CIVL6003 – Advanced Reinforced

Concrete Structure Design

THE UNIVERSITY OF HONG KONG

Ir Dr. Ray Su
Department of Civil Engineering

(office: HW 6-6, Tel. no.: 2859 2648

Strut & Tie Modelling - 01 Email: klsu@hku.hk)
Design of Non-Flexural Members by
Strut & Tie Model
References:
J. Schlaich, K. Schäfer and M. Jennewein (1987) ‘Toward a Consistent Design of
Structural Concrete’, Journal of Prestressed Concrete Institute, 32(3), 74-150.
J. Schlaich and K. Schäfer (1991) ‘Design and Detailing of Structural Concrete Using
Strut-and-tie Models’, The Structural Engineer, 69(6), 113-125.
R. Park and T. Paulay (1975) Reinforced Concrete Structures, Wiley, New York 624.183P23
D.S. Prakash Rao (1995) Design Principles and Detailing of Concrete Structures, 624.1834 P89
McGraw-Hill, New Delhi.
J.G. MacGregor (1997) Reinforced Concrete Mechanics and Design, Prentice Hall
(Third Edition). 624.18341 M147

American Concrete Institute (2002) Examples for the design of structural concrete with
strut-and-tie models, Farmington Hills, Mich. : American Concrete Institute.
624.1834 A51 C02
Free software for Computer Aided Strut and Tie Design CAST
http://engineeringsoftwares.blogspot.hk/2007/02/cast-strut-tie.html

2
Design of Non-Flexural Members by
Strut & Tie Model
References:
R.K.L. Su and A.M. Chandler (2001) ‘Design Criteria for Unified Strut and Tie
Models’, Progress in Structural Engineering and Materials, 3(3), 288-298.
R.K.L. Su, P.C.W. Wong and A.M. Chandler (2003) ‘Design of Non-Flexural
Components Using Strut and Tie Models’, Transactions of The Hong Kong
Institution of Engineers, 10(1), p31-37.
R.K.L. Su, P.C.W Wong and A.M. Chandler (2005), Application of strut-and-tie method
on outrigger braced core wall buildings, Proceedings of the 6th International
Conference on Tall Buildings (ICTB-VI) From Engineering to Sustainability, 6 - 8
December 2005, Hong Kong, p80-85.
R.K.L. Su and D.W.T. Looi (2016), Revisiting the unreinforced strut efficiency factor,
ACI Structural Journal, 113(2), p301-312.
R.K.L. Su, DTW Looi and YL Zhang (2020) Guide for Design, Installation, and
Assessment of Post-installed Reinforcements, HKU Press, Hong Kong.

3
Crack

4
 5mm crack width

4-5m
Long
cantilever

Crack at a beam-column joint

5
An elevated track under construction
crashed down and five workers were
killed.

Delhi Metro accident

in India July 2009
6
Delhi Metro accident
in India July 2009
7
Pillar cap Overloading /
collapsed insufficient
tension lap

A strut &
Tie model

Crack

Delhi Metro accident

in India July 2009
8
Introduction
• Majority of defects and accidents reported in RC structures are
attributed to faulty detailing rather than to errors made in the
structural analysis or standard design.
• The most common problems are failures in the areas of
statically or geometrical discontinuous regions, such as
– at junctions of members (beam/beam, beam/column);
– where members change shape (step in beam, change in column
section);
– where concentrated loads are applied (e.g. transfer beams/ plates);
– where the depth of a member is similar to, or greater than, its
length (pile cap, deep beams, squat walls, corbels, nibs)
– where openings through members.
• The standard bending theory and detailing methods may not
be applied.

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 Example of Problematic RC Details

Transfer plate (or pile cap)

T

2500 to 3000
Lateral force Where does the
T tensile force go?
T

T T Columns / piles

Bending Moment

T
A better RC detail
C T C T
T

T T

We can use truss analogy to visualize the transfer of internal forces. 10

 The angle
is too
small
e.g. < 30o

Leads to strain incompatibility A modified strut

between the tension tie and and tie model
compressive strut

Cracks will form A better RC detail

11
 Experimental tests indicate
Cracks
that the modified RC detail
form
performs much better than
the original detail and has
much less inclined cracks
in joint.

Typical RC detail A modified RC detail

Lack of the diagonal tie

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 Point Load

A nib

A better RC detail
Point Load

Depth of the moment arm

Effective length
of the cantilever
In the strut and tie model, the internal forces in a region are represented as
compressive concrete struts tied together by tension ties (i.e. the reinforcement)
which act together like a truss.
HK concrete code: cl. 6.5.3.1 (b) the maximum design ultimate bending moment is the
distance from the line of action of the load to the nearest vertical leg of the links in the 13
beam member from which the nib projects times the load.
 Example of Truss Analogy

(a) Inclined cracking compressive strut

cracks

(b) Truss-like action

BS8110/ HK Code suggested 50% of tension steel

should be extended into the support for simply supported beam?

(c) Analogous truss

R
R shear
only
bending & bending 14
shear only
 Short Cantilever Deep Pile Cap

P
P=350kN
400 × 600dp
T
no curtailment T Sufficient
2000 of rebar anchorage,
check
Bending bearing
BMD
stress at
M = PL
= 700 kN m
the bend
z = 0. 83d
SD
540 mm
M
F= = 1545 kN
z Tensile stress in bar
Tensile stress in bar
Shear Resisting Resist
bending shear
Fs
P
A shrift of
z tensile force
45o

Fs=350 kN

Truss analogy Truss analogy 15

Historical Development
• Ritter and Morsch (1912) proposed a simple truss model as an
approach to visualize the internal forces in cracked beams.
• Slater and Richart (1927) in the United States developed more
sophisticated truss models with inclined stirrups and the
compressive struts at angles other than 45 degrees.
• Rausch (1929) considered that a reinforced concrete beam with
closed stirrups running around all faces could effectively resist
torsion by means of space-truss action.

Failure mode of
beam under torsion

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Historical Development
• Leonhardt (1965) and Thurlimann (1983) demonstrated that strut
and tie models could be successfully applied to design deep
beams and corbels.
• Schlaich (1987) and his co-workers generalized the strut and tie
models to solve a number of non-flexural components
• It has been included in the Australian Standard AS3600, CEB/FIP-
Model Code 2010, Eurocode 2, Norway Standard NS3473E,
Canadian Standard 2004, New Zealand Standard NZS3101: Part 1
and 2-2006, and American Standard ACI 318-19.

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Lower Bound Theorem
• The theoretical basis of the truss analogy is from the lower
bound theorem of plasticity
• A stress field that satisfies equilibrium and does not violate
yield criterion at any point provides a lower-bound
estimation of the capacity of rigid-plastic materials
• However, concrete only has a limited capacity to sustain
plastic deformation and is not a rigid-plastic material, hence
crushing of concrete (e.g. struts and nodes) should not
occur prior to yielding of reinforcement (i.e. ties or stirrups)
• The compressive stress of struts and nodes need to be
limited
• Bond slip failures need to be avoided
• More than one admissible strut and tie model may be
developed.

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Bernoulli Hypothesis
• Bernoulli hypothesis states that: “Plane sections remain
plane after bending”
• Bernoulli hypothesis facilitates the flexural design of
reinforce concrete structures by allowing a linear strain
distribution for all loading stages, including ultimate flexural
capacity.
• In these regions, stresses and stress trajectories present a
fairly smooth pattern.

Strain distributions according

to Bernoulli hypothesis

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B- & D- Regions for Various Types of
Members
• The terms B-region (B for Bending or Bernoulli) and D-region (D
for Disturbance or Discontinuity) are used to distinguish between
the regions in a concrete structure where the simple methods of
flexural analysis can be applied and where they should not be
applied.
• An advantage of dividing a structure into B- and D- regions is that
the attention of the designer is focused on the potential weak
spots which require special attention in detailing and design.

Examples of B- and D- regions

D
D B B D

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St. Venant’s Principle
• St. Venant’s Principle states that: The localized effects
caused by any load acting on a body will dissipate or
smooth out within regions that are sufficiently away
from the location of the stress concentration
• It is assumed that the local stresses are negligible at
such distance which is approximately equal to the
maximum distance between the equilibrium force
themselves.

F/2
h/2 F
F/2
σ0
σ0

Zone of body affected by self equilibrium forces

applied to surface

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Defining the Boundaries of B & D
Regions
Example column with concentrated loads
The division of the boundaries of D-regions can be accomplished by using
the Saint-Venant’s principle
F F/h F
F

d=h D D region D

= + B
zero = B
stress

D D region D
h
under
uniform
load
Loads and support Self-equilibrium
reactions applied in state of stress
accordance with the
Bernoulli hypothesis
22
Typical D-regions
(A) Geometrical Discontinuities (similarly for stress concentration
effects due to abrupt change in geometry)

h1 h2 h

h1 h2 h h

h2
h
h2 h1
h
h1

23
Typical D-regions
(B) Statically Discontinuities

h h

2h

24
Typical D-regions
(C) Geometrical and Statically Discontinuities

h h

h h

25
Design of B & D Regions
• The design of B (Bernoulli or Beam) region is well
understood and the entire flexural behaviour can
be predicted by simple calculation
• Even for the most common cases of D (Disturbed
or Discontinuity) regions, engineers’ ability to
predict capacity is either poor (empirical) or
requires substantial computation effort (finite
element analysis) to reach an accurate estimation
of capacity

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Basic Concepts of Strut & Tie Model

The stress distribution in a structure is idealized as a

system comprising of

Strut Compression Concrete

Member

Tie or Stirrup Tension Reinforcement

Member

Node Connection Concrete

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Strut and Tie Design Flow Chart

Define Structural System

Determine Loads and Reactions
Estimate Dimensions and Member Sizes

Define B- and D- Regions in Structures

Design B-Regions by Other Methods

Develop Strut & Tie Model for D-Regions

Element Forces and Forces and The Details/

Dimensions Stresses in Stresses in Check
Nodes Struts Anchorage
28
Prerequisites
• Equilibrium must be maintained
• Forces in struts and ties are uni-axial
• External forces apply at nodes
• Prestressing is treated as load
• Tension in concrete is neglected
• Detailing for adequate anchorage

29
Methods for Formulation of Strut and
Tie Models
• Elastic analysis based on stress
trajectories
• Load path approach
• Standard models

30
Elastic analysis based on stress
trajectories
A deep beam subjected Display the stress field of the Various S&T models
a concentrated load. principal stresses. can be derived.

tension Model 1

compression Model 2 31
Load Path Approach
• Isolate D-region and calculate the internal stresses on the
boundaries of the element
• The load paths begin and end at the center of gravity of the
corresponding stress diagram.
• The load paths tend to take the shortest possible
streamlined way in between the centers of the stress
diagrams.
• The strut and tie in general should meet at safe angle that
is about 45o, whenever possible. Angles smaller than 25o
are unrealistic or involve high incompatibility of strains.

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Example 1

A B A B
q q c.g. c.g.
q

Load path
C C strut

T T

A B A B A tie B

Define the geometry, Connect the load paths of Simplify it to a strut

loading and reactions the related loads. and tie model
Introduce forces T and C
for equilibrium
33
Example 2 (Tutorial)

F F F

T T

C C

q q q
F B1 B2 B1 =B2 F B1 B2
Define the geometry Connect the load paths of Simplify it to strut and
and loading the related loads. tie model
Introduce forces T and C
for equilibrium
34
Example 3 - Beam with opening

D
D B B D

• Separate into B and D-regions

D-region with opening 35

• Separate into different D-regions
• Calculate the boundary forces

• Construct the load path

36
To be continued