Human nature and political organisation

(Ideology)

The state

Liberalism

 Liberals argue that the state, with its ability to restrict liberty, can be
justified if is beneficial and organised in such a way as to respect
individual liberty.
 Locke argues that in a state of nature, we are free and equal under the
Law of Nature.
 Violations of the Law of Nature need to be punished, but without a
state, the system of punishment will be unsatisfactory for three reasons:
disagreement, bias and inability to punish.
 The state, then, is a neutral umpire between our disputes that can fairly
administer punishment.
 Mill argues that the state may only justifiably exercise power over
people in order to prevent harm to others. Otherwise, they should be
free from constraint to live as they choose.
 He argues this freedom will lead to individual and social progress, given
the rational and social nature of human beings.
 He therefore defends tolerance and a neutral state.

Conservatism

 Burke argues that in understanding political values, circumstances are

everything. Any value must be combined with others.
 This requires that social change be gradual and ‘natural’, respecting
existing traditions and values, like organic growth or family inheritance.
 Abstract and universal principles are dangerous and failing to respect
particular, local tradition and interpretations.
 The core principle of conservatism is making change ‘safe’. The origin
and development of society occurs independent of human will.
 Conservatives often also reject over-reliance on rationality, individual
self-development outside tradition, and the perfectibility of human
beings.
  We can object that the image of organic change over time is false, nor
will it help solve social conflicts, and that alternative theories can be
practically applied.
Marx

 Marx argues that particular modes of production and cooperation form

the substructure of society, and are marked by the division of labour.
The superstructure of society – law, religion, culture, political
organisation – grows from the substructure.
 The state helps secure the power of the dominant class through its
institutions and ideology.
 Under capitalism, workers suffer from alienation from their labour,
human nature, work and each other.
 Liberal rights and justice cannot overcome alienation, as they
presuppose conflict and undermine communal relations.
 Five core concepts of communism are equality, welfare, work,
community and history.
 We can object that the state is not necessarily oppressive as it is not
determined by the capitalist substructure. It has, in fact, brought about
changes in capitalism that Marx did not foresee.
 We can also object that Marx’s theories of human nature and alienation
are wrong, and that his communist society is not possible for human
beings.

Anarchism

 Anarchists object to the state as a sovereign, compulsory, distinct body

that claims a monopoly on force. It undermines individual liberty and
development.
 The essential function of protecting individuals and co-ordinating work
can be achieved without the state.
 Anarchists argue that we have not yet achieved anarchism, despite our
ability to live without a state, because we have not realised it is in our
self-interest to do so, or because we are not yet sufficiently evolved
morally, or the material conditions have not been right.
 Godwin defends the ‘principle of private judgement’, that no one can
impose a duty on anyone else. The development of our judgement to
see the truth of utilitarianism is part of the greatest good.
 Individualist anarchists argue that all legitimate human relations are
voluntary. As we are driven by egoism, social harmony without the state
will be secured by demonstrating how it is in each person’s self-interest.
 Communist anarchists argue human relations are based on solidarity,
and defend a communist society without a state.