Design and Fabrication of A Micro-Strip Antenna For Wi-Max Applications

MEE08:29
DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

A MICRO-STRIP ANTENNA FOR
WI-MAX APPLICATIONS
Tulha Moaiz Yazdani

Munawar Islam
This thesis is presented as part of Degree of

Master of Science in Electrical Engineering
Blekinge Institute of Technology

October 2008
Blekinge Institute of Technology

School of Engineering
Department: Signal Processing
Supervisor: Dr. Mats Pettersson
Examiner: Dr. Mats Pettersson
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Abstract
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Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wi-Max) is a

broadband technology enabling the delivery of last mile (final leg of delivering
connectivity from a communication provider to customer) wireless broadband
access (alternative to cable and DSL). It should be easy to deploy and cheaper
to user compared to other technologies. Wi-Max could potentially erase the
suburban and rural blackout areas with no broadband Internet access by using
an antenna with high gain and reasonable bandwidth
Microstrip patch antennas are very popular among Local Area Network
(LAN), Metropolitan Area Network (MAN), Wide Area Network (WAN)
technologies due to their advantages such as light weight, low volume, low cost,
compatibility with integrated circuits and easy to install on rigid surface.
The aim is to design and fabricate a Microstrip antenna operating at
3.5GHz to achieve maximum bandwidth for Wi-Max applications. The
transmission line model is used for analysis. S-parameters (S11 and S21) are
measured for the fabricated Microstrip antenna using network analyzer in a lab
environment.
The fabricated single patch antenna brings out greater bandwidth than
conventional high frequency patch antenna. The developed antenna also is
found to have reasonable gain.
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Acknowledgement
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It is a great pleasure to express our deep and sincere gratitude to

our supervisor Dr. Mats Pettersson, Ph.D, Senior Lecturer of Blekinge
Institute of Technology. Whose extreme patience made this
dissertation possible His wide knowledge and his logical way of
thinking have been great value for us. He provided us always
energetic and devoted supervision and guidance throughout the thesis
work. He always very much cooperative and helped us whenever we
needed, in spite of his busy schedule.
We would also like to thanks our colleagues for whom we have
regard, and wish to extend our warmest thanks to all those who have
helped us with our work.
And finally special dedication to our families whom help and
support for us in these years. We simply could not done it without
them and hope that someday we can make it up to them.
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Contents
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Chapter 1 Wireless communication Technology

1.1 Introduction
1.2 History
1.3 Basic Communication System
1.4 Different Mobiles Generation
1.5 WLAN(Wireless Local Area Network)
1.6 Bluetooth
1.7 Wi-Max
1.8 Importance of Antenna in Wireless System
1.9 Future of Wireless Technology
Chapter 2 Antenna Essentials

2.1 Antenna Definition
2.2 Antenna Radiation
2.3 Friis Transmission Equation
2.4 Radiation Field Region around Antenna
2.5 Antenna Parameters
2.6 Far Field Radiation from Hertzian dipole
Chapter 3 Microstrip Patch Antenna

3.1 Introduction
3.2 Feeding Methods
3.3 Comparison of Different Feed Methods
3.4 Methods of Analysis
3.5 Bandwidth & Quality Factor of Microstrip Antenna
3.6 Advantages & Disadvantages
Chapter 4 Result and Measurement

4.1 Design Procedure
4.2 Measurement and Result
4.3 Conclusion
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Acronyms
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CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

EDGE Enhanced Data for GSM Evolution
FCC Federal Communication Commission
FR-4 Flame Resistance-4
GSM Global Systems for Mobile
iDEN integrated Digital Enhanced Network
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
ISM Industrial, Scientific and Medical
LAN Local Area Network
MAN Metropolitan Area Network
MBWA Mobile Broadband Wireless Access
MMIC Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuit
NLOS Non Line of Sight
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
PAN Personal Area Network
PCMCIA Personal Computer Memory Card International Association
PDA Personal Digital Assistance
R.L Return Loss
SCDMA Synchronous CDMA
SMA Sub Miniature version A
TACS Total Access Communication System
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
WAN Wide Area Network
WCDMA Wideband CDMA
WiDEN Wideband iDEN
WLAN Wireless Local Area Network
WMAN Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
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Chapter 1 Wireless Communication
Chapter 1
Wireless Communication
1.1 Introduction
Telecommunication is assisted transmission of signals over a distance for the
purpose of communication. In early time this may involve the use of smoke signals,
drums, semaphore (an apparatus for conveying information by means of visual
signals, as a light whose position may be changed), flags or heliograph (a device for
signaling by means of a movable mirror that reflects beam of light, esp. sunlight, to a
distance). In modern times, telecommunication typically involves the use of electronic
transmitters such as the telephone, television, radio or computer [1]. Radio or wireless
communication means to transfer information over long or short distance without
using any wires. Million of people exchange information every day using pager,
cellular, telephones, laptops, various types of personal digital assistants (PDAS) and
other wireless communication product [2]. The thesis aims to design an antenna
model using IEEE given frequency band and to determine its various parameters, that
how we can improve it using the frequency of 3.5GHz.
This thesis investigates the use and design of a rectangular patch antenna
having a thin metallic strip placed a fraction of wavelength above the ground surface
with coaxial feed system. This antenna is found to be suitable for IEEE 802.16d Wi-
Max application.
1.2 History
Guglielmo Marconi invented the wireless Technology in 1896 (The actual
invention of radio communications more properly should be attributed to
Nikola Tesla, who gave a public demonstration in 1893. Marconi’s patents were
overturned in favor of Tesla in 1943 [ENGE00]) [3]. In 1901 Guglielmo Marconi sent
telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean from Cornwall to St.Johan’s
Newfoundland, it covers a distance of 1800 miles. His invention allowed two parties
to communicate by sending each other alphanumeric characters encoded in an analog
signal [3].
Over the last century, wireless technologies have led towards the radio,
television, Paging system, Cordless phone, Mobile telephone, Satellite and wireless
networks. This advancement in wireless communication is widely deployed and used
through out the world in last four decades [4].
The first practical standard of cellular communication named first Generation
(1G) was deployed and used in 1980. 1G uses the analog signal for communication of
voice calls only. In the beginning of nineteen’s century this standard changed to
digital second Generation (2G) and to the end of nineteen’s century it was still digital
but better bandwidth and good quality of signal in third Generation (3G), Now a days
industries are working on fourth Generation (4G) [5].
In 1994, Ericsson Telecomm Company introduces a portable device named
Bluetooth. The aim of this device was to unite the computer and telecommunication
industry [6]. After this invention, Ericsson realized that product had huge potential
worldwide, and from the Bluetooth special Interest group, which now a days includes
over thousand of companies from around the world [6].
1.3 Basic Communication System

The block diagram of communication system is shown below,
Fig: 1.1 Block diagram of digital communication system [7]
I. The input data which can be any shape like voice, video, images.
II. The input data is applied to the channel encoder, this portion changing the data into
very suitable manners like A-D converter and then transmit the data.
III. Channel is actually a medium (wired or wireless) between transmitter and
receiver. In channel part there are two inputs one is coming from transmitter and
other is channel noise (unwanted signal or information is called noise). Thus the
resultant data at the output of channel is altered.
IV. The altered data at the output of channel is received by the receiver. The received
data is decoded to reconstruct an original data transmitted by transmitter.
V. Finally the reconstructed data is forward to the destination.
1.3.1 Concept of Cellular System

A cellular telephone system provides a wireless connection to the Public
Switch Telephone Network (PSTN) for any user location within the radio range of the
system [8].The limited capacity of the first mobile radio-telephone services was
related to the spectrum used, not much sharing and a lot of bandwidth dedicated to a
single call [9]. It provided the good coverage but impossible to reuse the same
frequency due to interference. The cellular concept addressed many of the
shortcomings of first mobile telephones like frequency reuse and wasted spectrum
allocated to a single user.
Fig: 1.2 Cellular Network Architecture [9]

In 1968 Bell Labs proposed the cellular telephone concept to the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC). Then it was approved, it used the spectrum
frequency of 845MHz to 870-890MHz band [9].
In 1960 to 1970’s Bell working on mobile system give the concept of dividing
the coverage area into small cells, each of reused portions of spectrum. This leads to
greater system infrastructure. It is the hexagon [4] geometry cell shape.
Fig: 1.3 Frequency Reuse in cellular Networks [4]
In above Fig 1.3 shows cellular frequency reuse concept. Cells with the same
letter use the same set of frequencies. A cell cluster is outlined in bold and replicated
over the coverage area. In the example, cluster size, N, is equal to seven, and the
frequency reuse factor is 1/7 since each cell contains one-seventh of the total number
of available channels [4].
FCC finally allocated the 40MHz spectrum in the 800MHz band, where a
signal channels occupies 30 KHz bandwidth for Advance Mobile Phone System
(AMPS) [10]. Cellular system is widely popular across the world due to its
portability, flexibility, quality, bandwidth, and specially user friendly.
1.4 Different Mobiles Generation

1.4.1 First Generation
Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS) is a first generation cellular
technology. AMPS is a analog mobile phone system standard developed by the BELL
Labs, and officially introduced in the America in 1983 and Australia in 1987.AMPS
uses separate frequencies or channels for each conversation. The anatomy of each
channel is composed of two frequencies 416 of these are in the 824-849MHz range
for transmissions from mobile stations to base stations, paired with 416 frequencies in
the 869-894MHz range of transmissions from base stations to the mobile stations.
Each cell site will use subset of these channels and must use a different set than
neighboring cells to avoid interference. This significantly reduces the number of
channels available at each site in real world systems [11].
1.4.2 Second Generation 2G

The second generation of mobile system was introduced in the early 1990’s
and it is evolved from the first generation of analog mobile. Unlike 1G (which uses
the analog technique) the 2G use the digital modulation scheme Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) standard. 2G is popular in all over the world.
a. GSM
It supports 8 time slotted users for each 200 KHz radio channels. It uses the
890-915MHz for uplink and 935-960MHz for downlink.
b. Interim Standard (IS-136)

It is also known as North American Digital Cellular or US digital Cellular. It
supports three time slotted users for each 30KHz radio channel and it is a popular
choice for carrier in North America. It uses the frequency band of 824-894MHz and
also using the channels scheme of TDMA [4].
c. Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC)

It is a Japanese technique which is same as the AMPS engaging 50 million
people. It also uses the TDMA scheme.
d. Interim Standard 95(IS-95)

It relates to second generation technique which is known as Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA). It is based on Direct Sequence CDMA multiple access.
Thus multiple users simultaneously share the same channel (Channel Spacing is 1.25
MHz). [4]. CDMA is widely used in all over the world.
1.4.3 Second Generation 2.5G [4]

The 2.5 technology is used for high speed data rate needed for web browsing;
email traffic, mobile commerce and location based mobile services. The 2.5G
technology also supports the popular web browsing which is called the Wireless
Application Protocol (WAP).
Following are the standard of 2.5Generation,
a. High Speed Circuit Switch Data (HSCSD)

It provides the consecutive time slots in order to obtain the high speed data
rate. It increases the data rate of 14,400bps as compared to the original of 9,600bps in
GSM specification. It is ideal for dedicated Internet streaming and web browsing. It
provides the 200 KHz channels bandwidth.
b. General Packet Radio System (GPRS)

It is suitable for non real time Internet usage, including emails, faxes and web
browsing where user downloads high data and also upload on internet. As compare to
the HSCSD it supports more users in sense of burst manners. GPRS handset work on
GPRS network at 171.2Kbps, it also uses the TDMA scheme and its channel
bandwidth is 200 KHz.
c. Enhanced Data Rate for GSM (EDGE)

It used for both GSM and IS-136 operators and it is also connecting
technology of 3G high speed data access. Handsets work on EDGE network at
384Kbps. The channel bandwidth is 200 KHz.
1.4.4 Third Generation

Third Generation (3G) communication system support Voice over Internet
Protocol (Voice/IP). It uses the data rate of 128Kbps for fast moving user and 2Mbps
for low speed user. 3G offer wide-area wireless voice telephony, video calls, and
broadband wireless data, all in mobile environment. The major advantage of 3G
system is user flexibility in the sense of roaming capability through all over the world
[4], [35].The standard used in 3G are,
a. Wideband Code division Multiple Access (W-CDMA)

It is a high speed transmission protocol with air interface of 3G network
Freedom for Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA). It uses the 5MHz bandwidth.
Multiple type of handover used between the different cells [12].
b. Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)

UMTS air interface uses Time division duplex spectrum between uplink and
downlink. It is more flexible because the usage of available spectrum according to
traffic pattern [13]. UMTS is used to provide the internet on the mobile which is
enhance form of the Wi-Max standard.
c. High Speed Packet Access (HSPA)

It is used to increase or enhance the performance of existing UMTS protocols
[14]. HSPA family comprise of High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) and
High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA).
This network is basically an enhancement of 3G in 3.5G. It increases the performance
by using the Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC).
1.4.5 Comparison of 3G Wireless
Table 1.1
3G wireless comparison
Typical
Connection Theoretical Carrier Max
Technology Generation Throughput
Type Max Kbps Kbps
Kbps
GSM 1G Circuit  9.6 
CDMA 2G Circuit  14.4 
GSM GPRS
2.5G Packet 64.4 40.6 15-30
Class 6
GSM GPRS
2.5G Packet 86.2 54.2 20-40
Class 10
GSM GPRS
2.5G Packet 86.2 54.2 20-40
Class 12*
CDMA
1×RTT 2.75G Packet 307 153 60-80
GSM Edge
2.75G Packet 118 118 40-80
Class 2
GSM Edge
2.75G Packet 237 237 80-160
Class 10
GSM Edge
2.75G Packet 237 237 80-160
Class 12**
UMTS(W-
3G Packet 384 384 200-300
CDMA)
1×EVDO(CD
3G Packet >2000 >2000 300-500
MA 2000)
HSDPA 3G Packet >2000 >2000 TBA
Various Wireless Technologies [31]

1.4.5 Fourth Generation (4G)

Fourth generation is IP based wireless systems which support voice, data and
video streaming. In 4th generation especially High speed global internet Access is
provided. It is basically high speed; high capacity and low cost services with
improved security. It also focuses on the Quality of service. In 4G generation more
focus on bandwidth efficiency because the service provide to last mile (final leg of
delivering connectivity from a communication provider to customer) with high data
rate.
All the technologies use in 4th generation is base on special standard of IEEE,
like 802.11 for WLAN, 802.15 for Bluetooth, 802.11g for Wi-Fi, Wi-Max 802.16,
and other like WCDMA, Hyper Lane etc.
1.5 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

The IEEE 802.11 working group was founded in 1987 and actually it
standardized in 1997 and to define the specification for wireless LAN. It is enable a
local network of computers to exchange the data or other information by radio waves.
1.5.1 IEEE Standard of WLAN
a. IEEE 802.11
It’s operated at frequency of 2.4 or 5GHz and achieves the high data rate of 24
to 54Mbps. It uses the Frequency Hoping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) modulation
technique. It use for low power transmission range in 10 to 100 meter. It is basically
use in offices, buildings and Campus.
b. IEEE802.11b
It is an extension of 802.1, it use the frequency of 2.4GHz. It handles the data
rate up to 11Mbps. It uses the modulation technique of direct sequence spread
spectrum (DSS).
c. IEEE 802.11g
It uses the 2.4GHz frequency band. Its bandwidth is 54Mbps and uses the
frequency technique of Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). It has
less electromagnetic interference. Its range is up to 100meter. It carries the more data
than the 802.11b.The basic infrastructure of WLAN is shown in Fig 1.4.
Wired Network
Access point
Basic Service Set

Extended Service Set
Fig: 1.4 Basic Infrastructure of WLAN Technology [23]

1.5.2 Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)

The term Wi-Fi was created by an organization called the Wi-Fi Alliance,
which oversees tests that certify product Interoperability. Wi-Fi uses the specification
of 802.11 family. Wi-Fi follows all the flavors of WLAN specification. Wi-Fi is use
in many places like schools, offices, homes. Its special feature is use in hot spot like
airports, hotels, fast food places where people can access the network easily [15].
Because Wi-Fi uses all the bands of WLAN, there is frequency jump between
different bands. It provides to minimize the interference and multiple devices use for
same wireless connection simultaneously.
Wi-Fi also provides the wireless ad-hoc network. In ad-hoc network all
devices connected wirelessly and create a new network.
Fig: 1.5 Wi-Fi based Architecture [20]
The communication process is given as,

A computer’s wireless adapter translates data into a radio signal and transmits
through antenna. A wireless router receives signal and decodes it and sends the
decoded information to internet using a wired medium.
This process also works in reverse, router receives information from the
Internet, translating in to a radio signal and sending it to the computers wireless
adapter. The radios used for Wi-Fi communication are very similar to radios used for
cell phone and other device but transmit at higher frequency.
1.5.3 Comparison of different 802.11 Standards
Table 1.2
Wireless LAN Throughput by IEEE Standard
Media Access Control Layer,
IEEE WLAN Over-the-Air
Service Access Point (MAC
Standard (OTA) Estimates
SAP) Estimates
802.11b 11Mbps 5Mbps
25Mbps (when .11b is not
802.11g 54Mbps
present)
802.11a 54Mbps 25Mbps
802.11n 200+ Mbps 100Mbps
Comparison of different 802.11 transfers rates [17]
1.6 Bluetooth
Bluetooth is basically an IEEE standard of 802.15 [6]. It use for small distance
transmission of data. Bluetooth is founded by special interest group (Ericsson, Nokia,
and Intel IBM Toshiba) responsible for its standard. It uses the Industrial, Scientific
and Medical (ISM) frequency band of 2.4GHz. Frequency jumps is 1600 hops/s and
switching time for transmission and reception is 220 micro second. Bluetooth is
designed for low power consumption, with short range depending on the power class.
1.6.1 Comparison of different Bluetooth Classes
Table 1.3
Bluetooth different classes
Class Max. Permitted Power mW Range (Approximated)
(dBm)
Class 1 100mW (20dBm) ~100 meter
Class 2 2.5mW (4 dBm) ~10 meter
Class 3 1 mW (0dBm) ~1 meter
Comparison of different power classes [6]
In Bluetooth [3] two or more devices are communicated in pico nets. At most
10 Pico nets can accommodate in same Bluetooth radio. It provides connectivity
between mobile and other devices.
Fig: 1.6 Different roles in the Piconet [6]

Each Pico net has only single master. All communication takes place with
master. Master in one Pico net can be slave of another Pico net. Active slave is use for
transmit and receive data. Parked slave not take too much power, most of the time it is
in sleeping position. It just wakeup and check the new data.
1.6.2 Bluetooth Usage Model

Blue tooth usage model describe how Bluetooth can be used. For each usage
model there is one or more corresponding profiles defining protocol layers and
functions to be used.
The Bluetooth usage model comprises of
a. Internet Bridge
Describe how a mobile phone or cordless modem provides a PC with dial up
networking capabilities without the need of physical connection to the PC.
b. Three in One Phone

Describe how a telephone handset may connect to three different service
providers.
c. Ultimate headset
Defines how a Bluetooth equipped wireless headset can be connected, to act as
a remote unit’s audio input and output interface.
d. File Transfer
This usage model offers the capability to transfer data objects from one
Bluetooth device to another. Files, entire folders, directories and streaming media
formats are supported in this usage model.
e. Synchronization
It provides the mean of automatic synchronization between for instance a
desktop PC, a portable PC, a mobile phone and a note book.
1.7 Wi-Max
Wi-Max is the Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave access, its aim to
provide wireless data over a long distance in variety of ways. It based on IEEE 802.16
standard. It is also called the wireless metropolitan area network. Wi-Max is standard
based technology enabling delivery of last mile and as an alternative to wired
broadband like cable and Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) [16]. Wi-Max would operate
similar to the Wi-Fi but at high speed and greater distance and greater number of user
can use this technology. Wi-Max technology is incorporated in mobile, Laptop and
Personal digital assistance (PDAs).
Wi-Max is specially of interest in suburban and rural areas, where very
difficult to place optical fiber, coaxial cable and twister pair to provide the broadband
internet access.
1.7.1 Different Families members of Wi-Max [16], [18]
a. IEEE 802.16
It was the first standard of Wi-Max which was introduced in 2001 and is used
as the backhaul (Transporting traffic between distributed sites) link. The frequency
range is 10-66GHz. Wi-Max use single carrier modulation technique.
b. IEEE 802.16 2004

This is based on 802.16-2004 version of the IEEE 802.16 standard and on
ETSI Hiper MAN. It uses Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and
supports fixed and nomadic access in Line of Sight (LOS) and Non Line of Sight
(NLOS) environments. 802.16-2004 were focused on fixed and nomadic applications
in the 2-11GHz frequencies.
c. IEEE 802.16e/IEEE 802.16

It was introduced in first on 2005. In this version for mobile users which
provide the High bandwidth, handover and network architecture and also the cell
reselection. This feature of Wi-Max compete all the standard of cellular. Modulation
technique is use for this standard is OFDM.
1.7.2 Comparison of different 802.16 standards
Table 1.4
IEEE 802.16 standard
IEEE 602.16 IEEE 802.16-2004 IEEE 802.16e
Completed December 2001 May 2004 Est.Mid-2005
Spectrum 10-66GHz 2-11GHz 2-6GHz
Application Backhaul Wireless DSL & Backhaul Mobile Internet
Channel
Line of sight only Non-Line of sight Non-Line of sight
Condition
32-134Mbps at 28- Up to 75 Mbps at 20-MHz Up to 15 Mbps at 5-
Bit Rate
MHz Canalization Canalization MHz Canalization
OFDM 256,OFDM Same as
QPSK,16QAM
Modulation 2048QPSK, 802.16d,Scalable
&64QAM
16QAM,64QAM OFDMA
Selectable Channel
Channel
20,25 & 28MHz Bandwidth between 1.5 & Same as 802.16d
Bandwidth
20MHz
Comparison of Different Wi-Max standard [19]
Wi-Max technology appears to be on great economic and practical success for

two reasons, first, ability to support mobile applications (802.16e) is very promising
and also it can provide greater transmission range as compare to WLAN.
Wi-Max basic architecture is just like a cellular system using the Base station
that covers the area. The 802.16 is a point to multipoint protocol, [38] where multiple
subscribers can access the same radio platform by using the multiplexing method. It is
a connection oriented system where it uses the star and mesh topology in physical
layer.
Fig: 1.7 Basic Architecture of Wi-Max [32]
The IEEE 802.16 extension, rectified in January 2003, use a frequency band of
2-11GHz, enabling a non line-of-sight connections [32]. This wide spectrum presently
includes both licensed and unlicensed bands. Wi-Max towers are similar to the
cellular telephone where they are directly connected to the internet service providers
with high speed wired connection. Two towers can also connected by using LOS to
each other refer as backhaul, where single tower can cover the area up to 3000 square
miles. This constitutes a major breakthrough in wireless broadband access, allowing
operators to connect more customers to single tower and thereby substantially reduce
service cost.
1.7.3 Some Advantages of Wi-Max technology
a. Easy to Deployment
For large coverage and capacity of networks .Operators can rapidly deploy
their networks today and easily scale to meet the growing demands of tomorrow.
b. Optimized Mobility
It provides to enable the mobile devices and optimizes handover [33].
c. Network Scalability
It enables new types of transport networks such as metro Ethernet, [33] and
Point –to-Point for backhaul.
d. Quality of Service (QoS)

Major advantages are to provide the end to end quality of service. It provides
the last mile access of customer. Wi-Max provides high quality of data management
and voice quality of end users.
1.7.4 Some Disadvantages of Wi-Max technology
a. Range
The typical range with standard equipment is on the order of tens of meters.
To obtain a additional for a larger structure repeaters or additional access point
must be deployed leads to costly solution.
b. Reliability
Wireless signals are subject to wide variety of interference and complex
propagation effects that are beyond the control network administrator.
1.8 Importance of Antenna in Wireless System

An antenna is a metallic structure, which converts electromagnetic waves into
electrical currents and vice versa. In wireless communication system same antennas
used for both transmission and reception. Antenna is one of the most important
elements in wireless communication system [36].
A common way to characterize the performance of an antenna is radiation

pattern which is graphical representation of radiation properties of an antenna as a
function of space coordinates. The simplest pattern is produced by an idealize antenna
known as isotropic antenna (is a point in space that radiates power in all direction
equally).
1.8.1 Antennas Types
a. Wire Antennas
Wire antennas are familiar to the layman because they are seen virtually every
where on automobiles, buildings, ships, aircraft and so on [22]. These are various
shapes of wire antennas such as straight (dipole), loop, and helix.
Fig: 1.8 Dipole Wire Antenna [22]
b. Aperture Antennas
Aperture antennas are very useful for aircraft and spacecraft applications,
because they can be very conveniently flush-mounted on the skin of the aircraft or
spacecraft [22]. These are different types such as Pyramidal horn, Conical horn and
Rectangular waveguide.
Fig: 1.9 Rectangular waveguide Aperture Antenna [22]

c. Microstrip Antennas
Microstrip antennas consist of a metallic patch on a ground substrate. The
metallic patch can take many different configurations like rectangular, circular,
Dipole etc. These antennas can be mounted on the surface of high-performance
aircraft, spacecraft, satellite, missile, cars, and even handheld mobile telephones [22].
They are discussed in more detail in chapter 3.
Fig: 1.10 Rectangular Microstrip patch Antenna [22]
d. Array Antennas
The arrangement of the array may be such that the radiation from the elements
adds up to give a radiation maximum in a particular direction or direction, minimum
in others, or otherwise as desired [22]. They are the different types such as Yagi-Uda
array, Microstrip patch array, Slotted-waveguide array and Aperture array.
Fig: 1.11 Aperture Array Antenna [22]
e. Reflector Antennas
Because of the need to communication over great distance, sophisticated
forms of antennas had to be used in order to transmit and receive signals that had to
travel millions of miles. A common antenna form for such application is a parabolic
reflector [22]. The diameter of this antenna is as large as 305 m. Such large
dimensions are needed to achieve the high gain required to transmit or receive signals
after millions of miles of travel.
Fig: 1.12 Parabolic reflector with front feed [22]

f. Lenz Antennas
Lenz antennas can be used in most of the same applications as are the
parabolic reflectors, especially at higher frequencies. By proper shaping the
geometrical configuration and choosing the appropriate material of the lenses, they
can transfer various forms of divergent energy into plane waves [22].
Fig: 1.13 Lenz antenna with index of refraction n >1 [22]
1.9 Future of Wireless Technology

Wireless Communication industry is growing day by day. Main focus of this
technology is to provide the maximum data for each user. IEEE and ITU-R are
responsible for wireless standardization.
1.9.1 Mobile Broad Band Wireless Access (MBWA)

It is the Mobile Broadband Wireless Access of IEEE 802.20 standard is one
possible future of wireless technology. Main purpose of this standard is a formal
specification for packet –based air interface designed for IP-based services [34].
Following are the key feature of this technology
• IP roaming & handoff (at more than 1 Mbps)

• New MAC and PHY with IP and adaptive antennas
• Optimized for full mobility up to vacuolar speeds of 250km/h
• Operates in Licensed Bands (below 3.5GHz)
• Utilized Packet Architecture
• Low Latency
Chapter 2 Antenna Fundamental
Chapter 2
Antenna Fundamentals
2.1 Antenna Definition

Antenna is transducers (it converts one from of energy in to another) that
transmit or receive electromagnetic waves (has electric and magnetic field component
which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to the direction of energy
propagation) [39].
2.2 Antenna Radiation
Source Transmission Line Antenna Free space wave
Fig: 2.1 Antenna Radiations [22]

When a sinusoidal voltage source is applied across a transmission line the
electric field is created between two conductors which in turn provides magnetic field.
Due to time varying electric and magnetic fields electromagnetic waves are created
and travel through the transmission line to the antenna and radiate in free space.
2.3 Friis Transmission Equation

It gives the power transmitted from one antenna to another in an idealized
condition.
(Өr, Φr)
(Өt, Φt)
Fig: 2.2 Transmitting and receiving antenna for Friis transmission

equation [22]
The Friis transmission equation is given as,
Pr 2
= ecdtecdr ⎛⎜⎝1− Γt 2 ⎞⎟⎠ ⎛⎜⎝1− Γr 2 ⎞⎟⎠ ⎜⎜ λ ⎟⎟ Dt (θ t , φ t ) Dr (θ r , φ r ) Pt.Pr
⎛ ⎞
( 2.1)
2
Pt ⎝ 4π R ⎠
where ecdt , ecdr Are transmitter and receiver conduction, dielectric efficiency
respectively, Γt , Γ r are transmission coefficient of transmit and receive antenna
respectively, Dt (θt , φt ) is the directivity of transmit antenna and Dr (θ r , φr ) is a
directivity of receive antenna in direction of (θ r , Φ r ) ,Pt and Pr polarization vector of
transmitting and receiving antennas respectively, taken in appropriate direction [40]
The simplest form of Friis equation is given by considering two antennas one
transmitting and other is receiving then ratio of power received by the receiving
antenna to the power transmitted by transmitting antenna is given as [40]
2
Pr ⎛ λ ⎞
= GtGr ⎜ ⎟ ( 2.2 )
Pt ⎝ 4π R ⎠
where λ is a Wavelength, R is a distance between two antennas, the received power Pr

(delivered to the receiver load), transmitting power Pt [22], Gr receiving antenna gain
and Gt transmitting antenna gain.
2.4 Radiation Field Region around Antenna

The space surrounding a antenna can be divided in to three regions [22] that is,
• Reactive Near Field Region

• Radiating Near Field Region (Fresnel Region)
• Far Filed Region (Fraunhofer Region)
Fig: 2.3 Field Region Around antenna [22]
2.4.1 Reactive Near Field Region

The near field is that part of radiated field (electromagnetic radiation has a
electric and magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each
other and to the direction of energy propagation) [41] nearest to the antenna.
The reactive energy oscillates towards and away from antenna, appearing as a
reactance hence in this field region reactive filed dominates. The outer most
boundaries for this region is at a distance
( 2.3)
3
R1 = 0.62 D / λ
where R1 is the Distance from antenna, D is the Largest dimension of antenna and λ is
the Wavelength
2.4.2 Radiating Near Field Region (Fresnel Region)

Radiation field dominates as compared to reactive near field region. This
region is between reactive near field and far field region. The outermost boundary for
this region is at distance
R2 = 2D2 / λ ( 2.4 )
where R2 is the Distance from Antenna surface, D is the Dimension of Antenna and λ
is the Wavelength
2.4.3 Far Field Region (Fraunhofer Region)
R2 = 2D2 / λ ( 2.5 )
Only radiation field exist in this region. The angular field distribution in not
dependent on distance from antenna and the power density varies as inverse square of
radial distance in this region. The region beyond radiating near field is far field
region.
2.5 Antenna Parameters

2.5.1 Radiation Pattern
It is defined by “radiation pattern is the representation of graph which
describes the radiation properties of antenna as a function of space coordinate” [22].
The radiation pattern of antenna includes [22]
1. Power flux density
2. Field strength
3. Directivity
4. Radiation Intensity
5. Polarization
Radiation pattern are described with reference to isotropic antenna (that
radiates equally in all direction). Plot of directional antenna is shown in figure below
[22], typically has a more power in particular direction as compared to isotropic
antenna (radiates in all direction)
Minor Lobes
HPBW
Back Lobe
Side Lobe
Null
Fig: 2.4 Radiation pattern of directional antenna [22]
• Half Power Beamwidth

In a plane containing the direction of maximum of beam, the angle between
two direction in which the radiation intensity is one half value of beam [22].
• Main Lobe
Lobe having maximum radiation in particular direction.
• Side Lobe
Lobes other than main lobe is called side lobe. These lobes are unwanted and
degrade the antenna performance.
• Back Lobe
This is the monor lobe which is in opposite direction of main lobe.
2.5.2 Directivity
Measure of a maximum power density radiated by the practical antenna
relative to the power density radiated by an ideal isotropic antenna (that radiates
equally in all direction) [22]
Ratio of radiation intensity in given direction from antenna to radiation
intensity averged overall directions.
U 4π U
D= = ( 2.6 )
Ui P
D = directivity of the antenna (Dimenshionless)
U= radiaion intensity of the antenna
Ui = radiaion intensity of an isotropic source
P= total power radiated
Directivity of antenna is generally expressed in dBi (logrithmic unit relative to
the gain of isotropic antenna). Antenna having a narrow main lobe would have better
directivity and vice versa.
2.5.3 Input Impedence

Impedence of antenna is given as [22]
Zin = Rin +jXin ( 2.7 )

Z in = antenna impedence of teminals
Rin = antenna resistance at terminals
X in = antenna reactance at terminals(represent the power stored in near field of
antena) Rin consist of two component Rr (radiation resistance) and RL (load resistance)
and is given as
Rin = Rr + RL ( 2.8)
2.5.4 Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (VSWR)
Source generates the signal towards antenna, some waves are reflected back to
source along with travelling waves. These constructive and destructive waves create
standing waves. A pattern is shown below Fig 2.5 [22].
Fig: 2.5 Transmission line thevinen of antenna in transmitting mode [22]

VSWR is given as [22]

1+ Γ
VSWR = ( 2.9 )
1− Γ
Vr Zin − Zs
Γ= = ( 2.10 )
Vi Zin + Zs
where Γ is a Reflection coefficient, Vr is amplitude of reflected wave and Vi is a
amplitude of incident wave
VSWR is basically a measure of impedance mismatch between transmitter and
antenna. Higher the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR) greater the mismatch and
vice versa.
According to maximum power transfer theorem maximum power can be
transferred only if impedance of transmitter is complex conjugate of impedance of
antenna.
Zin = Z ∗ s ( 2.11)
Where,
Zin = Rin + jXin Antenna input impedance
Zs = Rs + jXin Characteristic impedance of transmission line
2.5.5 Antenna Efficiency

Antenna efficiency describes how actively an antenna is working. Losses
occurs within the antenna are due to reflections (mismatch between transmission and
antenna) and I2R losses (conduction and dielectric). The total antenna efficiency is
given by [22]
eo = ereced ( 2.12 )
Where eo is a total antenna efficiency, er = (1-|Ґ2|) reflection efficiency, ec is a
conduction efficiency and ed is a dielectric efficiency.
Antenna radiation efficiency (is a ratio of actual power radiated to the power applied
at the input terminal) is given as
Rr
ecd = eced = ( 2.13)
Rr + RL
the total antenna efficiency is given as
(
eo = erecd = ecd 1 − Γ
2
) ( 2.14 )
2.5.6 Antenna Gain
Gain of antenna is product of efficiency and directivity when efficiency is
100% then gain is equal to directivity. When direction is not stated power gain is
normally taken in direction of maximum radiation.
Gain is given by [22]
G (θ , φ ) = ecdD (θ , φ ) ( dBi ) ( 2.15)
dB (isotropic) is the gain of an antenna compared to hypothetical isotropic antenna.
The absolute gain of antenna is given as [22]
radiation intensity U ( θ,φ )

Gain = 4π = 4π ( 2.16 )
total input ( accepted ) power Pin
The relative gain is given as
4π U ( θ,φ )
Gain = ( 2.17 )
Pin ( lossless isotropic source )
2.5.7 Polarization
Polarization is a property of transverse waves (a moving wave that consist of
oscillations occurring perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer) which
describes the orientation of the oscillations in the plane perpendicular to the wave’s
direction of travel. Waves which vibrate in one plane only referred to as polarized
waves. The most common type of polarization include linear (horizontal / vertical)
circular (right hand / left hand polarization) and elliptical where linear and circular are
special cases of elliptical polarization [24].
• Linear Polarization
A time harmonic wave is said to be linearly polarized in space if
electric field vector at that given point always directed along straight line.
00
-1
Fig: 2.6 Linear Polarizations [23]

• Circular Polarization
A time harmonic wave is said to be circularly polarized in space if
electric field vector at that given point traces a circle.
Fig: 2.7 Circular Polarizations [23]
• Elliptical Polarization
Elliptically polarized electromagnetic wave consists of two
electromagnetic waves that are linearly polarized and having unequal
amplitudes but has the same frequency. In result a wave with electric
vector that both rotates and changes its magnitude. An elliptical shape
can be traced out by the tip of electric field vector and therefore it is
referred to as elliptical polarization [28].
Fig: 2.8 Elliptical Polarizations [23],[42]

2.5.8 Bandwidth
Bandwidth is defined as a range of frequencies. It can also be defined as a
difference between the upper and lower frequencies [43].
Bandwidth of broadband antenna can be defined as a ratio of upper to lower
frequencies .
Bandwidth of narrrow band antenna can also be expressed as percentage of
frequency difference over center frequency can be given as [26]
⎡ fH − fL ⎤
BWnarrowband ( % ) = ⎢ ⎥ 100 ( 2.18)
⎣ fC ⎦
where fH is a upper frequency, fL is a lower frequency and fC is a center frequency.
2.6 Far Field Radiation from Hertzian Dipole
Fig: 2.9 Spherical Coordinate System for Antenna Analysis [22]
Far field radiation from a Hertzian dipole (is a theoretical dipole antenna that
consists of infinitesimally small current source in free space, although a true Hertzian
dipole cannot physically exist a best approximation to the length of Hertzian dipole is
L<λ/50)[44] is easily described with the help of spherical coordinate system [22] as
shown in Figure 2.4.
The angle θ denotes the elevation angle and angle Φ denotes the azimuth
angle. The x-z plane basically showing elevation E-plane (Φ=0) where the electric
field vector is in maximum range conversely x-y plane representing the azimuth H-
plane (θ=Pi/2) where the magnetic field containing the direction of maximum
radiation.
A Hertzian dipole is actually a piece of straight wire with length and diameter
is very small compared to one wavelength. A uniform current Io is assumed to flow
along the length. If this dipole is placed at origin along z-axis in spherical coordinate
system then we can write as [22].
kI 0 Le − jkr sin θ ⎡ 1 1 ⎤
Eθ = jη ⎢1 + − ⎥ ( 2.19 )
4π r ⎣⎢ jkr ( kr )2 ⎥⎦
I 0 Le − jkr cos θ ⎡ 1 ⎤
Er = η ⎢1 + jkr ⎥ ( 2.20 )
2π r 2 ⎣ ⎦
kI 0 Le − jkr sin θ ⎡ 1 ⎤
Hφ = j ⎢1 + jkr ⎥ ( 2.21)
4π r ⎣ ⎦
Hr = 0 ( 2.22 )
Hθ = 0 ( 2.23)
Eφ = 0 ( 2.24 )
where η is the intrinsic free space impedance, k is the 2π / λ wave propagation
constant, r is the radius for spherical coordinate system, I 0 is the uniform current and
L is the length of the dipole
By considering the far field, the term r2 can be neglected then equation can be written
as
kI 0 Le − jkr
Eθ = jη sin θ ( 2.25 )
4π r
kI 0 Le − jkr
Hφ = j sin θ ( 2.26 )
4π r
Er = 0 ( 2.27 )
The above equation 2.7 and 2.8 is showing that E(θ) and H(Φ) are non zero
field and transverse(perpendicular) to each other. The direction of E, H and r from a
right handed set such that poynting vector is in r direction and indicates the direction
of propagation of electromagnetic waves. The time average poynting vector is written
as [22]
1
Wav = Re[Ε× Η ∗ ] (Watts / m 2 ) ( 2.28 )
2
E and H are peak values of electric and magnetic field.
The average power radiated by antenna can be written as [22]
∫∫ Wrad ds
Prad = w (Watts ) ( 2.29 )
JJG JJG
ds is the vector differential surface ( ds = ± dl1 × dl2 )
Wrad is the magnitude of the time varying poynting vector (Watts/m2).
Chapter 3
Microstrip Patch Antenna

3.1 Introduction
In high performance aircraft, spacecraft, satellite and missile application,
where size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamic profile are
constraint this type of low profile antennas may required [22]. Microstrip patch
antenna also very popular in the field of Mobile communication. Patch antennas are
usually used within the frequency range of 2-11GHz. A basic architecture of Micro
strip patch antenna shown below Fig 3.1 [23].
Patch L
t
W
Dielectric Substrate
h
Ground Plane
Fig: 3.1 Microstrip Patch Antenna Diagram structure [23]
A microstrip antenna is basically consists of radiating patch, dielectric

substrate, feed and ground plane. Patch and ground plane made of material such as
copper or gold.
There are different shapes of patch for different type of application. Microstrip
patch is like, Rectangular, Circular, Circular Ring, Dipole, Elliptical, or Triangular.
[22]
Fig: 3.2 Different types of patches [22]
During the fabrication of antenna, height of the dielectric substrate between

the patch and ground plane is very much critical, because it effects on the efficiency
of the antenna. On the other hand by increasing the height of substrate surface wave
are introduced. These surface waves are undesirable. Surface waves travel within the
substrate and scattered on the edges of patch which cause poor polarization called the
firings effect, which we will discuss later.
3.1.1 Rectangular Microstrip Patch

Microstrip patch antenna consists of radiating patch, dielectric substrate,
ground plane and feed technique. Radiating patch placed a small fraction of
wavelength above the ground plane and separated by the dielectric substrate. The
radiating patch can be of any material however we are using FR-4 (PCB). Most of the
commonly used antennas have a feed point where we get impedance of 50 or 75ohm.
Microstrip patch antennas are fed at 50ohm.
3.1.2 Patch Dimension

In rectangular patch, the height (h) of the dielectric substrate is usually defined
between the range of 0.003λ0 ≤ h ≥ 0.05λ0. The length of patch is taken in range of
λ0/3 < L < λ0/2.The width is taken in between the range of λ0/2 < L < λ0. Patch is
selected to be thin that is in range of t<< λ0 (where “t’’ is the patch thickness).The
dielectric constant of substrate (Єr) normally in the range of 2.2≤Єr≤12. [22]
Where
λ0= Free space Wavelength
L = Length of Patch
W = Width of Patch
t = Thickness of Patch
3.2 Feeding Methods

In Microstrip patch antenna, there are various type of feed methods are use,
these methods are categorized in two main types, these are the Contacting and non
Contacting.
a. Contacting
In contacting method technique, RF power is directly applied to the patch
through BNC connector. The contacting feed methods are Microstrip Feed Line and
Coaxial Probe.
b. Non-Contacting
In non Contacting method the power has given through coupling. It depends
on the Aperture Coupled Feed and Proximity Coupled Feed.
The four most popular techniques are

• Microstrip Line Feed
• Coaxial Probe
• Aperture Coupling
• Proximity Coupling
3.2.1 Microstrip Line Feed

Microstrip Feed Line is depending on the conducting strip. In this technique a
conducting strip directly connected to the patch which is smaller in dimension as
compare to patch. It is very easy to fabricate, very simple in modeling and match with
characteristic impedance 50Ω or 75Ω. This can achieve by properly controlling the
inset position. A model of Microstrip Line Feed shown in Fig 3.3 [22]
Microstrip feed Patch
Substrate
Ground plane
Fig: 3.3 Microstrip Feed Line [23]

3.2.2 Coaxial Feed
It is the most common technique that is widely used in practical models. In
Coaxial line feed the inner conductor of coaxial extends through the dielectric and is
soldered to the radiating patch, while the outer conductor is connected to ground
plane. It has many advantages as compare to others, like it is easy to fabricate and
match. It has low spurious radiation. On other hand it has narrow bandwidth and
difficult to model especially in the thick substrate where we need to drill at hole, fix
the connector and soldering the cable with great care [22]. A typical model of Coaxial
Feed is shown in Fig 3.4 [23]
Fig: 3.4 Coaxial Feed [23]
3.2.3 Aperture Coupled Feed

Aperture Coupled feed is more complex and more difficult to fabricate as
compare to others. It consist of two substrates which separated by ground plane. On
bottom side of the lower substrate there is a microstrip fed line whose energy is
coupled to the patch through slot on the ground plane. High dielectric material is used
for bottom substrate and thick and low dielectric constant material for the top
substrate. In this design the substrate electrical parameters, feed line width and
specially slot size and position can be use to optimize the design. It has the spurious
radiation where on the other side it provides the narrow bandwidth [22], [30]. A
model of Aperture Coupled is shown in Fig 3.5 [23]
Fig: 3.5 Aperture Coupled Feed [23]

3.2.4 Proximity coupled Feed

In Proximity Coupled Feed method two dielectric substrates are used such that
the feed line is between the two substrates and radiating patch is on top of the upper
substrate. Its fabrication is not easy as compare to other feed techniques. The length of
the feeding stub and the width to line ratio of the patch can be used to control the
match point. Advantage of this feed is that it almost eliminates spurious radiation and
provides high bandwidth (as high as 13%) [22], due to overall increase in the
thickness of the microstrip patch antenna. This scheme also provides choice between
two different dielectric medium, one for the patch and one for the feed line to
optimize the individual performance [22]. A basic model shown Fig 3.6 [23]
Fig: 3.6 Proximity Coupled Feed [23]
3.3 Comparison of Different feed Methods

Table 3.1
Comparison of Different Feed Techniques
Microstrip Aperture Proximity
Coaxial Feed
Line Feed Coupled Feed Coupled Feed
Spurious more more less Minimum
poor due to
Reliability better good Good
soldering
soldering and
Ease of alignment Alignment
easy drilling
fabrication required required
needed
Impedance
easy easy easy Easy
matching
Bandwidth
(achieved with
2-5% 2-5% 2-5% 12%
impedance
matching)
Above table summarizes the characteristics of different feed technique [26]
3.4 Method of Analysis

There are three methods are use for analysis the data.
• Transmission Line Model
• Cavity Model
• Full wave Model
Transmission line model is most popular and easy to use. It gives the good
physical insight but it is less accurate and it is more difficult to model for coupling. If
we compare the Transmission line model with cavity model, it is more accurate but
more complex. The full wave models are extremely accurate, arbitrary shaped
elements and coupling. But it is more complex and gives less physical insight as
compare to other [25].
3.4.1 Transmission Line Model

Transmission line model is the simplest of all and give good physical insight
but it is less accurate. It is easy to fabricate the antenna model by using transmission
line. In this model a fring effect is created at the edges of the patch which cause radiation, the
fring effect is discussed as,
a. Frings Effect
Fringe is an effect which is situated on the edge or away from the centre of
something. Fringing effect is also explained as the amount of fringing is a function of
the dimensions of the patch and height of the substrate [22]. Due to limitation of patch
dimensions, fields at the edges of patch produce fringing effect. For principle of E-
Plan fring effect is the function of the ratio of the length of the patch L to the height h
of the substrate (L/h) and Єr of substrate. In figure 3.7 typical electrical fields lines
are situated within the substrate and some in air [24].
Fig: 3.7 Electric field line [22]
The wavelength is different in each substrate. To accommodate these things

and to produce the actual wavelength, we should study the dielectric constant. The
effective dielectric constant is a function of a frequency, as the frequency of operation
increases most of electric lines concentrate in the substrate.
1
−
ε r +1 ε r −1 ⎡
h⎤ 2
ε reff = + ⎢1+ ⎥ ( 3.1)
2 2 ⎣ W⎦
In order to operate the transmission line model in the fundamental (TM10)
mode, the length of the patch should be slightly less than λ/2 where λ is the
wavelength in the dielectric medium and is equal to λ0/√Єreff where λ0 is the free space
wavelength.
Ground
Radiating Slots Plane
L EV
EH EH
Patch
L EV
W
h
L GroundPlane
Patch
Fig: 3.8Transmission Line Model [22], [23]
In above Figure 3.8 it shows that frings effect is created at the edges of the
patch. To fabricate the antenna by using the transmission line model, we should
calculate the following things, first of all specify the resonant frequency, length, width
and height of substrate. We use the following formulas for calculation [22],
1. Effective Patch Width (W)
c 2
W= × ( 3.2 )
2 fo ( ε r + 1)
where c is the velocity of light, fo is the Resonant frequency and εr is the dielectric
constant
2. Effective Dielectric Constant (εreff)
1
−
ε r +1 ε r −1 ⎡ h⎤ 2
ε reff = + ⎢1+ ⎥ ( 3.3)
2 2 ⎣ W⎦
where εreff is the effective dielectric constant, εr is the dielectric constant of substrate, h
is the height of dielectric substrate and W is the width of the patch
3. Frings factor (∆L)

(ε reff + 0.3) ⎛⎜ ⎞
W
+ 0.264 ⎟
⎝ h ⎠
ΔL = 0.412h ( 3.4 )
⎛W ⎞
( ε reff − 0.258 ) ⎜ + 0.8 ⎟
⎝ h ⎠
4. Effective length (Leff)
c
Leff = ( 3.5)
2 fo ε reff
5. Length
L = Leff − 2ΔL ( 3.6 )

3.4.2 Cavity Model
Transmission Line Model is easy to use but it has some discrepancy. Cavity
model is more accurate as compare to transmission line model. In cavity model it is
difficult to find out the amplitude of the electric and magnetic field if the microstrip
antenna treated only as cavity [22].
In Cavity model the interior region of dielectric substrate is model as a cavity
bounded by electric walls on the top and bottom. The substrate should be very thin; it
is just like a normal patch. A typical diagram of cavity model is shown Fig 3.9 [25]
W
Jt
- - - - + + + +
- +
- - - - + + + +
Jb
h εr
++++++++++ ----------
Fig: 3.9 Charge distribution & Current density creations on microstrip patch
[25]
So it is very difficult to measure the absolute amplitude of the electric and

magnetic fields if microstrip antenna treated only as a cavity. By treating the walls of
cavity, as well as material in it is lossless, it would not radiate and its input impedance
will be purely reactive. If the material is lossless, the cavity will not radiate its input
impedance is reactive [26]. To account it for radiation, there should need to find out
the loss mechanism which is described by introducing the effective loss tangent. After
defining the loss tangent it behave like an antenna where loss tangent is reciprocal to
Q-factor.
δ eff = 1 ( 3.7 )
QT
QT = Antenna quality factor
Cavity model has the capability to deal with normalize fields within the
dielectric substrate. It has a advantage to deals with field variation along the radiating
patches.
3.4.3 Full wave Model

The full wave model is more accurate as compare to other like cavity and
Transmission Line models. The Method of moment describes the solution in form of
an integral and it can be used to handle arbitrary shapes [25]. In full wave model
surface current are used to model the microstrip patch and the volume polarization
currents are used to model the fields in the dielectric slab. It versatile and can be treat
single elements, finite and infinite arrays, stacked elements, arbitrary elements and
coupling. It has been shown by how an integral equation is obtained for these
unknown currents and by using the method of moments, this electric field integral
equations are converted into matrix equations which can be solved by various
techniques of algebra to provide the good results [29].
3.5 Bandwidth & Quality Factor of Microstrip Antenna

The main limitation factor of microstrip patch antenna is the narrow
bandwidth. But we can improve the bandwidth by using the different feeding
technique method. We can improve the bandwidth approximately 35% by increase the
thickness of dielectric substrate and dielectric constant is taken lower value [25]. An
other method to improve the bandwidth of patch antenna is to create the array of more
patches by adding more layers.
3.5.1 Q-factor
Q-factor is a figure of merit that is represented the losses of antenna. These
losses are the radiation, coduction, dielectric and surface wave losses.
1 1 1 1 1
= + + + ( 3.8)
Qt Qrad Qc Qd Qsw
Where, Qt is the total quality factor, Qrad is the quality factor due to radiation losses,
Qc is the quality factor due to conduction losses, Qd is the quality factor due to
dielectric losses and Qsw is the Quality factor due to surface waves.
However fractional bandwidth of antenna in inversely proportional to the total

quality factor QT, here a trade off required between Bandwidth and Q-factor (quality
factor). By increasing the bandwidth more data can be carries, on the other side high
Q gives better directivity hence more gain. Q-factor [25] is the losses of antenna.
Relationship between bandwidth and Q-factor
Δf 1
= ( 3.9 )
fo QT
3.6 Advantages & Disadvantage

Microstrip patch antennas are increasing in popularity for use in wireless
applications due to their low profile structure. Therefore they are extremely
compatible for embedded antennas in handled wireless devices such as cellular
phones, pagers, Wireless routers etc. These are also use in for aircraft, spacecraft, and
satellite and missile applications [25]. Some of their advantages are given below:
• Light weight and Low volume

• Support both, linear as well as circular polarization
• Low fabrication cost and ease of fabrication
• Mechanically robust specially on rigid surface
• Can be easily integrated with microwave integrated circuit (MICs)
Microstrip antenna has some major disadvantage like,
• Narrow Bandwidth
• Low efficiency
• Low power
• Surface wave excitation
Chapter 4 Design, Measurement and Result
Chapter 4
Design, Measurement and Result

4.1 Design Procedure
Due to high frequency and impedance matching, Microstrip patch antenna is
very famous in wireless communication.
In our design Mirostrip antenna consist of radiating patch and ground plane.
Patch and ground plane are connected to each other with a thin wire. Microstrip patch
antenna is used for both linear and circular polarization but we are focusing on linear
polarization. Because we are fabricating this antenna for Wi-Max application at
operating frequency 3.5GHz, We can increase our bandwidth in different ways. One
method is to change the substrate height (up to certain threshold) to get more
bandwidth. Another, antenna bandwidth (using transmission line model) can be
improved by increasing the substrate thickness or height (we choose air as a substrate
with dielectric constant 1). The problem of this solution is as the substrate height
increases surface waves are introduced. Surface waves travel within the substrate and
scattered at bends of the radiating patch which interns degrade the antenna
performance. However to accommodate this factor and air dielectric substrate is used
which has the dielectric constant is 1 and by using air substrate surface waves are not
excited easily. Hence, it is critical to justify the height where larger bandwidth can be
achieved with reasonable amount of gain.
4.1.1 Different Parameters

These are the parameters which is very important to fabricate the Mirostrip
Patch Antenna.
a. Resonant Frequency
Resonant frequency of this antenna is chosen 3.5GHz. Because we are
fabricating Wi-Max application the resonant frequency is chosen from IEEE 802.16
span of 2-11GHz.
b. Dielectric Substrate
We are choosing the Air Dielectric substrate which has the value of dielectric
constant 1 in order to get better efficiency.
c. Height of Substrate
Height of substrate is chosen 4mm in-between the ground plane and radiating
patch.
4.1.2 Calculation of Patch Dimension

As we mention in chapter 3 we are using the Transmission Line model [22] for
calculation of patch Dimension.
a. Input Parameters
• Resonant Frequency = 3.5GHz

• Dielectric Constant (εr) = 1

• Height of Patch above ground plane = 4mm
1. Calculation of Patch Width
c
W=
ε r +1
2 fo
2
where c is the velocity of light, fo is the resonant frequency and εr is the dielectric
constant
3 × 108 m / s
W=
2 ( 3.5 × 109 HZ )
(1 + 1)
2
W = 0.043 cm
So calculated width is,
W = 43 mm
2. Calculation of effective Dielectric Constant (εreff)

1
−
ε r +1 ε r −1 ⎡ h⎤ 2
ε reff = + ⎢1 + 12 ⎥
2 2 ⎣ W⎦
where εreff is the effective dielectric constant, εr is the dielectric constant of substrate,
h is the height of dielectric substrate and W is the width of the patch
1
−
1+1 1−1 ⎡ 4⎤ 2
ε reff = + ⎢1 + 12 ⎥
2 2 ⎣ 43 ⎦
ε reff = 1
3. Calculation of Frings factor (∆L)
(ε reff + 0.3) ⎛⎜ ⎞
W
+ 0.264 ⎟
ΔL = 0.412h ⎝ h ⎠
⎛W ⎞
( ε reff − 0.258 ) ⎜ + 0.8 ⎟
⎝ h ⎠
(1 + 0.3) ⎛⎜ ⎞
43
+ 0.264 ⎟
ΔL = 0.412 ( 4 ) ⎝ 4 ⎠
(1 − 0.258) ⎛⎜ + 0.8 ⎞⎟
43
⎝ 4 ⎠
The mathematical calculation gives the frings effect as under
ΔL = 2.75 mm
4. Calculation of effective Length (Leff)
c
Leff =
2 fo ε reff
3 × 108 m / s
Leff =
2 ( 3.5 ×109 ) 1
So, calculated effective length is,
Leff = 43 mm
`
5. Calculate the total length
L = Leff − 2ΔL
L = 43 − 2 ( 2.75 )
So after the subtracting the frings effect of both side from effective length, we
found total length is, (it is slightly greater but we will take round figure)
L = 37 mm
4.1.3 Calculation of Ground Plane (Lg and Wg)

The size of ground plane should be greater than the patch. The ground plan
can be infinite but due to physical constraints this is not possible. The ground plane to
the underside of any such printed circuit will increase the gain of this antenna [29].
But on other side this may adversely affect the overall bandwidth of the
structure. For this design a reasonable large ground plane is determined consisting of
square pattern of 120mm.
4.1.4 Patch Model & Feed Point Location (Xf ,Yf)

Microstrip patch antenna is fabricated by using a PCB board with copper on
one side and plastic on the other. The patch is cut according to the calculated values
37*37* 4mm (L*W*H). After that we locate a feed point on the patch. The true feed
point is given by 50Ω impedance matching.
It is a slightly complex to locate a feed point with 50Ω impedance on the
patch. According to theory, impedance is different at different location with its peak
value at the edges of the patch (i.e. 150 to 300Ω) and reduces to 0Ω at the centre of
the patch. Hence, the feed point was positioned at about a third of way along the
radiator where it has found at Xf = 1.3mm and Yf = 00.6mm (W and L respectively) is
drilled carefully inner conductor of coaxial cable has soldered here. Then BNC
connector is connected to the ground plane.
Fig: 4.1 Fabricated Antenna Model
4.2 Measurement and Result
We use the network Analyzer for measuring the different parameters of the
Microstrip Patch antenna. We will calculate the, S11 parameters and S21 Parameters on
the operating frequency of 3.5GHz.
4.2.1 S11 Parameters
a. Return Loss
Return Loss is a measure of power reflected from imperfections in electrical or
optical communication link [21]. It is ratio of PR/PT.
Fig: 4.2 Graph shows return Loss

Above graph shown the return loss of -21.53dB which is actually the good,
ideally return loss should be RL ≥ -9.5dB.
b. Bandwidth
The range of frequencies where by using this range an antenna performance
can be determined to specific standard [22]
Fig: 4.3 Graph shows Bandwidth

We were selecting the Resonant frequency of 3.5GHz but in graph it shown

3.04GHz where we can get better bandwidth. It means we are getting 0.46GHz less in
our actually bandwidth. Here is many factors can involve to getting lower frequency,
like due to inductance and capacitance effect in BNC connector and also it can be
happened due to dimension cut less in actual calculation.
Table 4.1
Different result on different resonant frequencies
Resonant
Return Loss Bandwidth
Frequency
(dB) (MHz)
(GHz)
Antenna 3.05 -12.872 150
3.04 -19.472 69
3.08 -28.781 11
The height of a substrate (air) directly affects the bandwidth and due to the
many other factors like inductance and capacitance effect in BNC connectors we get
3.04GHz center frequency.
At the center frequency of 3.04GHz a reasonable bandwidth is achieved
with return losses of -19.472dB. Table 4.1 shows that as the return loss increases, the
bandwidth gets narrower and narrower.
c. Impedance
Fig: 4.4 Smith chart of Impedance
Smith Chart shown the resonant frequency of 3.04GHz and it show the
Impedance matching is 51ohm (Real Part) which is actually closer to the 50ohm.
Imaginary component is j12.266ohm.
4.2.2 S21 Parameter
a. Antenna Gain
Gain of antenna is product of efficiency and directivity when efficiency is
100% then gain is equal to directivity. When direction is not stated power gain is
normally taken in direction of maximum radiation. [22]
1. Theoretical Calculation
The free space path loss is proportional to the square of the distance
between the transmitter and receiver, and also proportional to the square of the
frequency of the radio signal. The free space path loss is given as [37].
2
⎛ 4π d ⎞
FSPL = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ λ ⎠
2
⎛ 4π df ⎞
=⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
where λ is the wave length (in meter), f is the signal frequency (in Hertz), d is the
distance from the transmitter (in meter) and c is the speed of light in a vacuum,
2.99792458×108 (in meter per second)
The free space path loss in term of dB is given as
⎛ ⎛ 4π ⎞ 2 ⎞
FSPL ( dB ) = 10log10 ⎜ ⎜ df ⎟ ⎟
⎜⎝ c ⎠ ⎟⎠
⎝
⎛ 4π ⎞
= 20log10 ⎜ df ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
⎛ 4π ⎞
= 20log10 (d )+20log10 ( f ) +20log10 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ c ⎠
= 20log10 (d )+20log10 ( f ) − 147.56
For typical radio applications, it is common to find f measured in units of MHz and d
in km, the FSPL equation becomes
FSPL ( dB ) = 20log10 (d )+20log10 ( f ) +32.5 `

The distance between the two antennas is d =1m, a theoretical path loss between two
antennas in free space with no obstacles is given as
FSPL ( dB ) = 20log10 (0.001)+20log10 ( 3050 ) +32.5
= 9.65+32.5
= 42.15
2. Experimental Calculation
In order to measure antenna gain and path loss we used two antennas (Antenna
1, Antenna 2) of same specification connected to port 1 and 2 of network Analyzer.
The Fig 4.5 represents a loss in power.
Fig: 4.5 Graph shows Gain of Antenna
Since the theoretical path loss is found to be 42.15dB and the experimental
path loss is found to be 28.454dB. The difference between theoretical and
experimental value is 13.696dB leads to a 6.8dB gain per antenna with respect to
isotropic as a reference antenna.
b. Antenna Beam width
Beam width is measured in a lab room environment, filled with metal

substances, glass, curtains, sharp edges etc, by the following arrangements, Two
microstrip patch antennas (Antenna 1, Antenna 2) of same specification (see section
4.1) connected to a network analyzer placed in far field. Antenna 1 is fixed at 0 degree
while the Antenna 2 is rotated clockwise and anticlockwise (-90 degree to 90 degree).
The measurements are taken in E-plane and H-plane; the measured values are plotted
in MATLAB as shown in Fig 4.6 and Fig 4.7 respectively.
Fig: 4.6 Graph shows the E-Plan
Fig: 4.7 Graph shows H-Plane
Figure 4.6 and figure 4.7 depicts that peak effected radiated power (-23dB)
is at 0 degree. The half power (-3dB) point of the main lobe is -26dB. The angle
between the half power (-3dB) points of the main lobe, when referenced to peak
effective radiated power of the main lobe, is 60 degree defines the beam width.
There is a gradual decrease in received power level from -30 degree to -60
degree as well as 30 degree to 60 degree. There is a sudden drop in received power
level from -60 degree to -90 degree and 60 to 90 degree. The reason behind this is an
interference introduced by the metal substances, glass material, curtains, sharp edges
etc. E-Plane and H-Plane yields the same results as shown in Fig 4.6 and Fig 4.7.
4.3 Conclusion
Over the recent years there has been significant and growing demand for
greater bandwidth. The problem with the existing transmission media like fiber,
coaxial and twisted pair is expensive and difficult to layout in rural areas. A solution
to this problem is given by IEEE standard 802.16, known as Wi-Max. Wi-Max could
potentially erase the suburban and rural blackout areas that currently have no broad
band internet access. Wi-Max short for “Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave
Access” is the broad band internet technology which is growing rapidly across the
world. The frequency spectrum for Wi-Max has given by the IEEE is 2-11 GHz.
A successfully emerging trend in the wireless communications is the use of
small antennas. Microstrip patch antennas are small, cheaper and specially use in rigid
surface, making them ideal for mobile station, aircraft etc. Microstrip antenna in its
simplest form consists of radiating patch on one side of dielectric substrate, and has a
ground plane on the other side. The patch can be of any shape but conventional shapes
are generally used to simplify analysis and performance prediction.
Aim of this thesis was to design a Microstrip patch antenna to achieve the
maximum bandwidth for Wi-Max applications. Here tradeoff is needed between two
values, high gain or more bandwidth. The use of air gap produces a low Q-factor and
hence increases the bandwidth at the expense of gain but large bandwidth bi-
directional amplifiers may be used to overcome this issue.
The antenna designed at resonant frequency of 3.04GHz and a bandwidth
of almost 69MHz as shown in S11. There are several methods to increase bandwidth of
patch antenna. In our case we increase the bandwidth with the help of substrate height
between the ground plane and radiating patch. An air dielectric substrate, with
dielectric constant 1 and height 4mm between patch and ground plane is used. A
simple coaxial feeding technique is used to made antenna simple. Finally a finite large
enough ground plane is design to support the patch. Differ in resonant frequency
should be by the effect of inductance and capacitance provided by BNC connector and
that dimensions cut were slightly smaller than theoretically predicted. At this
particular frequency (3.04GHz) a finite dip and good return loss of -29.472dB is
obtained. A feed is matched at 51.092ohm which is close to recommended 50ohm
impedance.
Finally, S21 of both antennas was performed and their individual gain was
measured. The experimental path loss through a described set up was found 28.46dB
where the difference between the experimental and theoretical values is 13.696dB
resulting in a gain per antenna of approximately is 6.8dB. The beam width is
measured to be -26dB at an angle of 60 degree in E-plane and H- plane. .
Overall a greater bandwidth than that in conventional high frequency patch
antennas has been achieved, through the use of low Q-factor substrate. Patch antennas
are small and rigid, making them ideal for mobile station etc, the area where Wi-Max
is proposed.
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MEE08:29

DESIGN AND FABRICATION OF

Tulha Moaiz Yazdani

This thesis is presented as part of Degree of

Blekinge Institute of Technology

Blekinge Institute of Technology

Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (Wi-Max) is a

It is a great pleasure to express our deep and sincere gratitude to

Chapter 1 Wireless communication Technology

Chapter 2 Antenna Essentials

Chapter 3 Microstrip Patch Antenna

Chapter 4 Result and Measurement

CDMA Code Division Multiple Access

1.3 Basic Communication System

Fig: 1.1 Block diagram of digital communication system [7]

1.3.1 Concept of Cellular System

Fig: 1.2 Cellular Network Architecture [9]

Fig: 1.3 Frequency Reuse in cellular Networks [4]

1.4 Different Mobiles Generation

1.4.2 Second Generation 2G

b. Interim Standard (IS-136)

c. Pacific Digital Cellular (PDC)

d. Interim Standard 95(IS-95)

1.4.3 Second Generation 2.5G [4]

Following are the standard of 2.5Generation,

a. High Speed Circuit Switch Data (HSCSD)

b. General Packet Radio System (GPRS)

c. Enhanced Data Rate for GSM (EDGE)

1.4.4 Third Generation

a. Wideband Code division Multiple Access (W-CDMA)

b. Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS)

c. High Speed Packet Access (HSPA)

1.4.5 Comparison of 3G Wireless

HSDPA 3G Packet >2000 >2000 TBA

Various Wireless Technologies [31]

1.4.5 Fourth Generation (4G)

1.5 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

1.5.1 IEEE Standard of WLAN

Basic Service Set

Fig: 1.4 Basic Infrastructure of WLAN Technology [23]

1.5.2 Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi)

Fig: 1.5 Wi-Fi based Architecture [20]

The communication process is given as,

1.5.3 Comparison of different 802.11 Standards

Comparison of different 802.11 transfers rates [17]

1.6.1 Comparison of different Bluetooth Classes

Comparison of different power classes [6]

Fig: 1.6 Different roles in the Piconet [6]

1.6.2 Bluetooth Usage Model

b. Three in One Phone

1.7.1 Different Families members of Wi-Max [16], [18]

b. IEEE 802.16 2004

c. IEEE 802.16e/IEEE 802.16

1.7.2 Comparison of different 802.16 standards

Completed December 2001 May 2004 Est.Mid-2005

Spectrum 10-66GHz 2-11GHz 2-6GHz

Application Backhaul Wireless DSL & Backhaul Mobile Internet

Comparison of Different Wi-Max standard [19]