The artist and the artisan

Instructor: Emman Joy J. Apulog

The artist and the artisan

Artist – is considered to be a person with the talent and the skills to conceptualize and make creative
works
- are individuals who have the desire and ability to envision, design, and fabricate the images,
objects and structures we all encounter, use, occupy, and enjoy every day of our lives
- is dedicated only to the creative side, making visually pleasing work only for the enjoyment and
appreciation of the viewer, but with no functional value

The artist and the artisan

Artisan or craftsperson– is essentially manual worker who makes items with his or her hands, and who
through skill, experience and the talent can create things of great beauty as well as being functional
- a skilled worker, but not the inventor of the original idea or form
- can also be someone who creates his own designs, but does not work in art forms or with
materials traditionally associated with the so-called fine arts, such as paintings and sculpture

Medium and techniques of artist

Medium – is the material used by an artist to express his/her feelings or thoughts
The artist thinks, feels and gives shape to his vision in terms of his medium
The medium of arts is classified into the visual arts and the auditory arts, or both

Medium and techniques of artist

Visual Arts are grouped into two classes:
1. The dimensional art or two-dimensional arts (2D) which include painting, drawing, printmaking and
photography.
2. The three-dimensional arts (3D) which include sculpture, architecture, landscape, industrial designs
and crafts like furniture.

Medium and techniques of artist

Auditory Arts– are those whose mediums can be heard and which are expressed in time

Both visual and auditory whose mediums can be both seen and heard and which exist in both space and
time

Technique – is the manner in which the artist control his medium to achieve the desired effect and the
ability which he fulfills the technical requirements of his particular work of art
Techniques related to paintings
1. Encaustic – the medium for the powdered color is hot wax which is painted onto a wood surface
with a brush
This method produces durable colors and permits sculpture modeling of the paint face

2. Fresco Secco – in the dry plaster or “fresco secco” technique, pigments are usually mixed with
water, although other substances might also be used
Advantages of the technique are the painting can be done more slowly and carefully, and
changes can be made simply by over-painting, since colors are opaque

3. Fresco – also known as “Buon Fresco” or True Fresco which entails painting on freshly spread,
moist plaster
First layers of the plaster are applied to the surface\
While the final layer is still wet, the artist applies the colors, which are earth pigments mixed
with water.

4. Egg Tempera – in this method, the pigment is mixed with egg yolk or both the yolk and white of
an egg
It is thinned with water and applied to a gesso ground (plaster mixed with a binding) on a panel
Also used on parchment or paper to illustrate or embellish books in the era before the 15th
century development of the printing press
This type of painting dries very quickly and produces an opaque, matte surface
The colors produced are bright and saturated

5. Mosaic – the design is created by small of colored glass, stone, or ceramic (called Tesserae),
embedded in wet mortar which has been spread over the surface to be decorated
Their slightly irregular placement on a surface creates a very lively, reflective surface when
viewed at a distance

6. Oil Paint – powdered colors are mixed with a fine oil, usually linseed oil
A solvent, traditionally turpentine, is also used to thin the colors as desired, so that the paint can be
applied thickly and opaquely, or thinly and transparently
Fine brushes were used, and a glossy, smooth finish was achieved

7. Water Color – powdered pigments are mixed with gum-Arabic or a similar substance that will
help them adhere to a surface
The artist then mixes them with water and applies them to a ground, usually paper, with a soft
brush

8. Acrylic – are artificial compounds developed in the 20th century

The binder used includes water, and the paints can be thinned with water, but once the paints
dry, they have a glossy, permanent surface that resembles the surface created by oils
These paints can create most of the effects accomplished in oils, and have the advantage of not
requiring the use of turpentine, which is toxic
The major disadvantages of acrylic is that unless a retarding agent is mixed into the paint, it will
dry much more quickly
 9. Collage – the word “collage” comes from the French verb “coller” meaning “to paste”
In this technique, photographs, news clippings or other objects are pasted on the painting
surface and ay be combined with painted areas
This technique was first accepted as a legitimate medium that could augment or be substituted
for painting in fine arts in this century

10. Drawing - the materials and methods of drawing are the most basic tools of the artist and the
designer
Work that is intended to be executed in almost any material – paint, stone, steel, or fabric – may
first be envisioned in a drawing
Drawing materials are portable
A sketch pad and a pencil or pen-drawings tend to have a kind of immediacy, and an intimate
quality that cannot often be seen in painting or printmaking

11. Printmaking – a print is anything printed on a surface that is a direct result from the duplication
process
Advantage of printmaking is the process of making copies of the original drawing

The Five Major Types of Prints are:

11.1 Relief – are made by removing material from the matrix, the surface the image has been curved
into, which is often wood, linoleum or metal
Letterpress is a relief printing process that transfers ink to paper but also indents an impression into the
surface of the paper, creating a texture to the print that is often considered a sign of high quality

11.2 Intaglio prints – they are made when a design is scratched into a matrix, usually a metal plate
Ink is wiped across the surface and collects in the scratches
Excess ink is wiped off and paper is pressed onto the plate, picking up the ink from the scratches

11.3 Stencil prints – they are made by passing inks through a porous fine mesh matrix

11.4 Woodcut – this kind of technique of printing designs from planks of wood incised parallel to the
vertical axis of the wood’s grain
It is one of the oldest methods of making prints from a relief surface, having been used in China to
decorate textiles since the 5th century

11.5 Engraving - in engraving, the design is cut into metal with a graver or burin
The burin is a steel rod with a square or lozenge-shape section and a slightly bent shank
The cutting is accomplished by pushing the burin into the metal plate
The deeper it penetrates into the metal, the wider the line; variations in depth create the swelling
tapering character of the engraved line
The gawad sa manlilikha ng bayan award (gamaba)
Gawad sa Malilikha ng Bayan Awards or GAMABA is an award acknowledges folk and indigenous artists
who, despite the modern times, remain true to their traditions

GAMABA began as a project of the Phil. Rotary Club Makati-Ayala

In 1992, it was adopted by the government and institutionalized through Republic Act No. 7335
This award aims to support and motivate these artist to preserve their heritage for the present and
future generations

As a group, these folk and traditional artists reflect the diverse heritage and cultural traditions that
transcend their beginnings to become part of our national character
As Filipinos, they bring age-old customs, crafts and ways of living to the attention and appreciation of
Filipino life

Hereunder are some of the gamaba awardees and their work of art:
1. Darhata Sawabi – a Tausug weaver of Pis Syabit, the traditional cloth tapestry worn as a head
cover;
2. Eduardo Mutuc – an artist from Apalit, Pampanga who has dedicated his life to creating
religious and secular art in silver, bronze and wood;
3. Haja Amina Appi – recognized as master mat weaver among the Sama indigenous community
for her unique designs, straightness of her edging (tabig), and fineness of her sasa and kima-
kima
4. Alonzo Saclag - a Kalinga master of dance and the performing arts who mastered not only the
Kalinga musical instruments but also her dance patterns and movements associated with her
peoples’ ritual
5. Federico Caballero – a Salud Bukidnon epic chanter from Kalinog, Iloilo who ceaselessly works
for the documentation of the oral literature, particularly the epics of his people;
6. Uwang Ahadas – a Yakan musician who is a master of the kwintangan, kayu, and tuntungan
instruments;
7. Lang Dulay – a T’boli traditional weaver of T’nalak or T’boli cloth made of colorful abaca fabrics;
8. Salinta Monon – a Tagbanua Bagobo traditional weaver of distinct abaca fabrics called inabal;
9. Ginaw Bilog – is a Hanunuo Mangyan poet who is considered as a master of ambahan poetry
10. Masino Intaray – a prolific and pre-eminent epic chanter and story-teller recognized for his
outstanding mastery of various traditional musical instruments of the Palawan people such as
basal, kulilal, andbagil
Performance arts
Performance art – is an interdisciplinary art form that brings together elements of time, space, bodies
and audiences
Can be live or via media; the performer can be present or absent
Can be any situation that involves four basic elements: time, space, the performer’s body or presence in
a medium and a relationship between performer and audience
Refers to the forms of art where an artist uses his own face, body and presence
The major types of performing arts include:
Music
Opera
Dance
Drama and spoken words

Performance arts
1. Music – is a form of art whose medium is silence and sound
The word “music” was derived from the Greek word “mousike” which means the art of the
muses
The common elements of music include rhythm, pitch, dynamics, timbre and texture
Can be assorted into different genres or subgenres, although the division of these genres are
usually vague and subtle
2. Opera – is a form of performing arts wherein musicians and singers perform a dramatic work
that combines texts, which is called libretto and musical score
The art incorporates a lot of elements of spoken theatre, including scenery, acting and costumes
Sometimes it also include dance
The performance in an Opera is usually done in an opera house

3. Dance – is a form of performing arts that refers to the art of moving the body rhythmically and
usually in accordance to music
Used as a form of social interaction and expression, or it is commonly presented in a
performance or spiritual setting
Also seen as a form of nonverbal communication, a type of communication where words are not
used
It can also be social, participatory and performed for an audience
It can as well be erotic, ceremonial or competitive in purpose

4. Drama – refers to a mode of fiction presented in a performance

The word “drama” originated from the Greek word “drao” which means action
Usually enacted by actors on a stage for an audience

Spoken words is often used as an entertainment or musical term, referring to works that are
intended to be performed by a single person who will speak by himself naturally
Is said to b more akin to speaking or narration
Are consisted of poetry, storytelling or speechless

Transcreation – is a term used chiefly by advertising and marketing professionals to refer to the process
of adopting a message from one language to another, while maintaining its intent, style, tone and
context
Is used in global marketing and advertising campaigns as advertisers seek to transcend the boundaries of
cultures and language

The Elements of Art and Principles of Design

The Element of Art

The elements of art are the basic components of art-making. It is impossible to create a work of
art without using at least one of the seven elements of art. In order to be successful in art creation, an
artist must be able to intelligently use the elements of art. Artwork can also be analyzed according to
the use of the elements on a work of art.

The elements of art are the building blocks of all art. Every piece of art ever created includes
one or more of these elements. Learn about line, color, shape, form, value, space and texture.

1. Line – A line is an element of art. It is a mark made upon a surface. In order to be a line, the
mark’s length must be longer than its width. There are many different types of lines, including
horizontal, vertical, wavy, diagonal and more. Line may be two o three-dimensional, descriptive,
or abstract.
Horizontal lines are lines of repose and serenity. They express ideas of calmness and
quiescence. Horizontal lines are found in reclining persons, in landscapes, calm bodies of water,
and in the distant meeting of the earth and sky in what is commonly called the horizon.
Vertical lines are lines that denote action. They suggest poise, balance, force, aspiration,
exaltation, and dynamism. Vertical lines also tend to express as well as arouse emotions of
exaltation and inquietude; this is evident in monumental architecture.
Diagonal lines suggest action, life and movement. They give animation to any composition in
which they appear.
Curved lines suggest grace, subtleness, direction, instability movement, flexibility, joyousness,
and grace. They are never harsh or stern since they are formed by gradual change in direction.
They tend to impart these qualities to any work where they are used.
Crooked or jagged lines express energy, violence, conflict, and struggle.
2. Shapes – These are areas of enclosed space that are two-dimensional. Shapes are flat, and can
only have height and width. The two different categories of shapes are geometric and organic.
Geometric shapes are mathematical, like circles and squares. Organic shapes come from nature,
like clouds and leaves.

3. Space – It deals with the illusion of depth on a flat surface. You might overlap shapes to make
some look closer, or make objects in the distance smaller to look like they are farther away. The
elements of space can be used in three-dimensional art as well.

4. Value – This refers to the lightness and darkness of areas in an art work. White is the lightest
value, while black is the darkest. The value halfway between these extremes is called middle
gray.

5. Color – Color is the most prominent element of design and is one of the most powerful and yet
subjective elements in art.
Color is an element of art made up of three properties: hue, value and intensity.
 a. Hue: is the name of color or the dimension of color that gives color its name. Color names
such as red, blue, green, violet and yellow indicate hue. Blue, red and yellow are primary
hues. If these primary hues are mixed in equal parts, the secondary hues are produced. The
secondary hues are orange, green, and violet. Orange is produced by mixing red and yellow;
green by mixing yellow and blue, and violet by mixing blue and red.
Colors may either be warm or cool. Red, orange and yellow are the warm hues. The cool
colors are those where blue predominates like green, blue-green, blue and blue-violet.
b. Value: hue’s lightness and darkness (a color’s value changes when white or black is added).
Value sometimes called chiaroscuro, refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. It is a
quality which depends on the amount of light and dark in color. They give the expression of
depth and solidity and lend form to paintings.
Tints are value above the normal and shades are values below the normal. Pink is a tint of
red, maroon is a shade of red. Sky blue is a tint, navy blue is a shade.
c. Intensity: quality of brightness and purity (high intensity=color is strong and bright; low
intensity=color is faint and dull). It refers to its brightness or darkness.

Through the mixing of colors infinite other hues are born but there are four true color from
which more and more other kinds of colors may be thus created. Red is the color of fire, blue of
the air, green of the water, and grey of the earth….. white and black are not true colors but are
alterations of other colors.

There are two kinds of color harmonies:

a. Related color harmonies. Related color harmonies may either be monochromatic or
adjacent. Monochromatic is made up of several tones of one hue, like for instance orange,
tan, brown, and others tones from the orange family. In adjacent or neighboring harmony,
two or three hues on the color circle are used together. For examples tones of green, yellow
and orange can produce delightful harmony.
b. Contrasted color harmonies. Colors which lie directly opposite to each other in the color
circle are called complementary colors. Red and green, orange and blue, and violet and
yellow are complementary colors. They contrast which each other strongly; therefore, they
are more difficult to use harmoniously than related color combinations.

6. Texture – An element of art that refers to the way things feel, or look as if they might feel if
touched. The term texture describes the surface quality of an artwork. Texture is an important
element of design because it engages the sense of touch as well as vision. Objects can be rough,
or smooth, wet or dry, sticky or slick, hard or soft, brittle or flexible. The two main approaches to
texture are actual texture and implied or simulated texture. Actual texture is primarily –
though not exclusively – sculptural, while implied texture is primarily used in two-dimensional
works of art.

7. Form – An element of art that is three-dimensional and encloses volume; includes height, width
and depth (as in a cube, a sphere, a pyramid, or a cylinder). Form may also be free flowing.

8. Perspective – Perspective deals with the effect of distance upon the appearance of objects, by
means of which the eye judges spatial relationships. It enables us to perceive distance and to
see the position of objects in space.
There are two kinds of perspective:
 a. Linear Perspective is the representation of an appearance of distance by means of
converging lines. Linear perspective involves the direction of the lines and the size of
objects.
b. Aerial perspective is a form of representing more distant objects in art forms as fainter and
more blue. Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric perspective, method of creating the
illusion of depth, or recession, in a painting or drawing by modulating colour to simulate
changes effected by the atmosphere on the colours of things seen at a distance.

Elements of Auditory Arts and Combined Arts

● Poetic devices such as
✔ Rhythm
✔ Image
✔ metaphor
● Properties of musical sound such as
✔ pitch
✔ duration
✔ volume
✔ timbre

Graffiti are writings or drawings which have been scribbled, scratched or painted on walls or other
surface materials often within public view. Graffiti ranged from simple written words of drawings to
elaborate wall paintings. Graffiti do not express stylistic and artistic expression. More often they express
socio-political messages.

Poetry-performance is specifically composed for or during a performance before an audience.

Performance art is a performance which is presented to the audience. It can be presented in many
ways. Performance may:
✔ either be scripted or unscripted
✔ either random or carefully orchestrated
✔ be spontaneous or carefully planned
✔ be with or without audience
✔ be live or via media
Likewise, performance can be present or absent. Performance can be any situation where the four
elements are involved: time, space, the performer’s body or presented in a medium and the
relationship between performer and audience.

Digital art. This art introduces the digital artists to the world of possibilities for putting their artistic and
creative skills to work online in any number of fields. Artistic expression covers rules governing images,
where to find them and how to manipulate images and word art, logos, and banner.

Modified Art Expression. Modified art expression is a fascinating collection of artworks that
demonstrates each artist’s personal interrelation of the texts, transforming literary works into visual
ones and creating powerful new forms of expression.

Transcreation (creative translation). This is the process of adapting a message from one language to
another while maintaining its intent, style, tone and context. A message that was successfully
transcreated evokes the same emotions and carries the same implications in the target languages as it
does in the source language. In other words, transcreation is taking the essence of a message and re-
creating it is another language or dialect.

Purpose of Transcreation. The purpose of transcreation is to transfer the intent, style, vocal tone, and
emotional salience of the message from the source language to that of the targeted audience. Thus, to
produce effective transcreation, local language copywriters need to have extensive knowledge of their
market, excellent language skills and the ability to creativity adapt message for the target market.

Transcreation and Translation. In translation, a word for word translation is inadequate. The best
translation takes into account the vocabulary, grammar, syntax, idiom and local ways of the target
audience while remaining faithful to the text as well as to the context of the original document. On the
other hand, transcreation expands the translation by focusing not so much as the literal text but n
discerning the emotional response by viewers in the target market. In short, transcreation is taking a
concept in one language and completely recreating it in another language.
Transcreation of text to music. In a novel or poetry, one can generate music with emotional feeling.

Transcreation of text to dance. It’s using a dialogue or text to influence and enhance dance
performance.

Transcreation of dance to visual art. Sculptures and paintings on pots represented dancers. Relief
sculptures in tombs included scenes of dancers.

Principles of Design

The principles of art and design are the foundation in creating an art. They represent how the
artist, the elements of art to create a better effect as well as to help the artist to convey his intent.

The use of principles will tell us whether an art (for example, painting) is successful and beautiful
and whether or not the painting is finished.

The artist has the right to choose which principles he wants to use in his art work.

The proper arrangement of the different art elements on order to produce something beautiful
is called design. The design of things makes objects differ from one perception to another. Good design
is the result of careful and correct application of the principles of design. The most important factor for
artist to remember is to execute these principles in order to achieve beauty and better perception.

Elements of arts are parts of a whole while perceptions of art design are rules of guides to help
one put these elements together.

Design differs from art in that it has to have a purpose. Visually, this functionality is interpreted
by making sure an image has a center of attention, a point of focus. These principles of design are the
rules a designer must follow to create an effective composition that clearly delivers a message to its
audience. Hereunder are the different principles of design:
1. Balance is the distribution of the visual weight of objects, colors, texture, and space. If the
design was a scale, these elements should be balanced to make a design feel stable. Balance is a
condition or quality which gives a feeling of rest, repose, equilibrium or stability.
Visual weight is the quality which gains and holds attention. In other words, it is the power of
attraction of each of the elements of art. Objects should be balanced horizontally, vertically or
diagonally, that is the attraction should be distributed on either side of the vertical, horizontal,
or diagonal axis of any arrangement.
In symmetrical balance, the elements used on one side of the design are similar to those on the
other side. Formal or symmetrical balance is the balance of equal visual weights place at equal
distance from the axis. Formal balance may be subdivided into two: bisymmetrical absolute or
perfect balance and symmetrical apparent or obvious balance. Bisymmetrical balance is the
balance of identical objects (identical in form, value, size, texture is the balance of identical
objects (identical in form, value, size, texture and color) placed on each side of the central axis
and equally distant from the center. Symmetrical or obvious balance is the balance of objects
with nearly identical description.
In asymmetrical balance, the sides are different but still look balanced. In radical balance, the
elements area arranged around a central point and may be similar. Informal or Asymmetrical
balance is the balance of unequal visual weights, the heavier one being nearer the axis and the
lighter one farther. It is sometimes referred to as occult balance and free balance. Slant or
diagonal balance is a form of informal balance in which the objects are balanced on a diagonal
axis.

2. Emphasis is a part of the design that catches the viewer’s attention. Usually the artist will make
one area stand out by contrasting it with other areas. The area should be different in size, color,
texture, shape, etc.
Emphasis is the principle of art which tends to carry the eyes from the center of interest or
dominant part of any composition to the less important or subordinate part.
Methods of Emphasizing Objects:
a. By arrangement or grouping of objects. If objects are grouped together, the one to be
emphasized should be located at the center and should be the biggest and brightest in color.
b. By decoration. Objects which have decorations are given more emphasis than those without
them.
c. By color contrast. Contrasting colors such as the complementary combination and the triads
are more emphatic than analogous or any other related harmonies. Hues of great intensities
are more noticeable than those having lower intensities. The use of contrasting values
makes one value more dominant than the other.

3. Pattern is the repeating of an object or symbol all over the work of art.
Pattern is the uniform repetition of any of the elements of art or any combination thereof.
Anything can be turned into a pattern through repetition. Some classic patterns are spirals,
grids, weaves.

4. Repetition works with pattern to make the work of art seem active. The repetition of elements
of design creates unity within the work of art.

5. Proportion is the feeling of unity created when all parts (sizes, amounts, or number) relate well
with each other. When drawing the human figure, proportion can refer to the size of the head
compared to the rest of the body.
 Proportion is the art principle which shows pleasing relationship between a whole and its parts
and between the parts themselves. It can be achieved through proper arrangement of space
divisions. Proportions are generally expressed in terms of ratios.
There are three aspects of proportion:
a. Proportion in the grouping of objects
b. Proportion in space divisions
c. Proportion in scales
An arrangement or grouping of objects may show god or bad proportion. In arranging objects, it
is more pleasing to group three objects with another three, or two objects with three than to
group two objects with two or two with four. It is because odd numbers are more interesting
than even numbers. Very small objects should not be grouped with very large ones. Otherwise,
they will be out of proportion. Harmony of size is the same as good proportion.

6. Rhythm is created when one or more elements of design are used repeatedly to create a feeling
of organized movement. Rhythm creates a mood like music or dancing. To keep rhythm exciting
and active, variety is essential.
A unit or motif is a dominant feature or part repeated in a design or decoration.
Rhythm is classified into formal and informal. Formal is the repetition of a motif in regular
arrangement. Informal is the repetition of a motif with variation in its form and arrangement
.
7. Variety is the use of several elements of design to hold the viewer’s attention and to guide the
viewer’s eye through and around the work of art.

8. Unity is the feeling of harmony between all parts of the work of art, which creates a sense of
completeness.

9. Harmony is the principle which produces an impression of unity through the selection and
arrangement of consistent objects or ideas. It is the quality which unifies every part of an
arrangement. If there is harmony, there is order. Every orderly arrangement is harmonious.
Following are the five aspects of harmony. They are:
a. Harmony of lines and shapes. Lines are made harmonious by either repeating the shape of
the lines or by connecting transitional lines to contrasting lines. A transitional line or merely
transition is usually a curved, graceful line which connects two opposing or contrasting lines.
The latter are straight lines which intersect each other and form angles. Lines made in this
manner are called contrasting or opposing lines. Contradiction, strictly speaking, is a form
of transition, but because it is not harmonious, it may be classified under the lines in
contrast. Contradiction is straight line connecting two opposing lines diagonally.
b. Harmony of size. Harmony of size refers to good proportion.
c. Harmony of color. Creating harmony of color means using two or more colors in decorating
an article or object. It does not mean the mixing of colors.
d. Harmony of texture. The character of texture can be determined by feeling the object with
the fingertips or by looking at it. Coarse texture should not be combined with fine textures.
e. Harmony of idea. Combining antique and modern furniture in the same room does not
show harmony of idea. A store window displaying dresses, hardware and school supplies
would be a very poor display.

10. Movement. Movement is the result of using the elements of art that they move the viewer’s
eye around and within the image. A sense of movement can be created by diagonal or curvy
 lines, either real or implied, by edges, by the illusion of space, by repetition, by energetic mark-
making.

11. Novelty of Newness. Novelty provides the best opportunity for developing one’s creative ability.

12. Utility, Adaptability or Function. A work of art must not only possess beauty but also the utility.
The objet must be adaptable to the purpose for which for which it is made.

13. Contrast. This art principle is synonymous to opposition or contradiction. It has some
relationships with balance and emphasis. Two contrasting lines or colors may balance each
other. The center of interest in a composition is in contrast with the subordinating parts in the
same composition.

The Rule of Thirds

The rule of thirds is also called the “rule of thumb”. This is a guideline which appears to the
process of composing visual images like designs, films, paintings, and photographs. The proponents of
this technique claim that aligning a subject with these points creates more tension, energy, and intent in
the composition than simply centering the subject.
Reading Image and Rule of the Third

Reading Image of the Visual Work

In understanding the art, one must be able to read the visual work (for example – painting,
print, sculpture, architecture, film, advertising images) as a that conveys a complex of concepts, feelings,
attitudes, moods, atmosphere and value that derives from world views and ideologies, public or
personal. One must also read the work to be able to evaluate it in terms of conveying signification
according to Alice Guillermo

She further said that with respect to the form of the work, there are several issues that have to
considered. Each visual art form, be in painting, poster, comics, illustrations and the like has its own
technical standard of excellence and this depend upon the choice and use of a medium with its
particular properties and suitable techniques.

Therefore, in reading an image of a visual work, it is important for us to familiarize ourselves

with the various art medium and techniques as well as processes involved in art-making because these
enter into the meaning of the work.

Alice G. Guillermo enumerated the basic contemporary information required in reading a work
of art.
1. Title of the work. Although the title may be significant or insignificant to the meaning of the
work, one should know the relation of the title to the work.
The title may or may not contribute to the work meaning or identifies the subject, or
bears an ironic relationship to the work, or a witty comment about the work or its
subject.

2. Name of Artists. Another documentary information concerning the image is the name of the
artists, particularly their biography. The following information must be supplied in addition to
their names –
● Generation the artist belongs
● Dominant artistic trends during their active years
● Name of their peers
● Personal background and training
● Record, diaries, and published statements which may shed light on their art.

3. Medium and technique. The following documentaries are needed in identifying medium and
techniques.
● Determine whether the medium is academic or non-academic, artistic choice as in
mixed media or multimedia
● Keen awareness of the work of art in terms of artistic process involving particular
mediums and techniques
● Identify the particular kind of materials used
● Note to be added regarding the ground of a painting (such as cloth, canvass, wood)

4. Dimensions of measurements. The format of the work is a part of its dimensions. The
dimensions may be measured by metric system. The measurements may be big, large-scale,
 mural size, average, small or miniature. The usual format of a painting is rectangular. However,
symbolism may come into play such as the square or circular format.

5. Date of work. The date of the work which was completed provides the historical context of the
work. It also provides the historical context of the work. It also provides information as to what
period of the artist development the work belongs, and finally, the date of the work situates in
art history, that is it tells whether the art work belongs to a particular trend, school, or
movement.

6. Provenance. This is indicated by the name of the owner of the artwork, of the collector of the
work, or whether it belongs to an art museum, art gallery, or a private collection.

Levels of Content in Art

1. Semiotic Plane. According to the acclaimed art critic Alice Guillermo, the basic semiotic plane
covers “the elements and the general technical and physical aspects of the work with their
semantic (meaning-conveying potential)”. The term “semiotic” has nothing to do with the signs.

2. Iconic Plane or Image of the Self. According to Guillermo, while the semiotic plane deals with
the material elements of the image, the iconic plane is concerned with its particular aspects and
features. In this plane, the subjects and objects of the painting and their interrelationship with
each other are scrutinized in detail. How the subject are chosen and the figure relates to the
viewer is analyzed in the iconic plane.

3. Contextual Plane. For Guillermo, resituating the work in its context will bring out the meaning of
the work in terms of its human and social implications”. This is where the contextual plane
comes into the picture. This plane brings to fore to socio-political implications of the work. It
drags out the relationship between the art and society. Further, it makes art in touched with
reality.

4. Thematic Plane. Every art has historical or cultural influence. Art is viewed in relation to its time,
the ideologies and concerns of that period. The theme is derived from the significant
circumstances of the artist and therefore a good analysis within this plane demands that the
viewer knows the artist’s background.

The Rule of the Third

The rule of third is a “rule of thumb” or guideline which applies to the process of composing
visual images such as designs, films, paintings and photographs.
The guidelines proposes that an image be imagined as divided into nine equal parts by two
equally spaced vertical lines, and that important compositional elements should be placed along these
lines or their intersections. Proponents of the technique claim that aligning a subject with these points
creates more tension, energy and interest in the composition than simply centering the subject.
The rule of third is applied by aligning a subject with the guide lines and their intersection
points, placing the horizon on the top or bottom line, or allowing linear features in the image to flow
from section to section. The main reason for observing the rule of third is to discourage placement of
the subject at the center, or prevent a horizon from appearing to divide the picture in half.
CHAPTER 3: HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF ART
Lesson 1: Art History and Development

Art History

Art history, also art historiography called, is the historical study of the visual arts, being
concerned with identifying, classifying, describing, evaluating, interpreting and understanding the art
products and historic development of the fields of painting, sculpture, architecture and decorative arts,
drawing, printmaking, photography, interior design, etc.

Cave paintings are also known as “parietal art”. They are painted drawings on cave walls or
ceilings, mainly of prehistoric origin, dated to some 40,000 years ago (around 38,000 BCE) in Eurasia.
The exact purpose of the Paleolithic cave paintings is not known.

The earliest known cave paintings/drawings of animals are at least 35,000 years old and were
found in caves in the district of Maros, located in Bantimurung district, South Sulawesi, Indonesia,
according to datings announced in 2014. Previously it was believed that the earliest figurative paintings
were in Europe (Ghosh, 2003). The earliest figurative paintings in Europe date back to the Aurignacian
period, approximately 30,000 to 32,000 years ago, and are found in the Chauvet Cave in France, and in
the Coliboaia Cave in Romania.

The oldest known cave painting is a red hand stencil in Maltravieso cave, Caceres, Spain and
was said to be made by a Neanderthal. The oldest date given to an animal cave painting is now a pig that
has a mnimum age of 35,400 years old at Timpuseng cave in Sulawesi, an Indonesian island.

Several cave paintings were also seen in Asia, Europe, North and South America. The Padah-Lin
Caves of Buma cotain 11,000 years old paintings and many rock tools. In the Philippines at Tabon Caves
the oldest artwork may be a relief of a shark above the cave entrance. It was partially disfigured by a
later jar burial scene.

Ancient Civilization Art

Ancient civilization first started in Mesopotamia. As the region stained its development, other
city states existed. Famous of which is the Sumerian city – state. Religious building and temples were
established and their cultural arts flourished. The beginnings of monumental architecture in
Mesopotamia are usually considered to have been contemporary with the founding of the Sumerian
cities and the invention of writing, about 3100 BCE.

The Egyptian Art

For more than 2,000 years, Egypt was one of the richest and most civilized lands in the ancient
world. Much of what we know about this great civilization has been learned from its art and
architecture. In particular, the ruins of and temples have provided a valuable record of Egyptian life.

Egyptian history is usually divided into different dynasties. The first ruler was King Menes also
called King Narmer, who united Egypt under one government and founded the capital city of Memphis.
In the Narmer palette the human form is portrayed in a way that became standard in Egyptian art. The
head and legs are shown from the side, while the eye and shoulders are shown the front.

The first great period of Egyptian civilization, called the Old Kingdom, began during the rule of
King Joser. The advances of the period were due mainly to Imhotep, the king’s first minister. He was a
skilled architect, statesman, and scholar. He was probably the architect of the famous Step pyramid at
Saqqara. The Step Pyramid was first stone building in history and the first of the many pyramids to
appear during the next during the next 1,000 years.

The Great Pyramid of Giza also known as the Pyramid of Khufu or the Pyramid of Cheops is the
oldest and largest of the three pyramids in the Giza pyramid complex bordering what is now El Giza,
Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain largely
intact. The pyramids were meant to house the pharaoh’s bodies and serve as reminders of their
almighty power.

The most beautiful of these is the temple of Deir el-Bahari. It was built about 1470 by the
famous Queen Hatshepsut. A series of terraces was surrounded by colonnades and connected by ramps.
This temple was built entirely of fine limestone. In contrast, the nearby temple of Ramses II was built
(about 1250) entirely of sandstone – a coarse material that is easy to work with.

The gods, too, needed proper care. Their temples were built as great palaces, with stables,
orchards and farmlands, and staff of attendants. Daily rituals and seasonal festivals were pictured on the
temple walls. Rulers prided themselves on what they had done to improve the shrines of the gods.
There are fifteen major ancient Egyptian gods and goddesses.

The Ancient Greek Art

In around 450 B.C., the Athenian general Pericles tried to consolidate his power by using public
money, the dues paid to Athens by its allies in the Delian League coalition, to support the city-state’s
artists and thinkers. Most of all, Pericles paid artisans to build temples and other public buildings in the
city of Athens. He reasoned that this way he could win the support of the Athenian people by doling out
plenty of construction jobs; at the same time, by building public monuments so grand that people would
come from far and wide to see them, he could increase Athen’s prestige as well as his own.

In 331 B.C., Egypt was conquered by Alexander the Great, the King f Macedonia. He founded a
new capital city, Alexandria, on the Mediterranean coast. After Alexander’s death in 323, Egypt fell to
one of his generals, Ptolemy, was founded the Ptolemaic Dynasty. The Ptolemaic rulers governed Egypt
for 300 years, carrying on the traditions of the pharaohs. Huge temples were constructed at state
expense. Indeed, most of the surviving temples of Egypt belong to the Ptolemaic period. Famous ones
remains at Edfu, Kom Ombo and Dendera. They were built on the site of earlier on the site of earlier
temples, the remains of which were used in the new buildings.

The Architecture of Classical Greece

The most noteworthy result of Pericles’ public-works campaign was the magnificent Parthenon,
a temple in honor of the city’s patron goddess Athena. The Parthenon was built atop the Acopolis, a
natural pedestal made of rock that was the site of the earliest settlements in Athens, and Pericles invited
other people to build there as well. In 437 B.C., for example, the architect Mnesikles started to build a
grand gateway known as the Propylaia at its western end, and at the end of the country, artisans added
a smaller temple of Athena – this one in honor of her role as the goddess of victory, Athena Nile – along
with one for Athena and Erechtheus, an Athenian king. Still, the Parthenon remained the site’s main
attraction.

The temples of classical Greece all shared the same general form: rows of columns supporting s
horizontal entablature (a kind of decorative molding) and triangular roof. At each end of the roof, above
the entablature, was a triangular space known as the pediment, into which sculpture show the birth of
Athena on one end and a battle between Athena and Poseidon on the other.

So that people standing on the ground could see them, these pediment sculptures were usually
painted bright colors and were arrayed on a solid blue or red background. This paint has faded with age;
as a result, the pieces of classical temples that survive today appear to be made of white marble alone.

Sculpture

Not many classical statues or sculptures survive today. (Stone statues broke easily, and metal
ones were often melted for re-use). However, we know that sculptors such as Phidias and Polykleitos in
the 5th century and Praxiteles, Skopas and Lysippos in the 4 th century had figured out how to apply the
rules of anatomy and perspective to the human form just as their counterparts applied them to
buildings. Earlier statues of people had looked awkward and fake, but by classical period the looked
natural, almost at ease. They even had realistic-looking facial expressions.

Pottery

Classical Greek pottery was perhaps the most utilitarianof the era’s art forms. People offered
small terra cotta figurines as gifts to gods and goddesses, buried them with the dead and gave them to
their children as toys. They also used clay pots, jars and vases for almost everything. These were painted
with religious or mythological scenes that, like the era’s statues, grew more sophisticated and realistic
over time.

The Roman Arts and Architecture

The Romans wanted their art and architecture to be useful. They planned their cities and built
bridges, aqueducts, public baths,, and marketplaces, apartment houses, and harbors. When a Roman
official ordered sculpture for a public square, he wanted it to tell future generations of the greatness of
Rome. Although the practical uses of art were distinctly Roman, the art forms themselves were
influenced by the ancient Greeks and Etruscans.

The Romans put the lessons of the Etruscans to practical use. The baths and arenas are tributes
to the skill of Rome’s great builders. Because of the use of the ach, the Romans could build on a greater
scale than the Greeks, who used the post and lintel (a beam supported by two columns). The arch can
support much more weight than the post and lintel. Roman aqueducts were often three levels of arches
piled one on top of another. And their buildings, such as the Baths of Caracalla, enclosed huge open
areas.

The Tomb of Caecilia Metella is an ancient Roman structure that was constructed at the end of
the Roman republican period. It is basically cylindrical in shape and is faced with travertine that has an
entablature frieze surrounded with skulls of bulls and garlands.

In portraying their gods, the Greeks had been influenced by their ideas of form and beauty.
Roman sculptors were greatly influenced by the Greeks. But the Romans showed their skill and
originality in their portraits. They portrayed their emperors, generals, and senators with a degree of
realism unknown to the Greeks. Thinning hair, double chins, crooked noses – all the physical traits that
make one person look different from another – can be found in Roman sculpture.

Painting was usually done as a form of decoration. In Pompeii, for example, paintings were
executed on the inside walls of the houses in fresco (painting on wet plaster). Often these murals were
used to make the room seem larger, by giving the illusion of depth, or to create a pastoral landscape
where there was no window or view.

Columns and other forms of architecture were often painted into the compositions or used to
frame the murals and add to the feeling of depth. A system of perspective was known and used by the
Romans. Red, black and cream-white were among the most popular colors.

Chinese Art and Painting

China has one of the oldest continuous artistic traditions in the world. The beginnings of Chinese
art can be traced to 5000 B.C., when Stone Age people made decorated objects of bone, stone and
pottery.

Earliest Chinese painting was ornamental, not representational. That is, it consisted of patters or
designs, not pictures. Stone Age pottery was painted with spirals, zigzags, dots and lines. Very rarely was
pottery was painted with human figures or animals. It was only during the Warring States period (403-
221 B.C.) that artist began to represent the world around them.

Artists from the Han (202 B.C. – A.D. 220) to the Tang (618-906) dynasties mainly painted the
human figure. Much of what we know of early Chinese figure painting comes from burial sites, where
paintings were preserved on silk banners, lacquered objects, and tomb walls. Many early tomb paintings
were meant to protect the dead or help their souls get to paradise. Others illustrated the teachings of
the Chinese philosopher Confucius or showed scenes of daily life.

During the Six Dynasties period (220-589), people began to appreciate painting for its own
beauty. They also began to write about art. From this time we begin to know about individual artists,
such as Gu Kaizhi. Even when these artists illustrated Confucian moral themes (such as the proper
behavior of a wife to her husband or of children to their parents), they tried to make their figures
graceful.
 Many critics consider landscape to be the highest form of Chinese painting. The time from the
Five Dynasties period to the Northern Song period (907-1127) is known as the Great Age of Chinese
Landscape. In the north, artists such as Jing Hau, Fan Kuan, and Guo Xi painted pictures of towering
mountains. They used strong black lines, ink wash, and sharp, dotted brushstrokes to suggest rough
stone. In the south, Dong Yuan, Ju Ran and other artist painted the rolling hills and rivers of their native
countryside in peaceful scenes done with softer, rubbed brushwork. These two kinds of scenes and
techniques became the classical styles of Chinese landscape painting.

Some painters of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) continued the traditions of the Yuan scholar-
painters. This group of painters was known as the Wu School. It was led by the artist Shen Zhou. Another
group of painters was known as the Zhe School. It revived and transformed the styles of the Song court.

In the late 1800’s and 1900’s, Chinese painters were increasingly exposed to the art of Western
cultures. Some artists who studied in Europe rejected Chinese painting. Other artists tried to combine
the best of both traditions. Perhaps the most beloved modern painter was Qi Baishi. He began life as a
poor peasant and become a great master. His most famous works depict flowers and small animals.

The Chinese were masters of bronze, jade, and ceramics. Decorative objects made of these
materials are among China’s greatest contributions to world art. Bronze metalwork is the greatest art
form of ancient China. The Great Bronze Age of China lasted from the Shang (1523-1000’s B.C.) to the
Han dynasty. During the Shang dynasty, bronzes were used for ritual purposes. Bronze shapes and
designs became more and more elaborate, especially those produced at the northern city of Anyang, the
last Shang capital.

Jade is hard, beautiful stone that was highly valued by the Chinese. Jade ornaments and
sculptures are found at many early burial sites. Because jade is brittle and difficult to work with, the
earliest jades are very simply carved. During the Eastern Zhou period (770-221 B.C.) improved tools
allowed artists to produce exquisite jades with complicated shapes and curved, complex patterns. Jade
working continues to be one of the main handicraft traditions of modern China.

Over many centuries, Chinese potters learned to control the temperatures of their kilns (special
ovens for firing pottery), to refine clays and to perfect glazes. (A glaze is a glassy coat that helps make
ceramics waterproof and enhance their appearance). These techniques enabled them to produce
ceramics that were admired worldwide.

The classical age of Chinese ceramics is the Song Dynasty, when beautiful wares were produced
for the royal court. Among the most valued ceramics are a group glazed in different shades of green.
These are known in the West as celadons. The blue and white wares of the Ming dynasty are also widely
admired.

Some of the earliest known examples of Chinese sculpture are objects made to be buried with
the dead. The most impressive collection of sculptures was found near the tomb of Shi Huangdi, the first
emperor of China (reigned 221-210B.C.). Pits near the tomb held some 7,000 life size terra cotta pottery
sculptures of foot soldiers, charioteers, officers and horses. The sculptures were intended to protect the
emperor after death.
 Many critics believe the Tang dynasty was the golden age of Buddhist sculpture. Later sculptors
continued to follow the traditions of both Buddhist and non religious sculpture. During the 1900’s,
Western realistic styles were used in sculptures honouring important persons and events.

Japanese Art

In traditional Japan, no distinction was made between the fine arts of painting and sculpture and
the decorative arts – ceramics, lacquer, textiles and the like. All were thought to be equally valid forms
of artistic expression. Even an everyday object, it finely designed and crafted, was considered a work of
art.

Sculpture

Most sculptures made before the mid-1800’s were objects of worship displayed in temples and
shrines. Statues of the gods of Buddhism and of the native Shinto religion were most common.
(Buddhism is a religion of Indian origin introduced to Japan from China and Korea). But likenesses of
famous monks and powerful rulers appeared after the 1200’s.

The earliest sculptures were made of clay. Small clay figurines resembling humans and animals
have been found in Neolithic sites (dating from 10,000-3,000 B.C.) throughout the country. From the
300’s to the 500’s A.D. large clay figures were placed around the great mounded tombs of powerful
rulers. These figures were of men, women, animals and even boats and houses.

The introduction of Buddhism to Japan in the 500’s influenced sculpture techniques, styles and
subjects. The 500’s to the 700’s are known as the classical era of Buddhist sculpture. During this time,
temple sculptures of the Buddha and other gods were often made of gilt (gold-covered) bronze because
of its value and awe-inspiring appearance. One of the most impressive gilt bronze statues from this
period is a 52-foot (16-meter) seated Buddha in the Todaiji, a temple in the city of Nara. It was made in a
likelike style typical of the arts of the 700’s.

Most statues of the 800’s were carved of wood, a material that could be readily obtained
throughout Japan. At first, statues were carved from solid blocks of wood. But they were heavy and
tended to crack over time. Gradually, sculptors developed a better method. Many small pieces of wood
were joined together like a jigsaw puzzle. They were then covered with thin layers of lacquer, gold leaf
and paint. The sculptor Jocho is thought to have perfected this technique in the 1000’s. His masterpiece
is a graceful figure of the Buddha Amida. It is the main object of worship in the Byodoin, a temple near
Kyoto. The joined wood block technique developed by Jocho continued to be used by sculptors until the
1800’s.

Painting

Beginning in the 900’s, paintings with nonreligious themes were increasingly collected by
wealthy aristocrats. Especially popular were handscrolls. These were long narrative scrolls that
contained both text and paintings. Sections of text, written in calligraphy (beautiful writing), were
alternated with pictures illustrating the story. Handscrolls were about 12 inches (30 cm) high and up to
50 feet (15 meters) long. They were held horizontally in the hands and unrolled to reveal the story little
by little. The subject matter of hndscrolls ranged from moving romantic tales to historical battles stories.

Screen painting is often thought of as one of the most characteristic forms of Japanese art.
Painted screens were a feature of Japanese residential architecture as early as the 700’s. Traditional
Japanese houses do not have fixed walls. Instead they have sliding doors that may be opened or closed
depending on whether a large or small piece is needed. Folding screens, made up of several panels each,
serve as additional, portable room dividers. Both sliding doors and folding screens are used as painting
surfaces.

Woodblock Prints

Woodblocks were first used in Japan to reproduce religious texts and images. By the 1600’s they
were widely used to print inexpensive pictures and illustrated books that were eagerly collected by
members of all social classes. Costly scroll and screen paintings were owned by the rich. But anyone can
afford to buy woodblock prints. The variety of subjects found in prints reflects the wide-ranging interests
and experiences of this new audience.

Prints showing famous actors in their favourite roles and beautiful women dressed in luxurious
kimonos (robes) were much in demand. Some printmakers, such as those of the Tori and Kaigetsudo
schools, specialized in these two categories. The artist Hokusai and Hiroshige are acknowledge as the
greatest masters of the landscape print. Their works, generally, feature views of scenic national
landmarks such as Mt. Fuji.

Ceramics

Japan has the one of the most oldest ceramic traditions in the world. Earthenware vessels called
Jomon or “cold-marked”, after their distinctive surface decoration, are believed to have made as early as
10,000 B.C. Until 1600’s A.D., all Japanese ceramics were either earthenware or stoneware. Earthenware
is a reddish, non-waterproof ware that is fired at low temperatures. Stoneware is a harder ware that is
fired at a high temperature and often glazed (given a glossy finish for beauty and resistance to water).

The rise during the 1500’s of a tea-drinking ritual known as the tea ceremony stimulated the
growth of ceramic production. A wide range of shapes, sizes, and glazes developed in response to the
requirements of the tea ceremony. The centerpiece of the tea ceremony is a beautiful tea bowl, from
which guests takes turns sipping a special green tea. Other ceramic wares are used for preparing the tea
and serving the accompanying meal.

The Ukiyo-e

Ukiyo-e is a genre of Japanese art which flourished from the 17 th through 19th centuries. Its
artists produced woodblock prints of such subjects as female beauties; kabuki actors and sumo
wrestlers; scenes from history and folk tales; travel scenes and landscapes; flora and fauna; and erotica.
The term ukiyo-e translates as “picture(s) of the floating world”.
 By combining “uki” for sadness and “yo” for life, the word “ukiyo-e” originally reflected the
Buddhist concept of life as a transitory illusion, involving a cycle of birth, suffering, death, and rebirth.
But ironically, during the early Edo period, another ideograph which meant “to float”, similarly
pronounced as “uki”, came into usage, and the term became associated with wafting on life’s worldly
pleasures.

The art of ukiyo-e is most frequently associated with color woodblock prints, popular in Japan
from their development in 1765 until the closing decades of the Meji period (1868-1912).

The earliest prints were simple black and white prints taken from a single block. Sometimes
these prints were colored by hand, but this process was expensive. In the 1740s, additional woodblocks
were used to print the colors pink and green, but it wasn’t until 1765 that the technique of using
multiple color woodblocks was perfected. The glorious glorious full color prints that resulted were
known as nishiki-e or “brocade pictures”.

The team involved in the production of ukiyo-e has famously been called the “ukiyo-e quartet. It
comprised the publisher (who usually had overall control of the process), the designer, the block cutter
and the printer.

Once the design was complete, an exact copy was made and placed facedown on a cherry wood
block. The block cutter then carved directly through the copy to produce what is known as the key-
block.

Popular Themes

Prints could be produced quite cheaply and in large numbers. While on the wealthy could afford
paintings by the artists of the day, ukiyo-e prints were enjoyed by a much wider audience. The subjects
depicted in these prints reflect the interests and aspirations of the people who bought them.

“Pictures of the Floating World”, the literal translation of the ukiyo-e, refers to the licensed
brothel and theatre districts of Japan’s major cities during the Edo period. Inhabited by prostitutes and
Kabuki actors, these were the playgrounds of the newly wealthy merchant class.

Landscapes

Perhaps the most iconic of all ukiyo-e prints, Hokusai’s “Great Wave off the Coast of Kanagawa”
is an arresting example of a landscape print. Centuries of peace during the Edo period, and the
development of a sophisticated highway network, fostered a culture of mass travel in Japan.

Prints of famous and beautiful places served as cheap and easy souvenirs. Also, new ways of
looking at the world, imported from the West through Dutch and Chinese traders, awoke an interest in
drawing from life.

Ukiyo-e was one of the first forms of Japanese art that found its way across the seas to Europe
and America with the opening of trade between the countries. The influence that this exposure had
upon the West became known as Japonism, defined by an interest in the aesthetics of the style that
would go on to profoundly influence many Western artists and movements such as Impressionism, Art
Nouveau, and Modernism.