%, depending on the grade of the fuel).
When they are burnt, they give off sulphur dioxide to the air. Most of
the sulphur dioxide in the air comes from industrial sources, e.g. power
plants, factories and incinerators. N16
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
Sulphur dioxide is an acidic gas with a choking smell. It irritates our
eyes and attacks our respiratory system, causing lung diseases. Besides, it is
a cause of acid rain.
•
Nitrogen oxides
Nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are produced when
fuels are burnt at high temperatures. They are collectively called nitrogen
oxides (NOx).
When the car runs, the temperature of the engine is very high. A little
nitrogen and oxygen in the air combine to form nitrogen monoxide.
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g)
The nitrogen monoxide formed rapidly reacts with oxygen in air to
form nitrogen dioxide, which is a brown acidic gas with an irritating smell.
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
nitrogen oxides 氮氧化物
sulphur dioxide 二氧化硫
dizziness 暈眩
headache 頭痛
oxygen-carrying capacity 含氧量
respiratory system 呼吸系統
irritate 刺激

Note 17
In the presence of sunlight,
nitrogen dioxide decomposes to
nitrogen oxide and reactive
oxygen atom. The reactive
oxygen atom then reacts with
oxygen in the air to form ozone
(O3). Both the ozone produced
and the reactive oxygen atom
then oxidize hydrocarbon
pollutants in the air. After
undergoing a series of complex
reactions, photochemical smog
is produced.
ozone 臭氧
photochemical smog 光化學煙霧
20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels
Nitrogen oxides are poisonous. They irritate our eyes and attack our
respiratory system. Besides, they cause acid rain and photochemical smog. N17
Nitrogen oxides also come from power plants and factories.
XTRA
E Everyday chemistry
S
Photochemical smog
Photochemical smog is a mixture of pollutants
in which ozone is the major component. It often
has a brown haze because it contains nitrogen
dioxide. Photochemical smog forms by a series
of complex reactions between nitrogen oxides
and hydrocarbons in the presence of ultraviolet
light from the Sun. The smog has bad effects
on the environment. It reduces visibility and Photochemical smog reduces
therefore is bad for traffic. Besides, it irritates visibility, irritates our eyes and
our eyes and attacks our respiratory system. attacks our respiratory system.
• Unburnt hydrocarbons
Unburnt hydrocarbons come mostly from motor vehicles. Hydrocarbons
irritate our respiratory system. A few hydrocarbons are suspected of
causing cancer. Hydrocarbons are also involved in the formation of
photochemical smog.
• Suspended particulates
Suspended particulates are solid particles that remain suspended in air
for a long time. These include black smoke (mainly fine carbon particles),
dust and soot (coarse carbon particles). They are emitted from motor
vehicles, factories, power plants, incinerators and construction sites. See
Figure 20.16.
(a) (b)
Figure 20.16 Black smoke emitted from (a) factories and (b) motor vehicles.
suspended particulate 懸浮粒子 cancer 癌症 suspect 懷疑
unburnt hydrocarbon 未燃燒的烴 haze 煙霧 visibility 能見度
17 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

E
XTRA S
Do you know? Suspended particulates reduce visibility and darken building walls.
Smaller suspended particulates can enter our lungs. These particulates
The suspended particulates
with a size smaller than irritate our respiratory system and many of them can cause lung cancer.
10 micrometre (µm) (1 µm =
–6
1 × 10 m) can enter the
Leaded petrol contains tetraethyllead(IV) Pb(C2H5)4 — a compound
lungs. They are called
respirable suspended added to improve fuel combustion. (The petrol used in Hong Kong is
particulates (RSP). unleaded petrol.) Combustion products from leaded petrol therefore
contain lead compounds as part of the suspended particulates.

Lead and its compounds can cause anaemia. Besides, it can damage our
nervous system, especially in children. Since lead can accumulate in the
body, a prolonged period of absorption will have poisoning effects.

H20 Example 20.2

Burning petrol in motor car engines
Petrol is a common fuel for motor cars. Inside motor car engines, petrol is burnt in air to produce
power.
(a) Petrol is a petroleum product. State the origin of petroleum.
(b) Using C8H18 to represent petrol, write a chemical equation (no state symbols required) for the
complete combustion of petrol.
(c) What would happen if the petrol inside the car engine is burnt incompletely in air?
(d) Leaded petrol has been used for a long time in Hong Kong. In the early 1990s, unleaded petrol
was introduced in Hong Kong.
(i) What is leaded petrol?
(ii) State ONE advantage of using leaded petrol.
(e) Suggest a reason why unleaded petrol was introduced to Hong Kong.
(f) Which type of fuels, petrol or diesel oil, would produce more suspended particulates when burnt?
Explain your answer. CE2008(I)7(b)(ii) AS2005(B)11(a)(iv)

Solution
(a) Petroleum formed from the remains of sea animals and plants that lived hundreds of millions
years ago.
(b) 2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O
(c) Carbon monoxide and carbon soots form. Besides, less power would be produced.
(d) (i) Leaded petrol refers to the petrol with tetraethylead(IV) added.
(ii) Lead is added to improve the combustion of petrol.
(e) To eliminate the lead compounds in the car exhaust. Lead compounds can cause anaemia. Besides,
it can damage our nervous system.
(f) Diesel oil. This is because the carbon content of hydrocarbons in diesel oil is higher than that in
petrol. It is more difficult for diesel oil to undergo complete combustion.

respirable suspended particulate 可吸入懸浮粒子

20 18 tetraethyllead(IV) 四乙基鉛(IV)
accumulate 積聚
anaemia 貧血
nervous system 神經系統
prolonged period 長時間
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

A20.5 Class practice 20.5

1. Carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides,
unburnt hydrocarbons and 1.
0.2 pt
Name FOUR air pollutants that are present in the car exhaust.
suspended particulates
2. Sulphur dioxide and suspended 2. Name TWO pollutants emitted from power plants, factories and
particulates incinerators.
3. Complete combustion of octane:
25 3. Write chemical equations for the complete and incomplete combustion of
C8H18 + O2 8CO2 + 9H2O OR
2 octane (C8H18). (Assume that the incomplete combustion of octane gives
2C8H18 + 25O2 16CO2 + 18H2O
Incomplete combustion of octane: carbon monoxide and water as the only products.)
17
C8H18 + O2 8CO + 9H2O OR
2
2C8H18 + 17O2 16CO + 18H2O

Acid rain CE2004(I)4 CE2008(II)1

Animation
(Formation of Formation of acid rain DSE2012(IA)24
acid rain)

Rainwater is naturally slightly acidic, with a pH of about 5.6. This is because

carbon dioxide in the air dissolves in rainwater to form carbonic acid.

CO2(g) + H2O() H2CO3(aq)

carbonic acid (pH  5.6)

Rainwater with a pH value lower than 5.6 is called acid rain

(Figure 20.17). Two air pollutants that cause acid rain is sulphur dioxide
Figure 20.17 Acid rain usually
has a pH between 2.5 and 5. and nitrogen oxides.
Just imagine that rain as acidic CE2011(II)24 DSE2014(IA)13
as vinegar (with pH = 3) is In the air, sulphur dioxide dissolves in rainwater to form sulphurous
pouring from the sky.
acid.

Think about SO2(g) + H2O() H2SO3(aq)

Is carbon dioxide an air sulphurous acid
pollutant?

Think about
Some of the sulphurous acid further reacts with oxygen to produce
Generally speaking, carbon sulphuric acid.
dioxide is not classified as an air
pollutant. It seems to be harmless.
However, carbon dioxide causes Nitrogen oxides in the air dissolve in rainwater to form nitric acid and
global warming. In this respect,
nitrous acid.
carbon dioxide may be classified
as an air pollutant.
4NO(g) + 2H2O() + O2(g) 4HNO2(aq)
CE1999(I)3(b)(1) nitrogen monoxide nitrous acid
CE2006(II)23
DSE2014(IA)13
2NO2(g) + H2O() HNO2(aq) + HNO3(aq)
nitrogen dioxide nitrous acid nitric acid

carbonic acid 碳酸 octane 辛烷

nitric acid 硝酸 sulphuric acid 硫酸
19 20

nitrous acid 亞硝酸 sulphurous acid 亞硫酸

 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

See Figure 20.18.

clouds

acidic gases dissolve in

rainwater to form acid rain
acidic gases
carried by
acidic gases (e.g. acid rain
the wind
sulphur dioxide and
nitrogen oxides)
released into the air

forest

power
Figure 20.18 Formation of plant
acid rain.

Class practice 20.6

A20.6
(a) Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides Acid rain is a global pollution problem.
(b) SO2(g) + H2O() H2SO3(aq)
4NO(g) + 2H2O() + O2(g) (a) Name TWO air pollutants that are responsible for acid rain.
4HNO2(aq)
2NO2(g) + H2O() HNO2(aq) +
(b) Write chemical equations to show how the air pollutants in (a) form acids
HNO3(aq) in the air.
+
(c) CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
Ca (aq) + H2O() + CO2(g)
(c) Acid rain attacks building materials such as limestone and marble. Write a
(d) This is because the air in industrial chemical equation for the reaction involved.
areas has high concentrations of
(d) In industrial areas, the pH value of rainwater can be as low as 3.9. Suggest
acidic pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides. a reason for this.

Harmful effects of acid rain CE1999(I)3(b)(2)

• Damaging plants
Acid rain makes the soil acidic. Many plants
cannot grow well in acidic soil. Besides, acid
rain damages leaves of plants. If the leaves are
damaged, the plants can no longer carry out
photosynthesis to make food. They will die
eventually (Figure 20.19).

Figure 20.19 A forest destroyed

by acid rain.

limestone 石灰石
20 20 marble 大理石
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

• Killing aquatic life

Water in the majority of lakes and some rivers in the world has become
acidic due to acid rain. Fish and water plants cannot survive in water which
is too acidic (with a pH lower than 5).

• Corroding building materials CE2011(II)28

Acid rain corrodes common building materials including limestone,

marble, sandstone, cement and concrete. All these materials contain
calcium carbonate. Calcium carbonate reacts readily with acids:
+ 2+
CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()

Acid rain has corroded and damaged many ancient buildings and
statues (Figure 20.20).

Note 18 • Corroding metal objects N18

Iron(II) ions will form when acid rain
reacts with iron.
Acid rain corrodes metal objects (Figure 20.21) such as metal fences,
+
Fe(s) + 2H (aq)
2+
Fe (aq) + H2(g) bridges and car bodies. If acid rain gets into the soil, it corrodes
underground metal pipes.

Figure 20.20 (left) Statue

damaged by acid rain.
Figure 20.21 (right) Metal
pipes corroded by acid rain.

H20 Example 20.3

Understanding acid rain
(a) Acid rain often falls in industrialized cities and places nearby.
However, a place hundreds of kilometres away may also suffer
from acid rain. Explain.
(b) Explain why rain is usually more acidic during winter.
(c) Explain, with the help of a chemical equation, why lakes affected
by acid rain can be treated with calcium carbonate powder.
Adding calcium carbonate powder
to a lake affected by acid rain.
cont’d

calcium carbonate 碳酸鈣 cement 水泥 industrialized 工業化的

concrete 混凝土 sandstone 砂石
21 20

fence 欄杆 statue 雕像
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Solution
(a) Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides emitted from factories and motor vehicles escape into the air
directly above. These pollutants combine with rainwater to form acid rain that falls on the cities and
places nearby. However, the pollutants may also be carried far away by winds. Therefore, acid rain
would fall at a place hundreds of kilometres away.
(b) Solubility of gases in water usually increases with decreasing temperature. Thus, more sulphur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides would dissolve in water during winter, making the rain more acidic.
Besides, in winter, as more fuel is burnt in power plants to meet energy demand, a larger amount of
acidic air pollutants are produced.
(c) Calcium carbonate can lower the acidity in lakes caused by acid rain.
+ 2+
CaCO3(s) + 2H (aq) Ca (aq) + CO2(g) + H2O()

Possible ways to reduce the formation of acid rain

Acid rain results from air pollution. To control acid rain, we must reduce
the emission of acidic pollutants to the air. Methods of reducing the
emission of acidic pollutants will be discussed in Section 20.7.

Global warming CE2000(I)9(b)

CE2002(II)40

Animation Greenhouse effect

(Greenhouse
effect)
Figure 20.22 shows a greenhouse. The glass window allows sunlight to
pass through into the room. At the same time, it prevents most of the
infrared radiation (from heated plants) from escaping. The greenhouse
therefore gets warmer.

low-energy radiation
reflected back high-energy sunlight
penetrates through glass

glass roof

Figure 20.22 A greenhouse and the greenhouse effect.

infrared radiation 紅外輻射

20 22
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Think about
The atmosphere of the
planet Venus consists
mainly of carbon
dioxide. Would you
expect the average
temperature on Venus
to be higher or lower
than that on the Earth?
Similarly, energy from the Sun falls on the Earth. About half of this
energy is absorbed, warming the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface. The
Earth re-radiates most of the absorbed energy into space as infrared
radiation. However, carbon dioxide, water vapour and a few other gases in
the atmosphere hold back some of this radiation. See Figure 20.23. They
act like the glass windows of a greenhouse. As a result, the Earth gets
warmer. We call this greenhouse effect.

Think about
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas.
The average temperature of the
Venus’s surface would be higher
than that of the Earth’s surface. (The
carbon dioxide, water vapour
average temperature of the Venus’s
etc. in the atmosphere
surface is about 464°C.)

infrared radiation
sunlight

Figure 20.23 The greenhouse effect of

atmospheric gases on the Earth.

Learning tip Gases that cause the greenhouse effect are called greenhouse gases. N19
Other greenhouse Carbon dioxide is a major greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. The heat
gases include
methane (CH4),
energy trapped by the greenhouse gases keeps the average temperature of
chlorofluorocarbons the Earth’s surface at about 15°C. The greenhouse effect is essential for
CFCs (e.g. CCl3F),
life on the Earth.
nitrogen oxides (e.g.
NO2) and ozone (O3). CE2006(I)6(c)(i)

Key point
Note 19
The contribution of various greenhouse Greenhouse effect refers to the trapping of infrared radiation by
gases (from human activities) to
greenhouse effect is as follows: CO2 carbon dioxide and other gases in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth
(54.7%), CH4 (30%), fluorinated gases warm.
(0.6%), nitrogen oxides (4.9%) and other
gases (9.8%).
(Source of information: Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, Fourth Assessment
Report (2007)) Causes of global warming
Note 20
Not all the carbon dioxide which The average temperature of the Earth’s surface would be steady if the
goes into the atmosphere stays
greenhouse gases remained in their ‘normal’ concentrations. However,
there. Some is used by plants in
photosynthesis to produce food. over the past 100 years, people burnt a lot of fossil fuels, leading to a rapid
Up to 30% of it is absorbed by the
increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in air (Figure 20.24). This N20
oceans and some of this is used
by planktons for photosynthesis. results in global warming with a rise in the average temperature of the
But the amount of carbon dioxide
that is getting into the atmosphere,
Earth’s surface.
and staying there, is increasing. CE2006(I)6(a)
carbon dioxide 二氧化碳 greenhouse effect 温室效應
global warming 全球增温 greenhouse gas 温室氣體
23 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

390
Learning tip

atmosphere (parts per million by volume)

Concentration of carbon dioxide in the
Part per million by 380
volume here refers to the
3 370
volume (in cm ) of carbon
6 3
dioxide in 10 cm of air. 360

350

340

330
Figure 20.24 The concentration
of carbon dioxide in the 320
atmosphere from 1960 to 2010.
(Source: Down to Earth Climate 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Change) Year

Methane is another major greenhouse gas in the atmosphere. Scientists

found that there was a significant rise in the atmospheric concentration
of methane in the past 100 years. This is mainly due to an increase in the
CE2006(I)6(b) number of rice paddies and cattle farms around the world. The remains
from plants and the manure from animals give out methane when they
decay (Figure 20.25).

Figure 20.25 The decay of (a)

the remains from plants and (b)
manure from animals produces
methane.
(a) (b)

CE2000(I)9(b)(iii)(3) Harmful effects of global warming

CE2006(I)6(c)(ii)

• Melting of ice at the North

Pole and South Pole
Average sea levels would rise,
causing flooding in low-lying
coastal areas. See Figure 20.26.

Figure 20.26 An iceberg near the Pole. Many polar ice

caps will melt if the global temperature continues to rise!
methane 甲烷
20 24 cattle farm 畜牧場
low-lying coastal area 低窪地區
manure 糞肥
rice paddy 稻田
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

• Climate change
As the Earth gets warmer, there would be a climate change in different
parts of the world. These changes would cause damage to agriculture and
reduce the world’s food supply.

• Putting the wildlife in danger

Flooding and climate changes would put wildlife in danger.

CE2006(I)6(c)(iii) Tackling the global warming problems

To slow down global warming and prevent the situation from getting
worse, we can reduce carbon dioxide and methane emission in the
following ways:

• Using alternative energy sources

We can use alternative energy sources such as nuclear energy, solar
energy, wind energy, etc. to generate electricity, power vehicles, etc.

• Stopping deforestation
We have to stop cutting down or burning forests, especially the rainforests
(Figure 20.27). A living tree takes in carbon dioxide from the air for
photosynthesis. At the same time, it gives out oxygen to air.

• Planting more trees

• Preventing and putting out forest fires

Forest fires destroy forests. At the same time, they add carbon dioxide to
the atmosphere (Figure 20.28).

Figure 20.27 (left) Rainforests

remove carbon dioxide from
air. At the same time, they add
oxygen to air.
Figure 20.28 (right) Forest
fires destroy forests. At the
same time, they add carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere.

• Collecting methane gas from decaying plant and animal wastes

and using it as fuel

alternative 替代的 rainforest 熱帶雨林

climate 氣候 tackle 解決
25 20

deforestation 濫伐林木 wildlife 野生生物

 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

A20.7 Class practice 20.7

(a) (i) Respiration by living things
(ii) Photosynthesis by green plants
(b) (i) Methane/CFCs/nitrogen oxides/
In the past millions of years, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the
ozone (Any ONE) atmosphere remained almost constant because of a balance between the
(ii) Solar energy from the Sun addition and removal of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
reaches the Earth. About half
of this energy is absorbed by (a) Suggest ONE natural process by which carbon dioxide is
the Earth. The Earth re-radiates (i) added to the atmosphere;
most of the absorbed energy
into the space as infrared (ii) removed from the atmosphere.
radiation. However, the (b) Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
greenhouse gases in the
atmosphere trap some of the (i) Name ONE other greenhouse gas.
radiation, preventing it from (ii) Explain why greenhouse gases can cause the greenhouse effect.
going back into the space. As a
result, the Earth gets warmer. (c) Explain why the presence of greenhouse gases is important to life on the
(c) Greenhouse gases trap infrared Earth.
radiation re-radiated from the Earth.
This keeps the Earth warm for life to (d) State ONE harmful effect of global warming.
sustain on it. A20.7 (Cont’d)
(d) Melting of ice at the North Pole and the South Pole OR
Climate change OR
Flooding and climate change would put wildlife in danger
STSE connections 20.1
PowerPoint
Possible consequences of global warming
Global warming causes the melting of ice at the North Pole and the South Pole. Many scientists believe that
the sea level will rise as much as 1 metre by the end of this century. The rise in sea level may cause flooding in
low-lying coastal areas.

The Maldives are an island country which consists of almost 1200 islands. Most of the islands lie just 1.5 m
above sea level. The Maldives are at high risk of being flooded by sea water if the sea level keep rising. To
draw the attention of the world, the Maldives held the world’s first underwater meeting in October 2009.
The meeting took place in a table about five metres underwater. At the meeting, the president of the Maldives
signed a document, calling for other countries to help reduce the carbon dioxide emission.
STSE connections 20.1
1. The burning of fossil fuels produces
carbon dioxide, which is a greenhouse
gas. When a lot of fossil fuels are
burnt, the atmospheric concentration
of carbon dioxide will increase rapidly.
As a result, the atmosphere will trap
more infrared radiation. The
temperature of the Earth’s surface
increases. This leads to global
warming.
2. The rise of sea level may cause
flooding in low-lying coastal areas.
3. Using renewable energy sources
Stopping deforestation The president of the Maldives signed a document underwater,
Planting more trees calling for the reduction of carbon dioxide emission.
Preventing and putting out forest fires
Questions for discussion:
1. Explain why the burning of a lot of fossil fuels may lead to global warming.
2. State ONE possible consequence of the rise of sea level.
3. Suggest FOUR ways to reduce the emission of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.

20 26 consequence 後果
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Water pollution from oil spillage CE2000(I)6(c)(ii)

CE2001(II)41

Note 21 Major oil spillages result from accidents with offshore oil wells and oil N21
An explosion of oil wells in the Gulf
of Mexico occurred in 1979, with a
tankers (Figure 20.29). Spilt oil threatens human safety and wildlife
spillage of 1 million barrels of crude survival (Figure 20.30).
oil. This destroyed part of the
world’s richest shrimp ground and
caused 90 000 fishermen to lose
their jobs.

Figure 20.29 (left) Leakage of oil

from an oil tanker.
Figure 20.30 (right) A dying sea
bird. Its feathers are covered with
sticky oil.

The possible pollution problems associated with the oil spillage

include:
• Oil floats on water and blocks the oxygen supply to aquatic life. Besides,
sea birds can no longer fly when their feathers are covered with oil.
• Oil is poisonous to aquatic life.
• Oil is flammable. It burns with a very sooty flame, producing air
Note 22 pollutants.
Bacteria in sea water can remove
oil, but this is a very slow
• Use of detergents to clean up the spilt oil will have other bad effects on N22

decomposition process. aquatic life.

STSE connections 20.2
PowerPoint
Risks associated with the production, transportation, storage and usage of fossil fuels
th
On 20 April 2010, an explosion occurred on the oil rig off the
coast of southeast Louisiana in the USA. In the explosion, 11
workers were killed and 17 workers were injured. The oil leaking
from the damaged oil well polluted the water in the Gulf of Mexico.
It was reported that 1000 to 5000 barrels of oil leaked from the oil
well each day, for a period of about 90 days. In the accident, an
area of the sea comparable to 10 times the size of Hong Kong
was polluted. Environmentalists said that the effect of oil spillage
on the environment and economy may last for a few decades.

Activity 20.3
Risks and benefits of using fossil fuels to the society and the environment
PowerPoint
In this activity, you are going to search the Internet (or other sources) for the risks
and benefits of using fossil fuels to the society and the environment. After the
search, present your findings by designing a leaflet.

feather 羽毛 oil spillage 石油洩漏

offshore 離岸的
27 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

20.7 Reducing the emission of air

PowerPoint
Note 23 pollutants from combustion of
Lead and its compounds can
accumulate in the human body, fossil fuels
causing lung diseases and damage
of the brain cells. Starting from April
1999, the use of leaded petrol was Cutting down air pollutants from motor vehicles
banned in Hong Kong.

Using unleaded petrol

By using unleaded petrol in motor vehicles, we can greatly reduce lead
emission into the air (Figure 20.31). This is why unleaded petrol has
gradually replaced leaded petrol in many countries in recent years. N23

CE1999(I)3(e) CE2000(II)27 CE2002(II)43 CE2007(II)26 AS2005(B)11(a)(iii) DSE2014(IB)6(b)(i)

Figure 20.31 Using unleaded
Installing catalytic converters in motor vehicles
petrol for a cleaner
environment.
Motor vehicles fitted with catalytic converters emit ‘cleaner’ exhaust. A N24

catalytic converter is a stainless steel cylinder containing a catalyst (usually

platinum or rhodium). It is attached to the exhaust pipe (Figure 20.32).
Note 24
CE2011(I)6(b)
A catalytic converter can remove up to 90% of
car
pollutants from car exhaust.
engine
exhaust catalyst (e.g. platinum or rhodium)
pipe supported on a ceramic block

carbon dioxide,
nitrogen, water
vapour, etc.

carbon monoxide,
nitrogen monoxide,
unburnt hydrocarbons,
catalytic
etc.
converter

Figure 20.32 A catalytic converter fitted to a car exhaust system.

The catalytic converter converts carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide

and unburnt hydrocarbons to carbon dioxide, nitrogen and water vapour.

AL1999(I)6(b)(ii) Carbon monoxide and nitrogen monoxide react in the presence of a

AL2002(II)7(a)
AS2005(B)11(a)(iii) catalyst to form carbon dioxide and nitrogen:

Pt(s) or Rh(s)
2CO(g) + 2NO(g) 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
poisonous gases harmless gases

catalyst 催化劑
20 28 catalytic converter 催化轉化器
ceramic block 陶瓷塊
exhaust pipeline 排氣管
stainless steel cylinder 不銹鋼製圓筒
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Unburnt hydrocarbons and any remaining carbon monoxide are

oxidized to carbon dioxide and water vapour.
AL1999(I)6(b)(iii)
Pt(s) or Rh(s)
AL2002(II)7(a)
AS2005(B)11(a)(iii) 2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)

y y
CxHy(g) + (x + )O2(g) xCO2(g) + H2O(g)
4 2

A catalytic converter can work efficiently only on unleaded petrol. This

AL1999(I)6(b)(iii) is because the catalyst is easily ‘poisoned’ (made ineffective) by lead or lead
compounds.

For vehicles using diesel oil such as lorries and buses, diesel catalytic
converters and particulate traps (Figure 20.33) are installed to reduce the
emission of air pollutants.

CE2001(I)7(b) CE2002(I)8(a)(iv)(2)
Using LPG instead of diesel oil CE2011(I)6(a)(ii)

Diesel oil produces a lot of pollutants (e.g. suspended particulates and

Figure 20.33 A particulate
trap for vehicles using diesel nitrogen oxides) on burning. LPG is a much cleaner fuel. In Hong Kong,
oil. most taxis and public light buses run on LPG instead of diesel oil (Figure
20.34).

(a) (b)

Figure 20.34 At present, most (a) taxis and (b) public light buses in Hong Kong are using LPG as fuel.

Cutting down air pollutants from power plants

and factories CE2000(II)40 CE2001(II)31
Using fuels of low sulphur content
CE2002(I)8(a)(iii) We can reduce sulphur dioxide emission by burning fuels of low sulphur
CE2011(I)6(c) content.

liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 液化石油氣

particulate trap 懸浮粒子轉化器
29 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Note 25
Scrubbers can remove up to 95% of
Using scrubbers to remove sulphur dioxide CE2002(I)8(a)(iii)
CE2007(II)26
sulphur dioxide. However, fitting and
maintaining scrubbers are very Sulphur dioxide can be removed by a process called scrubbing. In tanks
expensive indeed. They would add
called scrubbers (Figure 20.35), waste gases are sprayed by jets of N25
cost to electricity.
limewater before they come out of the chimneys. The limewater reacts
Note 26 with sulphur dioxide in the waste gases.
The calcium sulphite formed is further
oxidized to calcium sulphate:
Ca(OH)2(aq) + SO2(g) CaSO3(s) + H2O() N26
2CaSO3(s) + O2(g) 2CaSO4(s)
The calcium sulphate formed is a
useful chemical. For example, it can ‘cleaned’ gases out
be used to coagulate soy milk to waste gases containing
make tofu. It is also widely used in sulphur dioxide
pharmaceutical industry.

jets of
limewater

limewater reacts with

sulphur dioxide
Note 27
Another possible way to reduce
pollutants from waste gases is
to blast air in to convert carbon
monoxide and soot to carbon
dioxide.

Figure 20.35 A scrubber

removes sulphur dioxide from
the waste gases. sludge discharges

Sulphur dioxide in the waste gases can also be removed by a flue

gas desulphurization system, which has been discussed in STSE
connections 18.2.

Removing suspended particulates from industrial

Figure 20.36 An electrostatic
precipitator
emission CE2002(I)8(a)(iv)(2)
We can remove dust from waste gases by mechanical filtering. The gases
are passed through large filters and the dust is trapped.
CE2003(II)32 CE2007(II)26
We can also remove suspended particulates from waste gases by the use
of electrostatic precipitators (Figure 20.36). The waste gases are passed
through a strong electric field where solid particles become negatively
charged. The charged particles are collected on positively charged plates. N27

scrubber 滌氣器
20 30 electrical precipitator 靜電沉積器
scrubbing 滌氣
chimney 煙囪
electric field 電場
spray 噴灑
flue gas desulphurization system 煙氣脫硫系統
mechanical filtering 靜電除塵器
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels
DSE2012(IB)10

Table 20.3 below summarizes the major sources and harmful effects of
some air pollutants, and the measures to reduce their emission.
CE1999(II)30 CE2001(II)14

Measure(s) that reduce(s) its

Air pollutant Major source(s) Harmful effect(s)
emission
Carbon Motor vehicles • It is a poisonous gas which can • Installing catalytic converters
monoxide CE1999(I)3(d) kill even at low concentrations. in motor vehicles
• Using LPG instead of diesel
oil for motor vehicles

Sulphur Power plants, • It irritates our eyes and attacks • Using fuels of low sulphur
dioxide factories and our respiratory system, causing content
incinerators lung diseases • Installing scrubbers or flue
• It is a cause of acid rain gas desulphurization system
CE2002(I)8(a)(ii) CE2011(I)6(c) in power plants CE2002(I)8(a)(iii)

Nitrogen Motor vehicles, • It irritates our eyes and attacks • Installing catalytic converters
oxides power plants and our respiratory system in motor vehicles
factories • It is a cause of acid rain and
CE1999(I)3(d) photochemical smog
AS2005(B)11(a)(ii)(1)
Unburnt Motor vehicles • A few of them are suspected of • Installing catalytic converters
hydrocarbons CE1999(I)3(d) causing cancer in motor vehicles
• A cause of photochemical
smog
CE1999(I)3(c)
Suspended Motor vehicles, • They reduce visibility and • Using unleaded petrol
particulates factories, power darken building walls • Installing electrostatic
plants, • They irritate our respiratory precipitators in power plants,
incinerators and system factories and incinerators
construction sites • Lead and its compounds cause • Removing dust by
CE1999(I)3(d) anaemia and damage our mechanical filtering
nervous system CE2002(I)8(a)(iv)(2)
CE2002(I)8(a)(iv)(1) AS2005(B)11(a)(ii)(2)
Table 20.3 The major sources, harmful effects and measures for reduction of the emission of some air pollutants.

H20 Example 20.4 DSE2014(IA)17

Pros and cons of using alternative sources of energy in Hong Kong

Organic wastes can be used as an alternative energy source.
Food waste is a kind of organic waste. In recent years, the
Environmental Protection Department of Hong Kong has
worked with some restaurants, hotels, residential areas, etc. to
collect food waste. After the food waste is collected, it is
transported to the Organic Waste Treatment Facilities (OWTF).
Under suitable conditions, the bacteria in the facilities will
change the food waste, together with other organic wastes
collected, to biogas. Biogas mainly contains methane.
cont’d

biogas 沼氣
31 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

(a) Draw the electron diagram of methane, showing electrons in the outermost shells only.
(b) Write a chemical equation to show the complete combustion of methane.
(c) Suggest TWO advantages of using organic wastes as an alternative energy source in Hong Kong.
(d) State ONE disadvantage in using food waste to replace coal as the main energy source for power
plants in Hong Kong.
(e) Suggest FOUR energy sources that are currently used by power plants in Hong Kong to generate
electricity.

Solution
(a)
H H
C
H H

(b) CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O()

(c) It can save fossil fuels./ It can greatly reduce the amount of food waste produced./ It can save the
space for waste disposal./ It is a renewable energy source. (Any TWO)
(d) The volume of biogas produced by food waste is very limited because the amount of food waste
collected may not be great.
(e) Nuclear energy, wind energy, natural gas and coal

20 32
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Key terms
PowerPoint

English term Chinese translation Page

1. air pollution 空氣污染 15

2. aliphatic hydrocarbon 脂肪族烴 6

3. aromatic hydrocarbon 芳香族烴 6

4. benzene 苯 6

5. carbon monoxide 一氧化碳 16

6. catalytic converter 催化轉化器 28

7. coal 煤 4

8. combustion 燃燒 14

9. electrostatic precipitator 靜電沉積器 30

10. flue gas desulphurization system 煙氣脫硫系統 30

11. fossil fuel 化石燃料 3

12. fractional distillation 分餾法 7

13. fractionating tower 分餾塔 7

14. fraction 餾分 7

15. fuel 燃料 3

16. global warming 全球增温 23

17. greenhouse effect 温室效應 23

18. greenhouse gas 温室氣體 23

19. hydrocarbon 烴/碳氫化合物 3

20. mechanical filtering 靜電除塵器 30

21. natural gas 天然氣 4

22. nitrogen oxides 氮氧化物 16

23. oil refining 石油提煉 7

24. petroleum 石油 4

25. pollutant 污染物 15

(Cont’d)

33 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

English term Chinese translation Page

26. scrubber 滌氣器 30

27. scrubbing 滌氣 30

28. sulphur dioxide 二氧化硫 16

29. suspended particulates 懸浮粒子 17

20 34
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

Progress check
PowerPoint

Can you answer the following questions? Put a ‘✓’ in the box if you can. Otherwise, review the relevant
part on the page as shown.

Page
1. How did the fossil fuels such as coal, petroleum and natural gas form? 4

2. What are the major compositions of coal, petroleum and natural gas? 4

3. How can different fractions in petroleum be separated industrially? 7

4. What are the names and major uses of these petroleum fractions? 8

5. How do the physical properties (e.g. colour, viscosity, volatility and burning characteristics)
9
of the fractions relate to the number of carbon atoms in hydrocarbon molecules?

6. How can we perform fractional distillation in the school laboratory? 10

7. What are the products of complete and incomplete combustion of fossil fuels
14
respectively?

8. What are the major sources of air pollutants and where do they come from? 15–18

9. How do these air pollutants affect our environment? 15–18

10. What is acid rain? How does it form? 19

11. What are the harmful effects of acid rain? 20–21

12. What is global warming? 23

13. What are the harmful effects of global warming? 24–25

14. How can we reduce the emission of greenhouse gases? 25

15. What are the harmful effects of oil spillage? 27

16. How can we reduce the emission of air pollutants from combustion of fossil fuels? 28–30

35 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Summary
PowerPoint

20.1 Fossil fuels as a major energy source

1. A fuel is a substance which is burnt to produce heat.

2. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are fossil fuels.

3. Coal formed from the remains of plants that lived hundreds of millions years ago. It consists of
65%–95% carbon, together with hydrocarbons and some other compounds.

4. Petroleum and natural gas formed from the remains of sea animals and plants that lived
hundreds of millions years ago.

5. Petroleum is a complex mixture consisting mainly of hydrocarbons.

6. Natural gas is also a mixture consisting mainly of hydrocarbons. The main component is methane
(CH4).

20.2 Refining petroleum

7. In oil refining, petroleum is separated into several useful parts (fractions) by fractional
distillation. This works because different hydrocarbons have different boiling points.

8. Each petroleum fraction has its particular properties and uses. Refer to Figure 20.11 on p.8 for
the major uses of the various fractions.

20.3 Gradation in properties of the various fractions of petroleum

9. As the number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon molecules of a petroleum fraction increases,
the properties of the fraction change as follows:

• Boiling point range increases

• Colour darkens

• Volatility (ease of evaporation) decreases

• Viscosity increases

• Flammability decreases

• Flame (on burning) is darker and sootier

20.4 Major uses of petroleum fractions

10. Petroleum fractions are used mainly as fuels and as a source of hydrocarbons to produce other
useful chemicals.

20.5 Heat change during combustion of hydrocarbons

11. Combustion of hydrocarbons is an exothermic chemical reaction.

12. Complete combustion of hydrocarbons produces carbon dioxide and water only.

13. Incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons may produce carbon monoxide and carbon, besides
carbon dioxide and water.

20 36
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

20.6 Consequences of using fossil fuels

14. When fossil fuels are burnt, they form combustion products which cause environmental
problems, such as air pollution, acid rain and global warming.

15. Acid rain is rainwater with pH lower than 5.6. Two air pollutants, sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
oxides, are responsible for acid rain.

16. Greenhouse effect refers to the trapping of infrared radiation by carbon dioxide and other gases
in the atmosphere, keeping the Earth warm. It is essential for life on the Earth.

17. Global warming is mainly due to the excessive production of carbon dioxide from the burning
of fossil fuels.

20.7 Reducing the emission of air pollutants from combustion of fossil fuels

18. Table 20.3 on p.31 summarizes the major sources, harmful effects and measures to reduce the
emission of some air pollutants.

37 20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Concept map
PowerPoint

Complete the following concept map.

Hydrogen Carbon

consist of

Hydrocarbons

contain
burnt to produce
FOSSIL FUELS Energy

Coal Petroleum Natural gas

refined by

Fractional
distillation

forms different

have different Boiling point

Petroleum fractions
ranges

Refinery Diesel Lubricating

Petrol Naphtha Kerosene Fuel oil Bitumen
gas oil oils & waxes

LPG Motor Raw Aero- Fuel for Fuel for Material

Lubricating for
as car material for plane buses and ships and
oils covering
fuel fuel town gas fuel lorries power plants
roads

(Hints: bitumen, energy, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, naphtha, natural gas, petrol, petroleum, petroleum
fractions, refinery gas)

20 38
 Collect methane gas from
alternative
Stop decaying plant and animal Use Prevent and put
deforestation wastes and use it as fuel energy source out forest fires

how to slow down

pollutants Methane
responsible
Global warming

Carbon dioxide

CONSEQUENCES OF USING FOSSIL FUELS

(Hints: air pollution, alternative

Air pollution Acid rain energy source, carbon dioxide,
electrostatic precipitator, methane
pollutants responsible
pollutants responsible gas, nitrogen oxides, scrubber,
sulphur, sulphur dioxide)

Suspended Unburnt Carbon Nitrogen oxides Sulphur dioxide

particulates hydrocarbons monoxide
20

reduced by reduced by

reduced by

Electrostatic Mechanical Catalytic Scrubber Flue gas Using fuels

precipitator filtering converter desulphurization of low
system sulphur

content
Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

39
20
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Chapter exercise
Fill in the blanks 3. Petroleum and natural gas are a mixture
hydrocarbons
consisting mainly of . They
Section 20.1 formed from the remains of sea

1. Coal, petroleum and natural gas are animals and plants that lived hundreds of millions
fossil
fuels. They are so called because years ago.
plants
they formed from the remains of
animals Section 20.2
and that lived hundreds of
millions years ago. 4. Petroleum can be separated into less complex but
fractions
more useful mixtures (called ) by
carbon
2. Coal consists of 65%–95% , fractional distillation
. The process is
together with hydrocarbons and some other called oil refining
.
compounds. It formed from the remains of
plants 5. In the fractionating tower of an oil refinery, the
that lived hundreds of millions
heavy higher
years ago. fractions (with
boiling point ranges) condense at the lower
otter
h levels.

6. Name of fraction LPG as domestic Use

efinery fuel, raw materials for manufacture of chemicals
R gas
etrol fuel for motor cars
P
aphtha raw material for production of town gas
N
fractional erosene fuel for aeroplanes, domestic fuel
distillation
K
PETROLEUM iesel fuel for heavy vehicles
D oil
uel fuel for ships, burnt to generate
F oil
electricity in power plants

ubricating making lubricating oils and candles

L oils
and waxes
itumen material for covering roads
B

Section 20.3 Section 20.6

7. A pertroleum fraction with a higher boiling point 10. The main air pollutants include c arbon
arker monoxide ulphur dioxide
range has a d colour and is more ,s ,
iscous olatile itrogen oxides nburnt
v ; it is less v , less n , u
lammable less hydrocarbons particulates
f and burns and suspended .
completely.
11. Rainwater with pH values lower than
5.6
Section 20.4 is called acid rain. Two air
8. Petroleum fractions are mainly used as pollutants that cause the formation of acid rain are
sulphur dioxide nitrogen oxides
fuels
and a source of hydrocarbons and .
to produce other useful chemicals.
12. The greenhouse effect refers to the trapping of
infrared radiation carbon dioxide
Section 20.5 by
and other gases in the atmosphere, keeping the
9. Combustion of hydrocarbons is an
exothermic Earth warm.
chemical reaction.

20 40
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

13. Enhanced greenhouse effect causes an 19. Which of the following about the petroleum
rise
undesirable in the Earth’s surface fraction and its use is INCORRECT?
temperature. This phenomenon is known as Petroleum fraction Use
global warming
.
A. Fuel oil Fuel for buses
Section 20.7 B. Kerosene Fuel for taxis
C. Petrol Fuel for motor cars
14. To cut down pollutants from motor vehicles, we
unleaded D. Bitumen To cover roads A
have to use petrol, install
catalytic converter 19. Fuel oil is commonly used as fuel for ships.
and use LPG instead Section 20.3 Diesel oil is usually burnt to power buses.
of diesel oil.
20. Which of the following properties increase(s) with
15. We can reduce sulphur dioxide emission by using the number of carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon
fuels of low sulphur
content and molecules in petroleum fractions?
scrubbers
passing waste gases into . (1) Flammability
(2) Viscosity
16. We can remove suspended particulates from waste
(3) Volatility
gases by mechanical filtering or using
electrostatic precipitator A. (1) only 20. Refer to p.10 of chapter 20 for details.
.
B. (2) only
C. (1) and (3) only
Multiple-choice questions B
D. (2) and (3) only
Section 20.1
21. Which of the following petroleum fractions burns
17. Which of the following substances is found
with the cleanest flame?
together with petroleum?
A. Naphtha 21. A petroleum fraction with fewer carbon
A. Coal 17. Refer to p.4 of chapter 20 for details. atoms in the hydrocarbon molecules
B. Kerosene
B. Natural gas can burn more easily.
C. Refinery gas
C. Refinery gas C
B
D. Fuel oil
D. Alcohol
Section 20.5
Section 20.2
22. The complete combustion of pentane can be
18. Which of the following compounds is/are
represented by the following equation:
aliphatic hydrocarbons?
wC5H12() + xO2(g) yCO2(g) + zH2O()
(1) H H (2) H H H OH
H H Which of the following sets of values of w, x, y and
C C H C C C C H z is correct?
H H
C C w x y z
H H H H H H 22. Refer to p.14 of chapter
C C A. 2 8 5 6
20 for details.
H H B. 2 13 10 12
H H
C. 1 8 5 6
C
(3) H H H D. 1 11 10 12

H C C C H Section 20.6

H CH3 H 23. Which of the following gases are responsible for

the formation of acid rain?
A. (1) only 18. (2) is not a hydrocarbon
(1) Carbon monoxide
because it contains oxygen
B. (2) only (2) Sulphur dioxide
apart from hydrogen and
C. (1) and (3) only carbon. (3) Nitrogen oxides
C
D. (2) and (3) only
A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
C. (2) and (3) only
C
D. (1), (2) and (3)
41 20
29
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds 26. Planting more trees on roadsides can reduce the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide. However, it cannot reduce the
emission of air pollutants from taxis due to the burning
24. Which of the following are greenhouse gases? Section 20.7 of fossil fuels.
(1) Methane 26. Which of the following are measures that can
(2) Carbon dioxide reduce the emission of air pollutants from taxis
(3) Water vapour upon burning of fossil fuels?
A. (1) and (2) only (1) Replacing petrol with LPG
B. (1) and (3) only (2) Using unleaded petrol
C. (2) and (3) only (3) Planting more trees on the roadsides
D
D. (1), (2) and (3) A. (1) and (2) only
B. (1) and (3) only
25. Which of the following statements concerning C. (2) and (3) only
natural gas are correct? D. (1), (2) and (3) A

(1) Natural gas is a kind of fossil fuel.

(2) The combustion of natural gas is an 27. Which of the following statements about the
exothermic reaction. measures to reduce air pollutants is/are correct?
(3) The combustion of natural gas does not (1) Carbon soot can be removed by installing
produce greenhouse gases. electrostatic precipitators in factories.
A. (1) and (2) only (2) Nitrogen dioxide can be removed by installing
B. (1) and (3) only scrubbers in motor cars.
C. (2) and (3) only (3) Sulphur dioxide can be removed by installing
A
D. (1), (2) and (3) catalytic converters in power stations.
25. The combustion of natural gas (mainly methane) produces A. (1) only
carbon dioxide and water. Carbon dioxide and water vapour B. (2) only
are both greenhouse gases.
C. (1) and (3) only
A
D. (2) and (3) only
27. (2): nitrogen dioxide in the exhaust can be removed by installing
catalytic converters in motor cars.
(3): sulphur dioxide in the waste gases can be removed by
Structured questions installing scrubbers or flue gas desulphurization systems in
power stations.
Section 20.3
28. The following table shows the boiling point ranges of some fractions obtained from a sample of petroleum.
28. (a) Fractional distillation
(b) Fraction 4 contains hydrocarbons with
larger molecular sizes, while fraction 1
contains hydrocarbons with smaller Fraction Boiling point range
molecular sizes. The van der Waals’
1 Room temperature to 100°C
forces between larger molecules are
stronger. Hence, a larger amount of 2 100°C–150°C
energy is needed to separate the
hydrocarbon molecules in fraction 4 3 150°C–200°C
during boiling.
(c) Fraction 4 4 200°C–250°C
(d) Fraction 1
(e) Fraction 1. This is because it is the easiest to burn and it burns with the least sooty flame.
(a) Name the process that separates petroleum into fractions.
(b) Explain why Fraction 4 has a higher boiling point range than Fraction 1.
(c) Which fraction is the most viscous?
(d) Which fraction is the most flammable?
(e) Which fraction is the most suitable to be used as a motor car fuel? Explain your choice.

20 42
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

29. Some public light buses in Hong Kong run on liquefied petroleum gas (LPG). LPG is a mixture of
hydrocarbons obtained from petroleum.
29. (a) Petroleum formed from the sea plants
and animals that lived hundreds of
millions years ago. As these organisms
died, they sank to the bottom of the
seas and were covered by sand and
mud. High temperature, pressure and
the action of bacteria slowly changed
them into petroleum.
(b) Hydrocarbons are compounds that
contain hydrogen and carbon only.
(c) (i) Diesel oil
(ii) The hydrocarbons in LPG have
lower carbon content. Hence, LPG
burns more easily with a less sooty
flame.
(a) Describe the formation of petroleum. (iii) Owners of public light buses have to
(b) What is meant by the term ‘hydrocarbon’? replace the diesel light buses with
LPG ones.
(c) Before the use of LPG, public light buses run on diesel oil.
(i) Which fraction, LPG or diesel oil, has a higher boiling point range?
(ii) Based on the chemical composition, explain why LPG is a cleaner fuel than diesel oil.
(iii) State ONE problem when switching the fuel of public light buses from diesel oil to LPG.

Section 20.5
30. The following set-up is used to investigate the products of the combustion of a candle.

to filter pump
inverted
funnel

water
burning
limewater
candle

anhydrous copper(II) sulphate

(a) State and explain the observable change in the U-tube containing anhydrous copper(II) sulphate.
(b) State and explain the observable change in the test tube containing limewater.
(c) Some black powder is deposited on the inner wall of the inverted funnel.
(i) What is the black powder?
(ii) Explain briefly how it forms.
30. (a) Anhydrous copper(II) sulphate changes from white to blue as water is produced from the combustion of candle.
(b) The limewater turns milky as carbon dioxide is produced from the combustion of candle.
(c) (i) Carbon soot
(ii) Carbon soot is produced from the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons in the candle.

43 20
29
 V Fossil fuels and carbon compounds

Section 20.7
31. The following photo shows the emission of the car exhaust from a motor car using unleaded petrol. Several
air pollutants such as carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons are found in the car exhaust.
31. (a) This is due to the incomplete combustion of 31. (d) (i) Catalytic converter
petrol. Pt/Rh
(b) When the car runs, the temperature of the (ii) 2CO(g) + 2NO(g) 2CO2(g) + N2(g)
engine is very high. A little nitrogen and Pt/Rh
oxygen in the air will combine to form 2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)
nitrogen monoxide. car exhaust
y
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO(g) CxHy(g) + (x + )O2(g)
4
(c) Nitrogen oxides irritate our eyes and Pt/Rh y
attack our respiratory system. OR xCO2(g) + H2O(g)
2
They cause the formation of acid rain/ (iii) This is because the catalyst is easily
photochemical smog. (Any ONE) ‘poisoned’ by lead or lead compounds.

(a) Explain why the car exhaust contains carbon monoxide.

(b) Explain, with the help of a chemical equation, why the car exhaust contains nitrogen monoxide.
(c) State ONE environmental problem associated with nitrogen oxides.
(d) A device is installed in the motor car to reduce the amount of air pollutants in the car exhaust.
(i) Name this device.
(ii) Write appropriate chemical equations to show how the air pollutants can be reduced by this
device.
(iii) Explain why this device works efficiently only on unleaded petrol.

32. Sulphur dioxide is one of the air pollutants that cause the formation of acid rain. It is produced when
coal (with sulphur as impurity) is burnt.
(a) Write a chemical equation for the formation of sulphur dioxide from sulphur.
(b) If the coal used in the power plant contains 0.97% by mass of sulphur, calculate the mass of sulphur
dioxide produced when 100 kg of coal is burnt.
(c) Suggest ONE harmful effect of sulphur dioxide on humans.
(d) Suggest ONE method to reduce the emission of sulphur dioxide from power plants.
(Relative atomic masses: O = 16.0, S = 32.1)
32. (a) S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
(b) Mass of S in 100 kg of coal = (100 × 1000) g × 0.97% = 970 g
970
Number of moles of S burnt = mol = 30.2 mol
32.1
From the equation, mole ratio of S to SO2 is 1 : 1.
 number of moles of SO2 produced = 30.2 mol
Mass of SO2 produced = 30.2 × (32.1 + 16.0 × 2) g = 1936 g
(c) It irritates our eyes and attacks our respiratory system, causing lung diseases. OR
It is a cause of acid rain. (Any ONE)
(d) Using fuels of low sulphur content. OR
Installing scrubbers/flue gas desulphurization system in power plants. (Any ONE)

20 44
 20 Hydrocarbons from fossil fuels

33. The following graph shows the concentrations of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere up to
2005.

Concentration of carbon dioxide and methane

400 2000

1800

1600
350

CH4 (ppb)
CO2 (ppm)

1400

1200

300
1000

800 Carbon dioxide

250 600 Methane

0 500 1000 1500 2000
Year

(a) Suggest ONE human activity that accounts for the rapid increase in the concentrations of carbon
dioxide and methane in the atmosphere respectively.
(b) The excessive emission of greenhouse gases may lead to global warming.
(i) What is the effect of global warming on the Earth’s surface temperature?
(ii) State ONE harmful effect of global warming.
(c) Suggest ONE way to reduce the emission of the following greenhouse gases to the atmosphere:
(i) carbon dioxide,
(ii) methane.

33. (a) The rapid increase in the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is due to deforestation/the burning of a large amount of
fossil fuels in motor cars/power plants/factories.
The rapid increase in the concentration of methane in the atmosphere is due to an increase in the number of rice paddies and cattle
farms over the world.
(b) (i) The Earth’s surface temperature increases.
(ii) Any ONE of the following:
Melting of ice at the North Pole and the South Pole OR
Climate change OR
Flooding and climate change would put wildlife in danger
(c) (i) Any ONE of the following:
Using alternative energy sources such as solar energy, wind energy OR
Stopping deforestation OR
Planting more trees OR
Preventing and putting out forest fires
(ii) Collecting methane from decaying plant remains and animal wastes and using it as fuel

45 20
29
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