CONSERVATION OF MASS

“LAW OF CONSERVATION OF MASS”

– States that mass cannot be created or destroyed, although it may be rearranged in space, and changed
into different types of particles.

“LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY”

– States that energy can neither be created nor destroyed: it can only be transformed from one state to
another.

MASS FLOW RATE ( ) – is equal to the amount of mass per unit time and is equal to:

¿ m/t ¿ ρAυ ¿ Aυ/ν

Where:
m , is the mass
t, is time
ρ , is the density
υ , is the velocity
A , is the flow area
ν, is the specific volume

Mass equations for the following system are:

Closed System – mass is constant.

m 1 ¿ m2

Steady Flow System – mass entering is equal to mass leaving, since the change of mass within
the system boundary is zero.

in = out

Open System – mass entering is equal to mass leaving plus change of mass within the system.

in = out +Δ

ENERGY AND ENERGY FORMS

Energy is a quantity that is often understood as the ability to perform work. This quantity can be
assigned to any particle, object, or system of objects as a consequence of its physical state.

Energy may however be defined operationally. Energy forms are generally divided into two:
A. Stored energy – is the property of the system such as potential energy, kinetic energy, and
molecular energy.

1. POTENTIAL ENERGY, P

Potential energy is defined as the energy stored in a system as a result of its position in the
Earth’s gravitational field.

Consider a body of mass m that is elevated a distance of z 2−z 1 above any reference plane. The
acceleration due to gravity is g and it’s directed downward, then W =mg

The potential energy difference of the body is equal to the work that is done by the body as it is
raised from point 1 to point 2.

△ P=P2−P1=W ( z 2−z 1 )=mg( z 2−z1 )

If the elevation is equal to zero, the potential energy is:

P2=P=mgz since z 1=0

then P1=0

2. KINETIC ENERGY, K

Kinetic energy is defined as the energy stored in a system by virtue of the system’s motion. The
kinetic energy of a translating mass m moving with a velocity υ is defined as:

1
K= mυ 2
2

And for a system rotating about a fixed axis with an angular velocity ω and a moment of inertia I
is:

1
K= I ω2
2

The change in Kinetic energy of as system is thus expressed as:

m 2 2
Δ K =K 2−K 1 = (υ −υ )
2 2 1

3. INTERNAL ENERGY OR MOLECULAR ENEGY, U

Internal or molecular energy includes all types of energy at the microscopic level of the system.
It is dependent to the change in temperature of the system.
 U =mu=absolute internal energy , kJ

u=specific internal energy ,kJ /kg

B. Transitional energy – are energies that are transferred between a system and its surroundings, such
as heat and work.

1. HEAT, Q

Heat is the energy transferred between a system and its surroundings due to temperature
difference between them. The sign convention for heat is ( +¿ ) if the system receives heat, and (
−¿) if the system rejects heat. Q=0, if heat is neither received nor rejected. There are two types
of heat:

a. Sensible heat – heat that cause change in temperature of a substance.

b. Latent heat – heat that cause a change in phase of the substance with temperature
remaining constant.

2. WORK, W

Work performed by a system is the energy transferred by the system to another that is
accounted for by changes in the external generalized mechanical constraints on the system.

Work is defined as the product of a displacement and the component of the force in the
direction of displacement. Thus:

2
W =∫ F x dx
1

If the displacement is angular, such as the work done by exerting a torque on a rotating shaft,
then:

2
W =∫ T dθ
1

The sign convention for work is (+¿ ) if the work is done by a system on the surroundings, and (
−¿) if the work is done on the system by the surroundings. W=0, if no external work is done on
or by the system.

POWER, PWR

Power is used to determine the rate at which energy is converted. Defined as work per unit
time, the unit used for power is Watt (W=J/s) or horsepower (hp=746 W).

PWR=W /t since W =F x d
 PWR=Fυ υ=d /t

Similarly the power transmitted by a rotating shaft with an applied torque T and an angular
velocityω :

PWR=Tω

For a flow system moving at , the PWR is:

PWR=W where W is in kJ/kg

Types of Work

a) Non-flow Work; W nf – Consider a closed system arrangement containing a gas. The

gas expands from initial state to final state, where pressure is uniform throughout
the system, but changes as the expansion proceeds. The force acting on the piston is
equal to the product of the pressure of the gas and the area of the piston:

2
W nf =∫ F x dx since F x = pA
1
2
¿ ∫ pAdL dx=dL
1
2
¿ ∫ pdV ,k J AdL=dV
1
2
¿ ∫ pdν , kJ /kg
1

b) Flow Energy or Flow Work; E f – a form of energy specifically used for flow systems.
A small amount of fluid V 1 is push into the control volume where work is done on it
to move against the resistance of control volume.

E f =F 1 L1 since F= pA
¿ p1 A 1 L1 V = AL
¿ p1 V 1 , kJ
¿ p1 ν 1, Kj/kg

Similar to the final state:

E f = p1 V 1, Kj
¿ p1 ν 1, Kj/kg

c) Elastic Work or Strain Work; W e – involves a force deforming a solid body, as in the
case of a spring. The applied force F produces a proportional deformation x:
 F ∝ x; F=kx where k, is spring scale

F △F
k= =
x △x

Elastic Work is mathematically expressed as:

2 2
k
W e =∫ Fdx=∫ kxdx = (x 22−x 21 )
1 1 2

FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The first law of thermodynamics is an expression of the principle of conservation of energy. The law
expresses that energy can be transformed, but cannot be created or destroyed. It is usually formulated
by stating that the change in the internal energy of a system is equal to the amount of heat supplied to
the system, minus the amount of work performed by the system on its surroundings.

Thus, it is mathematically expressed as:

E1 + E¿ =E2 + E out where: E1=P 1+ K 1 +U 1

E2=P 2+ K 2+U 2
E¿ =W ¿ ∨Q ¿ ∨∑ of both
Eout =W out ∨Qout ∨∑ of both

NON-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

Non-flow energy equations are used for process involving non-flow process that is exhibit in a closed
system. The sum of all energies of the gas is called the total stored energy E s:

E s=U + P+ K

Then based on the first law, if heat is applied in the system where it undergoes change from initial state
to final state, where work is done:

E s 1+ E ¿=E s 2+ Eout
E s 1+Q=Es 2 +W nf
P1 + K 1 +U 1 +Q=P2 + K 2 +U 2 +W nf
Q= Δ P+ Δ K + ΔU +W nf

If gas is at rest and no turbulence occurs:

since Δ P=0 ; Δ K =0
 Q= ΔU +W nf , kJ
Q= Δu+W nf , kJ/kg

OPEN-SYSTEM ENERGY EQUATION

Open-system energy equations are used processes involving in an open system. The equation used is:

E1 + E¿ =E2 + E out

STEADY-FLOW ENERGY EQUATION

Steady-flow energy equation are used for steady-flow process which occurs in a open system where the
mass flow rate of fluid entering and leaving the system boundary are equal. Therefore, △ E s=0

Since Δ m=0 m ¿ =mout

Δ E s=0 E¿ =E out

P1 + K 1 +U 1 + Ef 1+Q=P2+ K 2+ U 2+ Ef 2 +W s f

Since E f = pV

then
P1 + K 1 +U 1 + p 1 V 1 +Q=P 2+ K 2 +U 2 + p2 V 2+ W sf

Q= Δ P+ Δ K + ΔU + Δ p V +W sf

Since H=U + pV , kJ
h=u+ pν , kJ/kg

then
Q= Δ P+ Δ K + ΔH +W sf , kJ
Q= Δ P+ Δ K + Δh+W sf , kJ/kg