CAPE History

Module 1
Theme: The Indigenous Societies
Topic: A Comparative Analysis of the Indigenous Societies
Category 1: Aztec, Inca and Maya
Category 2: Taino, Kalinago and Tupi

Specific Objectives: By the end of the lesson students should be able to:
1. Using a map of the Caribbean identify the geographical location of each indigenous
society.
2. Describe the political structure of each indigenous society.
3. Create a poem which illustrates the economic activities of each indigenous society.
4. Construct a table which compares and contrast the social organization of each
indigenous society.
5. Explain why the societies of category one were able to develop advanced political,
economic and social structures.
6. Cooperate and work together in groups.

Cape History Unit II – Module 1

Theme 1: Atlantic Settlements to 1800
Topic (a): European Settlement and Rivalry in the Americas

Objectives: By the end of the lesson students should be able to

1. Define the concept the Atlantic World.
2. Discuss the factors which led to the birth of the Atlantic World.
3. Name the countries which make up Western Europe.
4. Discuss the structure of Iberian society.
5. Explain why Portugal is the pioneer of Atlantic exploration.
6. Define the terms the Age of Discovery, Age of Expansion, Age of Exploration and Age
of Reconnaissance.
7. Describe the conditions in 15th century Spain and Portugal which prepared them for
expansion.
8. Critically examine factors that motivated European settlement in the Americas.
9. Explain what was Columbus’ Plan.
10. Discuss the arguments used by Columbus to get support for his plan for the church,
merchants, Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand.
11. Create a poem which explains why Columbus made his voyages to the new world.
12. On a map of the Caribbean trace the four voyages of Columbus.
13. Name the island Columbus found on his four voyages.
14. Explain why the Spaniards did not settle in the Lesser Antilles.
15. Explain the impact of Columbus’ voyages on the new world and on Europe.
 16. Examine Spain’s system of government in the Americas.
17. Explain the term mercantilism
18. Discuss Spain’s mercantilist policies.
19. Evaluate the methods used by Spain to protect her empire.
20. Define the term rivalry.
21. Discuss the infiltration of Spain’s monopoly of the new world.
22. Name the islands which were settled by Spain’s rivals.
23. Examine Britain’s system of colonial government.
24. Explain Britain’s mercantilist policies.
25. Outline the terms of the Staples Act, Plantation Duties Act and the navigation Acts.
26. State who was Oliver Cromwell and the role he played in Britain’s mercantilist
policies.
27. Explain what was the western Design or the Grand Design.
28. Discuss France’s system of colonial administration.
29. Discuss the role played by Colbert in French colonial history.
30. Examine the French Exclusive.

Resource materials
1. Liberties Lost – Verene Shepherd
2. A Post Emancipation History of the West Indies
3. Cape Readings
4. Map of the World
5. Map of the Caribbean

CAPE HISTORY
UNIT I
HAITI 1804-1825 - International Relations

Read the article “International Repercussions of the Haitian Revolution”

authored by David Geggus and answer the following questions.

1. What did Georges Biassou say about the first days of the rebellion? (3
marks)
2. Why did the actions of the St. Domingue’s “slaves seized international
attention”? (2 marks)
3. State the five questions which Geggus used to analyse the international
impact of the Haitian Revolution. (5 marks)
 4. Describe the reaction of the enslaved people of Jamaica to the Haitian
Revolution. (3 marks)
5. Outline how the Revolution impacted Brazil and American blacks. (4
marks)
6. How did the Haitian Revolution impact the Jamaican planters’ ability to
control the enslaved people. (3 marks)
7. Discuss the link between the Haitian Revolution and the Barbados Revolt
of 1816. (1 mark)
8. Why did rebel enslaved leaders often pretend that would get help from
Haiti to carry out their revolts. (2 marks)
9. How did the formation of an independent Haiti and the crowning of a
King of Haiti impact the plantocracy and the blacks of the Americas. (4
marks)
10. Which country received help from Haiti during her independence
struggle? (1 mark)
10b.What assistance did Haiti give to the country you named at 10 above?
(2 marks)
11.Why did the Haitians not attempt to spread the slave rebellion overseas.
(2 marks)
12. How did Jamaica help Haiti during the revolution? (4 marks)
13. Name the countries which provided a haven for Haitian refugees.
(3 marks)
13b. Describe the attitudes to migrants from St. Domingue? (4 marks)
14. Explain the economic impact of the Haitian Revolution of the
Americas. (6 marks)
15. Describe the contribution to regional coffee production by the Haitian
emigrés. (6 marks)
16. What cultural impact did the Haitian émigrés have in the region?
(6 marks)
17. In what ways did the Haitian Revolution impact Britain, France and
 Spain? (6 marks)
18. In what ways did Britain, Spain and France respond to an independent
Haiti? (12 marks)

CAPE HISTORY
UNIT II
MODULE II
THEME 2: AMERICAN NATIONHOOD AND DEVELOPMENT
INDEPENDENCE AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN BRAZIL UP TO 1900

Specific Objective: Explain the process of independence and national development in

EITHER Brazil OR Venezuela in the nineteenth century.

Objectives: 1. On a map of the world locate and identify Brazil.

2. Discuss the relationship between the Treaty of Tordesillas and Brazil.
3. Define the following concepts:

a) treaty
b) colony
c) metropole
d) independence
e) national development
f) monarchy
g) bureaucratic
h) liberalist
i) infrastructure
j) plateau
k) cortes
l) imperial
m) nationalism
n) The Enlightenment

4. State when Brazil became independent.

5. Critically examine the factors which facilitated the independence of Brazil.
6. Discuss Brazil’s political outlook from independence up to 1900.
6. Construct a table which shows the principal economic products of Brazil, the regions
of production
and their economic value to Brazil.
7. Explain the factors which influenced economic growth and development in Brazil up
to 1900.
8. Cooperate and work together in groups.
Past Paper Questions:
1. Outline three factors that facilitated independence in Either Brazil or Venezuela. (6
marks) 2006
2. Explain two factors that influenced economic development in Either Brazil or Venezuela
in the post-independence period up to 1900. (8 marks) 2001
3. Discuss the factors that influenced agricultural production in Either Venezuela or Brazil
from independence up to 1900. (30 marks) 2002
4. With reference to Either Brazil or Venezuela, assess the claim that Latin American
independence movements were influenced by European ideas and political developments
and by new circumstances in the Americas. (30 marks) 2005
5. Outline Four factors which stimulated national development in Either Brazil or
Venezuela in the 19th century. (8 marks) 2003
6. Outline three factors that affected the economic development of Either Brazil or
Venezuela in the post independence period up to 1900. (6 marks) 2005
7. Discuss the factors that influenced industrial development in Either Venezuela or Brazil,
from independence up to 1900. (30 marks) 2004
8. Discuss the factors that influenced the pace of economic development in Either Brazil or
Venezuela in the post independence period up to 1900. (30 marks) 2006
9. Explain two factors that led to the independence of Either Venezuela or Brazil. (6 marks)
2004
10. Outline four developments that stimulated the independence movement in Venezuela or
Brazil. (8 marks) 2002
11. Analyse the factors that influenced economic development in Either Brazil or Venezuela
after their independence up to 1900. (30 marks) 2008
12. Examine the events which led to the achievement of political independence in the 1820s
in Either Brazil or Venezuela. (30 marks) 2009
13. Explain two external factors that contributed to the independence of Either Brazil or
Venezuela. (6 marks) 2008
14. Analyse the factors that influenced economic development in Either Brazil or Venezuela
after their independence up to 1900. (30 marks) 2008
15. Discuss the view that international developments in the late eighteenth and early
nineteenth centuries were responsible for the independence of Either Brazil or Venezuela.
(30 marks) 2010
16. Discuss the view that Brazil was able to consolidate its independence with relative ease
between 1822 and 1840. (30 marks)
17. Account for the challenges encountered by Venezuela in consolidating its independence
between 1811 and 1830. (30 marks 2011
18. Discuss the MAIN features of national development in Either Brazil or Venezuela after
independence and up to 1900. (30 marks) 2012
19. Account for the success if the independence movement in Either Brazil or Venezuela.
Specimen 2005

Factors which facilitated independence in Brazil

  influence of ideas of the Enlightenment and growth of “nationism”, pride in Brazil
 widespread opposition of Portuguese mercantile system that restricted production
and trade – nationalist voices criticised the mercantilist system
 Limited availability and the high price of manufactured goods
antagonised the Brazilians
 Nationalist voices complained about taxation emanating from
Portugal
 relocation of Portugal’s monarchy to Brazil after 1807
 supportive role of Prince Pedro after regent returned to Portugal in 1821
 influence of other independence movements in Spanish America and the American
War of Independence
 international pressure – particularly British and also USA (Monroe Doctrine)
 influence of French and Haitian Revolutions
 no large military imperial presence in Brazil
 Portugal was a weak power with limited financial, military and human resources

Read your resource materials from your package and books from the library.
Complete detailed notes on each factor which facilitated Brazilian independence.
You must use complete sentences and write in paragraphs. Bear in mind the profiles
as you complete this task. Complete this task with your peer partner.

The heights of great men reached and kept were not attained by sudden flight, but they while their
companion slept were toiling upward through the night!!!

CAPE HISTORY
UNIT I
HAITI 1804 – 1825

A Synopsis of the History of Post Independent Haiti 1804-1825

Jean Jacques Dessalines was the first ruler of independent Haiti. He declared Haiti
independent in 1804. He sought to revive agriculture in Haiti. He implemented a program
of militarization. The former enslaved people were forced to go back to the plantations in
order to revive the economy. This was known as fermage which was first implemented by
Toussaint L’Ouverture. The former enslaved people viewed Dessalines as an authoritarian
leader and so began to turn against him. The struggles for Dessalines were strong and in
1806, the first president of Haiti was assassinated. The blacks and the mulattoes both
accused each other of the crime. Consequently, there was a struggle for power and rule in
Haiti between Alexandre Petion and Henri Christophe. This was not only a racial struggle,
it was also a territorial one; it helped to create entrenched colour divisions in Haiti. This
struggle plunged Haiti into a civil war which split Haiti into two; the north was controlled
by Henri Christophe who ruled from 1807-1820 while Alexander Petion had control of the
south from 1807-1818. Haiti was no longer one country but a country divided and there
was a north south divide.

In the north, Christophe continued the programme of militarization of agriculture. He was

able to re-establish trade with Britain and revitalized the sugar trade. This was
accomplished through harsh measures of forcing people to work. He also constructed a
fortress for safe refuge in the event of a re-invasion of Haiti by France. In the south Petion
did not militarize agriculture, but rather divided the land for peasant farming.
Subsequently, the land became fragmented which did not augur well for a revitalization of
the agricultural sector. Haiti’s economy under Petion was unable to be revived on a large
scale. On the whole Haiti agricultural export economy all but vanished.

Haiti throughout the period 1804 to 1825 faced internal crises and instability as well as
international hostility and ostracism. Haiti’s internal problems included the ongoing war
between the militias of the north and the south. As regard the latter there was diplomatic
warfare. Additionally, there was the rise of alternative sources of sugar elsewhere and this
affected the reestablishment of Haiti’s sugar economy. The once prosperity territory was
no more and the crop which made Haiti the pearl of the French crown had taken a back
seat.
The death of Petion in 1818 led to the rise of Jean Pierre Boyer as ruler of the south.
However, he untied Haiti in 1820 when he took control of the north in 1820 upon the death
of Christophe. Boyer ruled Haiti until 1843. Boyer was responsible for joining Santo
Domingo with Haiti to make one Haiti – he did so due to the fear of reinvasion from
Europeans. In 1826 Boyer implemented the Rural Code in order to recreate the economy
by encouraging people to be involved in agriculture. The economic consequences of
Boyer’s plan for Haiti were positive. Boyer was the last Haitian leader who fought in the
Haitian Revolution.

dn2012

CAPE HISTORY
UNIT 1
THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION
WORKSHEET 1

COMPLETE ALL QUESTIONS

1. Name the year in which the Haitian Revolution began and ended. (2 marks)
2. State the alternative name for the Haitian Revolution. (1 mark)
3. Name the European country which colonized St. Domingue. (1 mark)
4. Give another name for the free mulattoes of St. Domingue. (1 mark)
5. Describe pre-revolutionary St. Domingue. (30 marks)
6. Discuss the Planters’ Revolt. (15 marks)
7. Outline two reasons for the revolt of the free coloureds of St. Domingue.
(6 marks)
8. What factors led to the failure of the free coloureds’ revolt in St. Domingue.
(4 marks)
9. Describe the causes of the Haitian Revolution. (30 marks)
 TOTAL
90 MARKS

CAPE HISTORY
UNIT 1
THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION
WORKSHEET 1

COMPLETE ALL QUESTIONS

1. Name the year in which the Haitian Revolution began and ended. (2 marks)
2. State the alternative name for the Haitian Revolution. (1 mark)
3. Name the European country which colonized St. Domingue. (1 mark)
4. Give another name for the free mulattoes of St. Domingue. (1 mark)
5. Describe pre-revolutionary St. Domingue. (30 marks)
6. Discuss the Planters’ Revolt. (15 marks)
7. Outline two reasons for the revolt of the free coloureds of St. Domingue.
(6 marks)
8. What factors led to the failure of the free coloureds’ revolt in St. Domingue.
(4 marks)
9. Describe the causes of the Haitian Revolution. (30 marks)

TOTAL
90 MARKS

CAPE HISTORY
UNIT 1
TEST
15 minutes
Name & Class:___________________________
Teacher:________________________________
Date:___________________________________
 SECTION A

CIRCLE THE CORRECT LETTER

1. Who changed the name of St. Domingue to Haiti?

A. Christophe B. Napoleon C. Pétion D. Dessalines

2. When did the French recognize Haitian independence?

A.1825 B.1804 C.1815 D.1802

3. Who among the following shot himself in 1820?

A. Riguad B. Henri Christophe C. Maurepas D. Le Clerc

4. The campaign organized by the Anti-Slavery Society to gain better conditions for the enslaved in the
British Caribbean was the
A. Humanitarian campaign B. Amelioration campaign
C. Evangelical movement D. Emancipation campaign

5. Which of the following did not contribute to the Emancipation Act passed in 1833?
A. The decline of British Caribbean sugar
B. The actions of the humanitarians
C. The rise of industrialists and manufacturers who were against enslavement and the trade in African
labour
D. The British Caribbean planters who were converted to the idea of free labour over slave labour

6. The arguments of the humanitarians of nineteenth-century Britain against enslavement were MAINLY
A. legal B. moral C. political D. economic

7. The apprenticeship system was implemented in all of the following islands EXCEPT
A. Nevis B. Antigua C. Montserrat D. Barbados

8. Which of the following allowed the enslaved to experience freedom in the midst of enslavement?
A. Apprenticeship B. Manumission C. Immigration D. Amelioration

9. Which of the following did the Amelioration policies of 1823 propose?

I. No slave woman should be flogged
II. Enslaved families should not be divided
III. The enslaved should not be sold in payment of debt
IV. Saving schemes for slaves should be set up

(A) I and IV only

 (B) II and III only
(C) I, II, and IV only
(D) I, II, III and IV

10. The Amelioration policies were opposed by the

(A) West India Committee (B) Planters in the British Caribbean (C) Abolitionists
(D) British Parliament

11. In what year was The Society for Effectual Abolition of the Slave trade formed?
A. 1772 B. 1788 C. 1787 D. 1793

12. The MAIN task of the Stipendiary Magistrates was to

(A) prepare the ex-slaves for adjustment to the new life
(B) give support to the missionaries in the territories
(C) protect the planters from attacks by ex-slaves
(D) ensure that the system of apprentice worked

13. All of the following were factors which influenced the relationship between the British North American
colonies and the British Caribbean colonies before 1776 EXCEPT
(A) common mother country
(B) common religious denomination
(C) mutual trade
(D) proximity to each other

14. The Emancipation Act, 1833 was passed by

A. A Tory government
B. A Whig government
C. A Labour government
D. The Commonwealth government

15. From which of the following problems did the British Caribbean colonies suffer during the
War of American Independence (1776-1783)?
(i) Difficulty in exporting their sugar
(ii) Food shortages and starvation
(iii) Increase in taxes
(iv) Raids by the US navy

(A) i and ii only (B) i, ii, and iii only

(C) i, ii and iv only (D) i, ii, iii and iv

16. The Morant Bay Rebellion occurred

A. October 11, 1865 C. October 24, 1865
 B. November 11, 1865 D. November 24, 1865

17. In what ways did George William Gordon help the blacks of Jamaica
I. Taught blacks to read
II. Chaired the Underhill meetings
III. He organized a marketing system for blacks to see their produce
IV. He urged the people to resist the oppressive and unjust conditions they faced

A. I, II and III only C. II, III and IV only

B. I, III and IV only D. I, II, III and IV

18. George William Gordon was executed on

A. October 23, 1865 C. November 23, 1865
B. October 24, 1865 D. November 24, 1865

19. Paul Bogle was a deacon in the ________________ church.

A. Anglican B. Baptist C. Catholic D. Methodist

20. Paul Bogle was a

A. Columnist C. Peasant farmer
B. Member of the Assembly D. Member of the Vestry

21. The person who wrote the British government complaining about the terrible
conditions in Jamaica in 1865 was
A. Sir John Peter Grant C. Edward Underhill
B. Paul Bogle D. Baron Ketelhodt
22. The newspaper published by George William Gordon was known as the
________________.
A. The Chronicle C. Gordon’s Chronicle
B. Gordon’s Watchman D. The Watchman

23. For his alleged role in the Morant Bay Rebellion George William Gordon was
arrested in which parish?
A. St. Andrew B. Kingston C. St. Thomas D. Stony Gut

24. The governor of Jamaica at the time of the Morant Bay rebellion lived in
A. Morant Bay B. Stony Gut C. Kingston D. Spanish Town

25. “The most consistent and untiring obstructer of the public business in the House of
Assembly.” To whom is the statement referring to?
A. Edward Eyre C. George William Gordon
B. Edward Underhill D. Paul Bogle
 26. Which of the following were conditions which aided the movement towards
emancipation?
I. The new economic ventures of cities such as Liverpool and Bristol
II. Depression in West Indian agriculture in the early 19th century
III. The rise of an industrial class
IV. The political decline of the West India interest.

A. II and II only B. I, II and III only C. IV only D. I, II, III and IV

27. For which of the following is there NO relevant association

A. William Shrewsbury – Barbados
B. Samuel Sharpe – Jamaica
C. Edward Jordan – Antigua
D. Rev. John Smith – Demerara

28. What were the objectives behind the period of apprenticeship?

I. To prevent a large-scale move of negroes from the estates
II. To help slaves to become skilled workers.
III. To avert wide-scale disorders on the estates
IV. To facilitate the transition from slavery to freedom

A. II only B. II and IV only C. I, III and IV D. I, II, III and IV

END OF TEST
TOTAL 28 MARKS

THE HAITIAN REVOLUTION

The factors responsible for the outbreak of the Haitian Revolution:

 The tension and civil strife among the free groups in Haiti, that is between
the grand blancs and the French administration over trade; the grand blancs
and the petit blancs and the free coloureds and between the petit blancs and
the mulattoes diverted attention from the slaves and so the whites had
relaxed their vigilance.
 Supervision broke down
 Controls broke down
  So intense was the struggle that there was little possibility of the two
groups uniting against the slaves
 The reluctance of the planter to accommodate the demands of the
coloureds deprived the planters of the support of the revolutionary
leaders in France
 Property was left undefended and could easily be overrun by the
slaves and this enhanced the possibility of success
 Was the perfect time for the slaves to mount their revolt
 This lack of vigilance gave the slaves great opportunity to plan their revolt
 The entire society was so rigidly segmented and antagonistic that it was easy
to use one section against the other
 The turmoil in France had also distracted the attention of the whites,
resulting in fragmented control of the slaves
 Both slaves and mulattoes embraced the slogan of the revolution in France,
i.e., liberty, equality and fraternity. The slaves wanted these rights for
themselves, but more immediately they wanted to be free.
 The repressive laws discriminated against the slaves and inhibited certain
aspects of the practice of their culture
 They were offended by the overt racism on the island
 They did not wish to continue to endure the harsh conditions to which they
had been subjected – the rape of the women, hunger, beatings and splitting
up of families.
 They resented the fact that they were being robbed of their dignity
 They were still angry about the treatment meted out to rebels like Francois
Mackandal who, in 1757, had devised a plan to destroy the whites by
poisoning their water supply. The human torch made out of him when he
was chained and burnt alive in response to the premature betrayal of his
plans made the slaves hungry for revenge.
 The anger over the brutal killing of Mackandal was exacerbated when
Vincent Oge was similarly punished for his 1790 revolt.
 These leaders had established a revolutionary tradition which was rekindled
by the convolutions in France and subsequently in St. Domingue
 The slaves had vastly outnumbered the whites, and so they were more
confident of success than they had been previously.
 Since no other form of resistance that had been used had won for them their
freedom, the slaves felt that they could take the whites by surprise and,
thereby, free themselves.

CAPE History
Unit I
Factors accounting for the success of the Haitian Revolution:

 The leadership and work of Toussaint L’Ouverture, a remarkable and greatly gifted
Negro
 The slaves were united under Toussaint L’Ouverture’s leadership especially through
their religion and African customs. They believed in the power of voodoo/vodun to
make them invulnerable.
 The timing of the revolt; they revolted at a time when the mulattoes and whites
were embroiled in a conflict that created a split in their military forces and the
whites were distracted by events of the French Revolution then taking place in
France.
 France’s reduced military capacity because of the French Revolution - The French
Revolution caused much confusion in France.
 The slaves’ determination to bring an end to slavery and thereby free themselves.
Therefore, they never gave up even when the repression was great. After Sonthonax
issued his abolition decree in 1793, they were determined that no power was going
to re-impose slavery.
 Toussaint’s expertise in training his troops and securing arms for them. Toussaint
troops were well trained.
 Toussaint had able lieutenants in Dessalines and Christophe – able to lead the slaves
and continue the struggle after Toussaint was removed. After his capture, they took
determine action to prevent the reintroduction of slavery.
 Toussaint’s skill as a tactician and an opportunist – he was a very capable military
leader. He knew how to make and break alliances when he thought these were to
his advantage. At different times he joined up with the Spanish in Santo Domingo
and with the French revolutionary leaders.
 Toussaint had an effective system of alliances – with the Spaniards in Santo
Domingo
 The slaves’ superior knowledge of the territory because of their maroon experience,
and their ability to use guerilla warfare successfully.
 The destruction of the economic base of the whites (the plantation) by the slaves
thereby undermining the power of the whites to resist them.
 The slaves’ devastation of the land (scorched earth tactics) which made it difficult
for the French troops to survive without supplies from external sources.
 Some mulattoes joined the blacks to keep Haiti free and independent.
 Diseases, particularly yellow fever, helped to decimate the French troops. The
slaves had a greater resistance to yellow fever.
 Many of the slaves were recently imported from West Africa – many were a part of
African armies. (THIS MUST BE LINKED TO LEADESRSHIP)
  The defeat of the pro-slavery free coloureds (Riguad), the Spanish expeditionary
force and the British troops who engaged them in battle.
 The tradition of insurgency on the part of the enslaved people.
 Tensions within St. Domingue society between whites and coloureds.

NB LEADERSHIP IS ONE FACTOR AND THIS FACTOR MUST BE EXAMINED

CHRONOLOGICALLY WITH REFERENCE TO ALL THE LEADERS i.e. Boukman,
Toussaint L’Ouverture, Jean Jacque Dessalines and Henri Christophe.
CAPE HISTORY
EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT

COMPLETE THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS IN YOUR NOTEBOOK

1. Define the world rivalry.

2. “After the Treaty of Tordesillas of 1494 Spain adopted a policy of mare
clausum…” Explain what this policy entailed.
3. “No peace beyond the line.” Explain this statement with reference to European
rivalry in the Caribbean.
4. Name Spain’s Caribbean rivals.
5. Who were the Iberians?
6. Which non-Iberians countries tried to break the Spanish monopoly?
7. What arguments did Spain’s rivals used to justify their infiltration of the Spanish
monopoly?
8. List and explain the methods used by Spain’s rivals to break her monopoly of the
New World?
9. Define the following concepts and name examples of each:
 pirates
 privateers
 buccaneers
 filibusters
10. What role did the buccaneers play in breaking the Spanish monopoly?
11. List and explain the ways in which Spain tried to protect her Spanish American
Empire.
12. Construct three tables which show the following:
 territories settled by the British, French and Dutch
 dates these territories were settled
  person(s) who settled these territories

13. Give the date by which the Spanish monopoly was effectively broken.

CAPE HISTORY
CONTACTS BEFORE 1492
TEST
30 MINUTES

NAME: ___________________________________ CLASS: ________________________________

TEACHER: _______________________________ DATE: _________________________________

SECTION A
COMPLETE ALL QUESTIONS

1. Name two Viking sagas. (2 marks)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

2. State the alternate names of these places said to be found by the Vikings. ( 3 marks)
Land of Stone ____________________________________________________________________________
Land of Woods___________________________________________________________________________
Land of Wine _____________________________________________________________________________

3. What is a saga? (2 marks)

_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

4. Name the area where archaeological and physical evidence of Nordic settlement was
found. (1 mark)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
 5. Outline TWO examples of archaeological evidence of Nordic settlement found in
North America. (4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

SECTION B
MINI ESSAY
Complete the following question. All elements of an essay must be present.

Critically examine the evidence that there was a West African presence in the Americas
before 1492. (16 marks)
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E N D O F T E S T
TOTAL 28 MARKS
 CAPE HISTORY TEST
UNIT II
EUROPEAN CONTACT WITH WEST AFRICA
40 minutes

Name:_________________________________ Form:_________________________
Teacher:_______________________________ Date:_________________________

COMPLETE ALL QUESTIONS

1. Which European country first made contact with Africa? (1 mark)

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

2. Which century did Europeans first contact Africa? (1 mark)

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

3. How did the coming of Europeans impact the Trans-Saharan Trade? (4 marks)
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

4. Name examples of the goods Europeans bought in West Africa. (2 marks)

 ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

5. Briefly outline John Thornton’s view point as regards why West Africans purchased
European goods. (4 marks)
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

6. In the article “The Slave trade and the West African economy in the eighteenth century”
Philip Curtin noted that West Africa was chosen as a source of labour because of two
reasons. Outline these reasons. (4 marks)
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

7. Why did planters substitute importation for population growth? (3 marks)

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

8. What is meant by the term “the numbers game”? (2 marks)

 ________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

9. Explain Walter Rodney’s views as regards the number’s game. (3 marks)

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

10. “West African community as a whole did not benefit from the transatlantic slave
trade’” To what extent do you agree with this statement. (15 marks)
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________________________

WRITE TRUE IF THE STATEMENT IS CORRECT OR FALSE IF THE STATEMENT IS

INCORRECT. (5 marks)

1. West Africans were first taken to Portugal in 1441. ________________

2. The Indian population of Mexico dropped from about 20 million in 1519 to only

about one million by 1608. _____________

3. Most enslaved people came from the region between modern day Ghana and

Cameroon which is known as the Gold Coast. __________________

4. The slave trade reduced human life to the level of goods. _______________

5. Europeans sowed seeds of hostility among African tribes. __________________

6. Laws and religious beliefs became tools of the slave trade. ____________________

7. The rise of foreign settlements in the West Indies was the greatest stimulus to slave

trading. _______________

8. European ports used by slavers grew in size and wealth. ________________

9. The Europeans dictated the goods they traded with the Africans. ______________

10. Europeans insisted on buying enslaved people rather than other products of West

Africa. _____________
E N D O F T E S T

TOTAL 44 MARKS
 WHY EUROPEANS MIGRATED TO THE AMERICAS

The start of the European colonization of the Americas is typically dated to

1492. However, L'Anse aux Meadows in the Canadian province of Newfoundland
and Labrador is much older. Dating from 1000AD, it is the only known site of a
Norse or Viking village in Canada, and in North America outside of Greenland.
L'Anse aux Meadows remains the only widely accepted instance of pre-Columbian
trans-oceanic contact and is notable for its possible connection with the attempted
colony of Vinland established by Leif Ericson around the same time period or, more
broadly, with Norse exploration of the Americas.

In 1492, a Spanish expedition headed by Christopher Columbus sailed to America

to sell, buy, and trade rich spices and other goods. European conquest, exploration,
and large-scale exploration and colonization soon followed. This first occurred
along the Caribbean coasts on the islands of Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba, and
after 1500 extended into the interiors of both North and South America. In 1497,
sailing from the north on behalf of England, John Cabot landed on the North
American coast, and a year later, Columbus's third voyage reached the South
American coast.

France founded colonies in much of eastern North America, on a number of

Caribbean islands, and in South America. Portugal colonized Brazil. Eventually, the
entire Western Hemisphere came under the control of European governments,
leading to profound changes to its landscape, population, and plant and animal life.
In the 19th century alone over 50 million people left Europe for the Americas. The
post-1492 era is known as the period of the Columbian Exchange.

The first explorations and conquests were made by the Spanish and the
Portuguese, immediately following their own final reconquest of Iberia in 1492. In
the 1494 Treaty of Tordesillas, ratified by the Pope, these two kingdoms divided
the entire non-European world into two areas of world exploration and colonization,
with a north to south boundary that cut through the Atlantic Ocean and the
eastern part of present-day Brazil. Based on this Treaty and on early claims by
Spanish explorer Vasco Núñez de Balboa, discoverer of the Pacific Ocean in 1513,
the Spanish conquered large territories in North, Central and South America.
Spanish conquistador Hernan Cortes took over the Aztec Kingdom and Francisco
Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire. As a result, by the mid-16th century, the
Spanish Crown had gained control of much of western South America, Central
America and southern North America, in addition to its earlier Caribbean
territories. Over this same timeframe, Portugal colonized much of eastern South
America, naming it Brazil.

Other European nations soon disputed the terms of the Treaty of Tordesillas.
England and France attempted to plant colonies in the Americas in the 16th
century, but these were a failure. However, in the following century, the two
kingdoms, along with the Dutch Republic, succeeded in establishing permanent
colonies. Some of these were on Caribbean islands, which had often already been
conquered by the Spanish or depopulated by disease, while others were in eastern
North America, which had not been colonized by Spain north of Florida.

The first phase of European activity in the Americas began with the Atlantic
Ocean crossings of Christopher Columbus (1492–1504), sponsored by Spain, whose
original attempt was to find a new route to India and China, known as "the Indies".
He was followed by other explorers such as John Cabot, who reached
Newfoundland and was sponsored by England. Pedro Álvares Cabral reached Brazil
and claimed it for Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci, working for Portugal in voyages from
1497 to 1513, established that Columbus had reached a new set of continents.
Cartographers still use a Latinized version of his first name, America, for the two
continents

These explorations were followed, notably in the case of Spain, by a phase of

conquest: The Spaniards, having just finished the Reconquista of Spain from
Muslim rule, were the first to colonize the Americas. Ten years after
Columbus's discovery, the administration of Hispaniola was given to Nicolás de
Ovando of the Order of Alcántara, founded during the Reconquista. As in the
Iberian Peninsula, the inhabitants of Hispaniola were given new landmasters, while
religious orders handled the local administration. Progressively the encomienda
system, which granted tribute (access to indigneous labor and taxation) to
European settlers, was set in place.

Recent archaeological excavations have CONFIRMED that there was a vast

Spanish-Indian alliance numbering in the hundreds of thousands which led to the
conquest of the Spanish American mainland. Along with cavalry and the use of
cannons as a siege weapon, the Spanish conquistadores were able to utilize the
divisions among native ethnic groups and implement them with their own forces.
Even with these reserves, the Europeans still had great difficulties in establishing
colonies or even initiating peace treaties as seen in the Arauco War, Chichimeca
War, Red Cloud's War, the Second Seminole War, and Pontiac's Rebellion. Hernán
Cortés eventually conquered Mexico and the Tlaxcala in 1519-1521, while the
conquest of the Inca was carried out by some 40,000 Incan renegades led by
Francisco Pizarro in between 1532 and 1535.

Over the first century and a half after Columbus's voyages, the native population
of the Americas plummeted by an estimated 80% (from around 50 million in 1492
to eight million in 1650[4]), mostly by outbreaks of Old World diseases but also by
several massacres and forced labour (the mita was re-established in the old Inca
Empire, and the tequitl – equivalent of the mita – in the Aztec Empire). The
conquistadores replaced the native American oligarchies, in part through
miscegenation with the local elites. In 1532, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor
imposed a vice-king to Mexico, Antonio de Mendoza, in order to prevent Cortes'
independantist drives, who definitively returned to Spain in 1540. Two years later,
Charles V signed the New Laws (which replaced the Laws of Burgos of 1512)
prohibiting slavery and the repartimientos, but also claiming as his own all the
American lands and all of the autochthonous people as his own subjects.

A Spaniard plays with his mixed-race daughter while his Mestizo wife looks on, by
Miguel Cabrera, 1763

When in May 1493, the Pope Alexander VI issued the Inter caetera bull granting
the new lands to the Kingdom of Spain, he requested in exchange an evangelization
of the people. Thus, during Columbus's second voyage, Benedictine friars
accompanied him, along with twelve other priests. As slavery was prohibited
between Christians, and could only be imposed in non-Christian prisoners of war or
on men already sold as slaves, the debate on Christianization was particularly acute
during the 16th century. In 1537, the papal bull Sublimis Deus recognized that
Native Americans possessed souls, thus prohibiting their enslavement, without
putting an end to the debate. Some claimed that a native who had rebelled and
then been captured could be enslaved nonetheless. Later, the Valladolid
controversy opposed the Dominican priest Bartolomé de Las Casas to another
Dominican philosopher Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda, the first one arguing that Native
Americans were beings doted with souls, as all other human beings, while the latter
argued to the contrary and justified their enslavement. The process of
Christianization was at first violent: when the first Franciscans arrived in Mexico
in 1524, they burned the places dedicated to pagan cult, alienating much of the
local population.[5] In the 1530s, they began to adapt Christian practices to local
customs, including the building of new churches on the sites of ancient places of
worship, leading to a mix of Old World Christianity with local religions. [5] The
Spanish Roman Catholic Church, needing the natives' labor and cooperation,
evangelized in Quechua, Nahuatl, Guaraní and other Native American languages,
contributing to the expansion of these indigenous languages and equipping some of
them with writing systems. One of the first primitive schools for Native Americans
was founded by Fray Pedro de Gante in 1523.

To reward their troops, the Conquistadores often allotted Indian towns to their
troops and officers. Black African slaves were introduced to substitute for Native
American labor in some locations - most notably the West Indies, where the
indigenous population was nearing extinction on many islands.

Economic immigrants
File:Fur traders in Canada 1777.jpg
Fur traders in Canada, trading with First Nations, 1777

Inspired by the Spanish riches from colonies founded upon the conquest of the
Aztecs, Incas, and other large Native American populations in the sixteenth
century, the first Englishmen to settle permanently in America hoped for some of
the same rich discoveries when they established their first permanent settlement
in Jamestown, Virginia. They were sponsored by common stock companies such as
the chartered Virginia Company (and its off-shoot, the Somers Isles Company)
financed by wealthy Englishmen who understood the economic potential of this new
land. The main purpose of this colony was the hope of finding gold or the possibility
(or impossibility) of finding a passage through the Americas to the Indies. It took
strong leaders, like John Smith, to convince the colonists of Jamestown that
searching for gold was not taking care of their immediate needs for food and
shelter and that "he who shall not work shall not eat." (A direction based on text
from the New Testament.) The extremely high mortality rate was quite distressing
and cause for despair among the colonists. Tobacco later became a cash crop, with
the work of John Rolfe and others, for export and the sustaining economic driver
of Virginia and nearby colonies like Maryland.

From the beginning of Virginia's settlements in 1587 until the 1680s, the main
source of labor and a large portion of the immigrants were indentured servants
looking for new life in the overseas colonies. During the 17th century, indentured
servants constituted three-quarters of all European immigrants to the Chesapeake
region. Most of the indentured servants were English farmers who had been
pushed off their lands due to the expansion of livestock raising, the enclosure of
land, and overcrowding in the countryside. This unfortunate turn of events served
as a push for thousands of people (mostly single men) away from their situation in
England. There was hope, however, as American landowners were in need of
labourers and were willing to pay for a labourer’s passage to America if they
served them for several years. By selling passage for five to seven years worth of
work they could hope to start out on their own in America.

In the French colonial regions, the focus of economy was the fur trade with the
natives. Farming was set up primarily to provide subsistence only, although cod and
other fish of the Grand Banks were a major export and source of income for the
French and many other European nations. The fur trade was also practiced by the
Russians on the northwest coast of North America. After the French and Indian
War, the British were ceded all French possessions in North America east of the
Mississippi River, aside from the tiny islands of Saint-Pierre and Miquelon

Religious immigration

Penn's Treaty with the Indians. This treaty between the pacifist Quakers and
Indians was never violated.
Roman Catholics were the first major religious group to immigrate to the New
World, as settlers in the colonies of Portugal and Spain (and later, France) were
required to belong to that faith. English and Dutch colonies, on the other hand,
tended to be more religiously diverse. Settlers to these colonies included
Anglicans, Dutch Calvinists, English Puritans, English Catholics, Scottish
Presbyterians, French Huguenots, German and Swedish Lutherans, as well as
Quakers, Mennonites, Amish, Moravians and Jews of various nationalities.

Many groups of colonists came to the Americas searching for the right to practice
their religion without persecution. The Protestant Reformation of the sixteenth
century broke the unity of Western Christendom and led to the formation of
numerous new religious sects, which often faced persecution by governmental
authorities. In England, many people came to question the organization of the
Church of England by the end of the sixteenth century. One of the primary
manifestations of this was the Puritan movement, which sought to "purify" the
existing Church of England of its many residual Catholic rites that they believed
had no mention in the Bible.

A strong believer in the notion of rule by divine right, England's Charles I

persecuted religious dissenters. Waves of repression led to the migration of about
20,000 Puritans to New England between 1629 and 1642, where they founded
multiple colonies. Later in the century, the new Pennsylvania colony was given to
William Penn in settlement of a debt the king owed his father. Its government was
set up by William Penn in about 1682 to become primarily a refuge for persecuted
English Quakers; but others were welcomed. Baptists, Quakers and German and
Swiss Protestants flocked to Pennsylvania. The lure of cheap land, religious
freedom and the right to improve themselves with their own hand was very
attractive

Source: New World Encyclopedia

 CAPE HISTORY
UNIT 1
Demography, Family, Gender, Reproduction and Mortality
TEST

1 hour

Teacher: _____________________________ Name: ______________________________

Class: _______________________________ Date: _______________________________

COMPLETE ALL QUESTIONS

Answer all questions in complete sentences where required.
1. Outline why there was a gender imbalance of the enslaved population during the
early period of slavery in the Caribbean. (6 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

1b. State when this gender imbalance was corrected. (2 marks)

________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________

2. Explain the conclusions posited by early and contemporary historians about the
impact of slavery on the family life of the enslaved people. (6 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
 _________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________
3. Outline the view points of the following historians as regards the enslaved family.
(15 marks)
Frazier________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________

Patterson_____________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________

Price
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Higman
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

Beckles
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________
4. List four jobs carried out by enslaved women on the plantations. (4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Why were there more enslaved women than men in the fields? (6 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Explain TWO ways in which enslaved women’s experiences were determined by

gender.
(6 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________________

7. “The enslaved woman was valued for her productive rather than her reproductive
role.”
Explain this statement. (4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

8. Explain why slave populations in the Caribbean generally did not reproduce
themselves. (6 marks)
 _________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
________________

9. Outline THREE factors that contributed to the high mortality among the enslaved
peoples on sugar plantations in the Caribbean. (6 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________

10. “Enslaved men and women were equal under the whip.” Explain this statement
using a factual example to illustrate your response. (4 marks)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________

11. Define the following terms. ( 4 marks)

 Chattel slavery
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

Matrilineal____________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

12. State when British Caribbean planters began implementing pro-natalist policies.
(1 mark)
_________________________________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________

E N D O F T E S T
TOTAL MARKS 70

HISTORY
THE MAYA

The Maya were an American Indian people who developed a magnificent

civilization in Central and South America. Their ancestors were hunters and
food gatherers. The Maya were the first Americans to develop a very high
level of culture. The Maya civilization reached its period of greatest
development about AD 250 and continued to flourish for over 600 years.

The Maya lived in an area of about 120,000 square miles (311,000

kilometres). Today, the territory of the Maya is divided among Mexico and
several Central American countries. The Maya civilisation flourished in
Belize, most of Guatemala and parts of El Salvador and of Honduras, Mexico
(it consisted of the Mexican states of Campeche, Yucatan and Quintana Roo
and parts of Tabasco and Chiapas. The heart of the Maya civilization was
the tropical rainforest of the lowlands of northern Guatemala. Many of the
major Maya cities, such as Piedras, Negras, Tikal and Uxactun developed in
this area. The earliest Maya lived as long ago as 2000 BC in The earliest
Maya lived as long ago as 2000 BC in a forest region known as EL Peten.
However, they for unknown reasons abandoned the citi-states in
this area in about AD 900 and built new cities such as Uxmal,
Mayapan and Chichen Itza, and there they were living when the
Spaniards came.

The Maya located most of their towns and villages inland. Why was this so?

1. They depended on communal agriculture which required much space, and fertile
land.
2. The coastal swamps and lagoons were a disincentive
3. The dense population in certain areas (e.g. Yucatan, Belize and Guatemala).
4. Less vulnerability to hurricanes, tidal waves and floods.
5. Less water-borne pests such as mosquitoes and sand flies.
6. Defense (inter-cultural rivalry)
7. Extensive in-land trade network along major river systems such as Belize and Rio
Hondo
8. Availability of in-land resources (e.g. building material and game
9. Porous limestone in certain areas of Yucatan, Quintana Roo, Guatemala and Belize
which enabled them to access natural well (cenotes) for drinking water

The Physical Appearance of the Maya

 short (not above five feet)
 robust and strong
 broad-headed
 flattened heads of babies by squeezing it between two boards – they did so because
they believed it gave them a noble air and they were better able to carry loads. They
also believed it was a sign of beauty.
 they crossed the eyes of their babies – believed it was a sign of beauty
 They tattoed their faces and bodies.
 They pierced their earlobes for pendants and they painted their bodies.

THE POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF THE MAYA

The Maya lived in citi-states. Each citi-state governed itself. Thus, there was
no single king ruling over the vast Maya civilization. Thus, each city-state
was independent or autonomous. Each city-state had its own identity. The
ruler of each citi-state was called the Halach Unich (True Man or Real
Man). He was a hereditary ruler whose office descended from father to son.
However, if the sons of the dead ruler were not fit to rule, one of his
brothers would become the Halach Unich. Failing this some other suitable
person from the ruler’s family was elected by a council of nobles. The
Halach Unich was a King. He was an absolute ruler. He was also a priest
and was head of the highest class. Hence, Mayan government reflected
principles of theocracy, and it was believed that the ruler was divinely
ordained. Remember that the ruler was the supreme priest and there was
dominance of the priestly class in all matters of administration. The Halach
Unich was the intermediary between the Gods and them i.e. he passed on
information between the men and the Gods. Thus, he was their link to the
Gods.

Duties of the Halach Uinich

The Halach Uinich had great powers.

He formulated internal policies and determined relations with
neighbouring states.
He made all laws and presided over ceremonies.
He held many offices (civil, military and religious).
He delegated power to the Batabs or Batabobs (lesser chiefs who
were responsible for the organization of the villages.
He studied the stars and told the farmers when to plant and when to
reap.
Communicated with the Gods on behalf of the farmers to prevent
drought.

The State Bureaucracy

The Halach Uinich was assisted by a state bureaucracy.

 He ruled the citi-state with the help of a council which comprised of

leading chiefs and priests. This council was known as the
Batah.

 Below the Halach Uinch were the Batabobs. This was a class of
hereditary nobles who played important roles in administration. They
were placed in charge of smaller towns and villages within the citi-
state. Of course there was a staff of civil servants or officials to help
the Batabob carry out his duties. The Batabobs collected tribute
(taxes) from the peasants on behalf of the Halach Uinich. Batabobs
had executive, judicial and military functions. They were responsible
for training the young soldiers and for recruiting soldiers in times of
civil unrest and war. They organized the division of land and work and
kept records of all the citizens of the state. They made sure taxes
were paid which took various forms such as crops, goods and services.

 The Ah Kins or the priest also played an integral part in Maya

government and were all powerful. They organized festivals and
presided over religious ceremonies. They decided which days on the
 calendar for the harvesting and planting of crops. They trained new
priests and they taught the ruling classes how to calculate the various
times for sacred festivals and how to conduct them. Ah Kin
communicated with the gods for good or evil for the people. They
followed the dictates of their divine rulers. They cooperated with the
Halach Uinich who ruled the Mayan society.

 While the Batabobs were hereditary lords the Nacoms were lords who
achieved their position through prowess. Nacoms were war chiefs who
were responsible for planning and conducting raids. Nacoms trained
young men to be warriors. A Nacom was elected if he proved to be a
superior warrior. He was treated almost like a god during the three
years that he served in this office. He was required to keep a strict
routine during this time, abstaining from wine and women. He was
also given a special diet which included fish and iguanas.

NB
 System of government highly structured
 Nobility and clergy performed significant political and
social roles
 Imposition of extensive system of taxation/tribute

THE ECONOMIC ORGANISATION OF THE MAYA

AGRICULTURE
The Maya relied on farming, hunting and fishing as well trade as viable
economic activities to sustain life. The majority of the people in a Maya citi-
state were farmers and artisans. They were advanced surplus
agriculturalists. They used advanced farming techniques to grow crops on a
large scale. These techniques were:

 Terraced farming - this is a method of growing crops on hill or

mountain sides by planting on graduated terraces built on the slope.
 steps cut into a mountain side
 it gives a stepped appearance
 it is designed to prevent or slow the rapid run off of irrigation
water
 used to maximize land
  used to reduce soil erosion
 used to enhance hill side farming

 Land reclamation
 The Maya practiced land reclamation.
 They reclaimed land by draining swampy areas

 The Maya widely used irrigation

 They created artificial dams which fed water into irrigation canals
for dry areas

The Maya also extensively used slash and burn to clear forested areas. This
allowed them to harness forested lands. However, this resulted in short-
term fertility of the soil and long term usage of this technique depleted soil
fertility and forced them to extend slash and burn activities to new grounds.

Maya farmers lived in rural homesteads or in small villages near their fields.
Maya farmers grew a wide variety of crops for consumption and for sale in
neighbouring towns. Corn was the principal food of the Maya and the
women prepared it in a variety of ways. It was also an important part of
their religion, art and everyday life. It was a sacred crop. Thus, the Maya
had a God of corn (Yum Kaax). Other crops grown by the Maya were
tomatoes, avocados, beans, squash, peas, pumpkin, cocoa, cassava, sweet
potatoes, guava, papaya, pineapples, sapodilla, soursop, spices, herbs,
chaya (tree spinach) and chili peppers. Apart from food crops they
produced crops for other domestic uses such as cotton, hemp, and dyes.

NB Among the Maya, the priests advised when to plant, where to

plant guided major terracing, irrigation works, and the use of
fertilizers

Maya land was communally owned. These were community fields worked by
all men. Each farmer was given a piece of land called milpas (individual
plots of land prepared for growing crops). The life span of a milpa was
two years; it was then abandoned for 15 to 20 years. Farmers cleared the
field by cutting down trees with stone axes. They burnt the trees and brush
and then used sticks to plant the seeds in the ashes. After the soil became
worn out, the farmers cleared more land and shifted their fields to new
locations.

 See 2007 #1 for additional info on slash and burn.

 See 1998 1a and 1999 #1a & 1b for crops grown and
preparation
Huge reservoirs and stone cisterns (a receptacle for storing water or
other liquid/ a tank for catching and storing rain water) were built to
catch water during heavy rains. Wells or cenotes were dug and from
these water was carried to the field. Cenotes were large circular
natural wells formed in the limestone rock. Remember that this
limestone was porous, thus, it allowed for the digging of wells.

Women helped in planting, weeding and harvesting. The children also

helped to harvest the crops. Hence, it was mostly a community effort.
Mayan society greatly depended on farming as such they greatly feared
droughts especially because part of the Yucatan would suffer occasional
droughts sometimes for months. Hence, the worshipped Chac the god of
rain.

Maya raised ducks, turkeys, honey bees and rabbits. They also
domesticated animals which they would have caught in the wild. They also
tamed dogs.

HUNTING
The Maya hunted deer, rabbits, agouti, pig like animals called peccaries and
other wilds animals. They used snares and spears to trap wild animals.
They were considerate hunters, killing only what they needed.

FISHING
The Maya fished and collected shellfish from the rivers and sea.

NB The Maya also gathered fruits and vegetables from the

countryside.

TRADE

Alternatives to Independence

Dutch - the tripartite Kingdom

The Dutch Caribbean still had the old colonial system intact until 1939. The colonial
assemblies or statens were fully controlled by the wealthy Dutch families comprising
planters and merchants. The top official would have the governor appointed in Holland.

By 1939, the emerging middle class within the Dutch Caribbean was lobbying for increased
autonomy. A number of political parties also began to emerge which were interested in
gaining self-government. Their efforts paid off and in 1949 the colonies were granted
universal adult suffrage and internal self-government.

In 1954, the Dutch colonies were made partners in a tripartite Kingdom. By the Charter of
the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the three equal members of the one kingdom were
declared; these were the Dutch Antilles, Suriname and the Netherlands. Each Kingdom was
to keep full internal self-government while defence and foreign affairs were to be a joint
responsibility. The Dutch had lost their colonies in the East Indies and, as such, would do
anything to keep the ones in the Caribbean appeased.

Many Dutch Caribbean persons were comfortable with a tripartite kingdom instead of
independence as they would still receive aid and preferential trade with Holland. However,
those who opposed it complained that they were unable to develop a national identity.

Economic difficulties were to arise in the Dutch Caribbean in the 1960s. These were as a
result of:

(1) Mechanisation in the oil industry which resulted in the decline in the number of jobs.

(2) Rising unemployment.

The government tried intervening by creating jobs in the light industry and tourism sector.
There was some success but not enough jobs were created and the unrest continued. This
resulted in labour unrest and calls for autonomy from the colonies. Holland began to
seriously contemplate the idea of full independence for its colonies. Many wished to remain
a part of the tripartite kingdom, except Suriname. Under the leadership of Henk A.E. Arron,
Suriname negotiated and gained independence in 1975.

Puerto Rico - Commonwealth

In 1902, Puerto Rico was still uncertain about its rule. As you recall, the US gained control
of Puerto Rico after the Spanish-American War. Many had a problem with US colonialism
and lobbied for this to change. This would change in 1952 when Munoz gained general
acceptance for a Commonwealth. Puerto Rico became an 'associated free state' (Estado
Libre Asociado) of the US with its own governor and bi-cameral legislature which managed
its own budget and all internal affairs.

The power of the US president to appoint officials was removed. The US Congress could no
longer overrule laws passed in Puerto Rico. However, the US remained responsible for
defence and foreign affairs. Puerto Rico was to remain in the US commercial sphere and all
US tariffs were to apply but Puerto Ricans did not pay federal income tax. Puerto Ricans
became US citizens but had no vote in federal elections. Since 1952, the supporters of
Commonwealth have been challenged by those demanding complete statehood or complete
autonomy but the 1952 compromise still has general acceptance.

French - Assimilation

The French Caribbean took another alternative to independence. In 1946 Guadeloupe,

Martinique and Guyana became overseas departments of France. A prefect replaced the
governor in each territory, who, because of the distance from Paris, held more power than
his metropolitan counterparts did. They were to receive the same rights and benefits as the
90 departements in France itself. The prefect had specific responsibilities such as sanitation,
road and bridge maintenance, health care and education. In the Caribbean departments,
the prefects had extra powers such as control of the armed forces.

The persons in the overseas departments were given many rights as they could elect
deputies to sit in the French Assembly and Senate. This meant they were directly
represented and they could lobby for laws/policies beneficial to persons living in the
overseas departments. They also elected local general councils which were given increased
powers in the 1960s. From 1960, French laws intended to apply to the overseas
departments had to be first sent to their councils for consideration. At the same time, the
councils were given the right to put their own proposals for laws to the central government
in Paris. Overseas councils were also given wider control over the spending of government
investment funds.

Opposing factions

With the creation of overseas departments in 1946, many political parties were formed to
fight for seats in the general councils and the assembly in Paris. On the one hand, some
groups were in favour of departmentalisation as they had no problems with rule from
France. The whites and coloureds were most in favour of this. On the other hand, some
persons wished for self-government or autonomy. They felt that France had too much
control over the territories and they were not developing a local identity. The system
allowed only for French values and, in reality, they were Caribbean people.

Benefits of Assimilation

Assimilation did provide benefits for people living in these colonies. This was reflected in
many of the social programmes undertaken by the French. Some benefits the colonists
experienced included:

 Funds from the French treasury were sent directly to the colonies. The funds were
used to improve roads, health services and schools. Enrollment catapulted once the
French started putting funds into the system.
 Funds were also used to start massive housing programmes for middle- and lower-
income families.
 The government bought unused land to redistribute to families that were landless.
For example, in Guadeloupe, 5,000 hectares were subdivided into farms for 1,193
families.
 Products originating in the overseas department could enter European countries at
very low duties. This would be as if it were produced in France itself. This showed
that France was able to secure preferential duties for its colonies.
 A lot of money was also injected into the tourism industry and seaports so that trade
could develop.
 The greatest benefit of assimilation was that persons in the overseas department had
representatives in the general council or National Assembly in France. This allowed
them to feel they had a say in the political life of the country.
 Citizens were entitled to social security payments in conditions of illness and
unemployment.

Problems with Assimilation

(a) Seasonal unemployment - primarily due to

the tourist trade.

(b) Low wages.

(c) There was little exploitation of the natural

resources in the colonies. For example, French

Guiana did not make much use of its bauxite

reserves.