01-Feb-21

Pharm 1101: Pharmacognosy-I

Section B

Dr Shaikh Jamal Uddin

Pharmacy Discipline
Khulna University 1

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Content
1. Introduction to the general structure of the morphological parts of
plants
2. Structure of plants cell and function
3. Crude drugs: A gernal view of their origin, distribution, cultivation,
collection, drying and storage, commerce and quality control,
classification of drugs, preparation of drugs, evaluation of crude drugs,
drug adulteration

References:
 Trease and Evans Textbook of Pharmacognosy
 Textbook of Pharmacognosy by Muhammad Ali
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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Pharmacognosy:
the branch of knowledge concerned with medicinal drugs obtained from plants or other natural sources.

Morphological and microscopical study of plants:

Plant morphology or phytomorphology is the study of the physical form and external structure of plants.
This is usually considered distinct from plant anatomy, which is the study of the internal structure of
plants, especially at the microscopic level.
Here we should remember that only those plants which enlisted as drugs in the Official Pharmacopoeia
for those we need morphological and microscopical study in pharmaconogsy.

Importance (Why do we need this?)

1. Its an official pharmacopoeial requirements (sucha as British Herbal Pharmacopoeia)
2. It could be a basis of identification of drugs (such as -----------)
3. It’s a way of the detection of adulterated and poor quality material
4. Its necessary for governing the quality control of licensed herbal medicinal products
5. It can detect the fungunl growth, infestation and non-uniformity of crude drugs
6. It’s a prerequisite to the use of any plant consignments.

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Morphological and microscopical study of plants:
It is important that student acquire the ability to interpret morphological and anatomical
description of crude drugs as found in pharmacopoeias and allied works and also to record
adequately the features of whole or powdered drugs and adulterants of commercial
significance

Plant ranges from unicellular (yeast/green algae) to higher plants

Higher plant parts:

1. During vegetative phase; Roots and stem
2. Reproductive stage; leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds

Features you need to be noted:

HERBS:
It consists of stems and leaves often associated with flowers and young fruits.
- Aerial stem: dimension, shape, colour, harbaceous or woody, hair present or not etc
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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Features you need to be noted:
HERBS:
It consists of stems and leaves often associated with flowers and young fruits.
- Aerial stem: dimension, shape, colour, harbaceous or woody, hair present or not etc
- Position and arrangement of leaves: arising from the crown of the root (Radical) or from
the stem (Cauline)

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Features you need to be noted:
Barks:
Consists of epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericyclea and phloem
- -Origin; branches or root/ whole or inner bark Woods:
- Size and shape; - size and colour
- Outer surface - Relative density
- Inner surface - Hardness and behaviour when split
- Transverse surface - Transverse surface
- Cross section
- Longitudinal surface

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Features you need to be noted:
Flowers:
- Type of inflorescence
- Type of flower; monocot or dicot
- Calyx
- Corolla; note no. of petals
- Gynaecium
- Androecium
- Ovules

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Fruits, SEEds, Roots (Home tasks?????????)

Unorganized Drugs:
 Unorganised drugs are materials having a structure that is fairly uniform throughout and
are not composed of cells. They are usally derived from parts of plants or animals by
some process of extraction, such as incision e.g., opium, decoction e.g., agar, expression
e.g., olive oil, or natural secretions such as beeswax.
 Mainly solids, but some are liquid such as oils and balsams. In their description, the
morphological terms are not applied and therefore the physical characters of forms are
used as, color, odor, fracture, solubilities in common organic solvents and chemical tests,
all of which are used in their identification.
 Unorganized drugs may be classified under headings based upon their origin and nature,
giving well characterized groups, such as:
-Latex e.g., opium - Gums e.g., gum Acacia
-Dried juice e.g., Aloes - Resins e.g., colophony
-Extracts e.g., catechu - Waxes e.g., beeswax
- Saccharine substances e.g., Honey - Volatile oils e.g., cinnamon oil
- Oil and fats e.g., castor oil and lard 8

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Unorganized Drugs:
 Unorganised drugs are materials having a structure that is fairly uniform throughout and
are not composed of cells.
Physical state:
For solid:
For liquid:
 Size and form; tears, lumps etc • colour and fluoresence
• Viscosity
 Packing
• Density
 External appearance • Solubility
 Hardness and fracture
 Vegetable debris
 Effect of heat
 Microscopical appearance 9

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
 Cell is the fundamental unit of a living organism. It consists of cell wall, protoplasmic and
nonprotoplasmic components.

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
 A group of cells with identical form and function is known as tissues
Mainly divided into three groups: 1. Dermal tissues
2. Fundamental or group tissues
3. Vascular tissues
Dermal tissues:
This is outer protective coverings or layers. Such as
i. Epidermis: Outermost protective single layer of
young Plant body. Its mainly composed of cutin
(mixture of polymerized fatty acids).
ii. Stomata: This layer consists of pair of similar cells
placed parallel to each other. Its responsible for
gaseous exchange 11

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
Stomata: Epidermal cells surrounding the stomata are called subsidiary. On the basis of
subsidiary arrangement the stomata divided into:
Anomocytic
Cruciferous
Dermal tissues Rubiaceous
Diacytic
Actinocytic

Epidermis Stomata Trichome Endodermis

Anomocytic
Cruciferous
Rubiaceous
Diacytic
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Actinocytic

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
Fundamental or Ground Tissue , Vascular Tissues:
These tissues include hypodermis, cortex, pith,
mesophyll and midrib region

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
Secretory Tissues of plant: This tissues helps in secretion of plant gums, resins, volatile oils,
latex and other substances of plant. Some of this substance are utilized by plant (enzyme or
hormaone), some are not (regins, gums), and some are remain in the cells.

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
Ergastic Cell Content:
Ergastic meaning ‘constituting the nonliving by-products’
Ergastic substances are non-protoplasm materials found in cells. The living protoplasm of a
cell is sometimes called the bioplasm and distinct from the ergastic substances of the cell.
The cell inclusions belong to three categories:-

 Reserve food
 Excretory or secretory products
 Mineral matter

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
Ergastic Cell Content:
 Reserve food: They are of four main types-
• Starch
• Glycogen
• Fat droplets
• Aleurone grains
 Starch grains occur in plant cells. The grains are found in chloroplasts and
amyloplasts. As such they are insoluble.

 Fat droplets: Fat droplets or globules occur abundantly inside the seeds either in
endosperm(e.g., Castor, Coconut) or cotyledons (e.g., Groundnut, Mustard)
 Aleurone grains: They represent the storage proteins which are generally
insoluble and occur inside special leucoplasts called aleuroplasts. 17

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Plant Anatomy:
Mineral Matters (Crystals):
Crystals of different composition, which are byproducts of the metabolic processes
of the cells, occur in different parts of the plant.
For example, calcium oxalate crystals are most common in plants. Their shape
varies considerably and may be elongated, needle-like, rectangular, rhomboidal,
sphaeroidal or prismatic.

Others are: Calcium carbonate and Silicon salts are often deposited in the cell walls
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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

 This method is used for identification of drugs on cellular level and

requires good knowledge and skills
 It is used to determine structure of organised drugs by their histological
characters. It includes examination of whole, certain parts or powdered
crude drugs.
HISTOLOGICAL CHARACTERS:
1: Size , shape and relative position of cells and tissues.
2: Chemical nature of cell wall.
3: Fragments of plant cells or tissues

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Importance:;;
It is necessary in:
1: Initial identification of herbs
2: Identification of small fragments of crude or powdered drug.
3: Detection of adulterants (insects, moulds, fungi)
Types
1: Transverse microscopy
2: Powdered microscopy

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
Transverse microscopy
It is used to determine:
1: Size of starch grain
2: Length and width of fibers
3: Size of stomata
4: Diameter of phloem fibers

METHODS OF TRANSVERSE SECTIONING

Free hand mounting: It is used for temporary slides. In this method material is cutted with
help of blade and sliced smoothly from upper left towards lower right in a single motion.
Keep the specimen and blade lubricated with water.

Glide mounting: It is used for solid material sectioning. It is composed of specimen feed,
knife , holder, and specimen orientation. It’s main quality is that it gives excellent sectioning
results. 21

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
METHODS OF TRANSVERSE SECTIONING
Cryology mounting: This method is used to make slides of fresh and young herb tissues. Cut
the sample into small pieces and embed them with cryomatrix on a crycasste. Freeze them,
slice them, mount on glass slide and seal.
Prarafin mounting: In this method specimen is embedded in paraffin and then slicing the
block. The steps include: Sampling, Fixation, Dehydration, Vitrification, Slicing , Removing
the paraffin, staining with safranin and fast green.

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS
PROCEDURE for SECTION CUTTING AND STAINING:
1: Cut fine and complete transverse section of given drug with help of sharp blade.
2: Keep them soak in water.
3: take a watch glass. Pour about 1ml of 10% alcohol in it and cover it with another watch
glass.
4: Take a finest section of sample. Transfer it into watch glass containing 10% alcohol and
leave it for 2 min.
5: After 2 min. transfer the section into another watch glass containing 20% alcohol and
leave it for 2 min.
6: Repeat the same procedure for 30% , 40% and 50% alcohol.
7: After 50% alcohol take another watch glass. Pour 1-2ml 50% alcohol. Add 1-2 drops of
safranin solution and transfer the section into it and leave it for 2min.
8: Transfer the section into 60% alcohol and leave it for 2min.
9: Repeat the same procedure for 70 and 80% alcohol.
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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
MICROSCOPIC EVALUATION OF CRUDE DRUGS

PROCEDURE for SECTION CUTTING AND STAINING:

10: Take 80% alcohol in a watch glass. Add a drop of malachite green and leave it for half
minute into it.
11: Transfer the section in 90% and 100% alcohol and leave it for 2 minute.
12:Transfer the section into another watch glass and pour 1-2 drops of clove oil which act as
emollient.
13: Transfer the section on neat and clean slide. Pour 1-2drops of canada balsam. Cover it
with a cover slip making sure no air bubbles are present.
14: This slide is permanent and can be observed under microscope

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Different stains for microscopically examination:
Distribution of tissues can be identified of a mounted section of crude drugs using
different stains.
 Phloroglucinol – stained lignified walls as pink or red
 Chlo-zinc-iodine solution- stained cellulose walls blue or violet; lignified walls
yellow or brown; starch grains blue
 Clearing agents- which clear/dissolve a number of cell component (which might
be not necessary for examination). Such as HCL solution, solution of chloral
hydrate, solution of potash
 Defatting agents- remove fats, oils. Such as ether-ethanol (1:1)
 Bleaching agents-used for bleach dark-coloured section. Such as solution of
sodium hypochlorite
 Disintegration agents-used for disintegration and isolation of tissues. Such as
potassium chlorate-nitric acid (1:1), chromic acid-nitric acid (1:1) 25

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Factors need to examine under microscope for a powder drug:
Microscopical examinaiton allows a more detailed examination of a drug and it can
be used to identify organized drugs by their known histological characters.
Primary factors: colour, odour, taste, water solubility, compresibility, foaming
capability by shaking
The following factors normally examined for a crude drugs:
1. Palisade Ratio
2. Stomatal Number
3. Stomatal Index
4. Vein-islet Number
5. Vein-termination Number
6. Trichomes or plant hairs
7. Calcium oxalate crystals
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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Factors need to examine under microscope:
 Palisade ratio: It represents the average number of palisade cells beneath one
epidermal cell, using four continuous epidermal cells for the count.
Examples: Atropa belladona – 05-70 ; Adhatoda vasica –5.5-6.5

 Stomatal Number: The average number of stomata present per square millimeter
of the epidermis is known as stomatal number
Examples: a) Atropa belladonna upper epidermis---07-10 lower epidermis---77-115
b) Datura metel upper epidermis---147-160 lower epidermis---200-209

 Stomatal Index: It is the percentage proportion of the number of stomata to the

total number of epidermal cells. Stomatal number varies considerably with the
age of the leaf but stomatal index is relatively constant for a given species.
Stomatal index calculated by S.I = S/E+S; S = stomata number per unit area and E =
number of epidermis cells per unit area. Example: a)Atropa belladonna upper
epidermis--- nil where as in lower epidermis---20.2-23.0 27

Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Factors need to examine under microscope:
 Vein-islet Number: Vein-islet number is defined as the number of vein-islets per
sq.mm. of leaf surface. Example: Vein-islet Range for Andrograohis paniculata 9-
12 whereas for Bacopa monniera 6-13
 Vien-termination Number: It is defined as the number of veinlet terminations
per.sq. mm of the leaf surface between midrib and margin.

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Lycopodium spore method for purity calculation:
Quantitative microscopy Lycopodium spore method is used when especially
chemical and other methods of evaluation of drugs fails to determine quality.
Lycopodium spores are very characterized in shape and appearance and uniform in
size(25μm) on avg 94000 spores present/mg of lycopodium powder .

The percentage purity of an authentic powder can be calculated as follows :

(N X W X 94,000 X 100)/ S x M xP = % of purity of drugs

N= NUMBER OF CHARACTERISTIC STRUCTURES (STRACH GRAINS) IN 26 FIELDS

W=WEIGHT IN mg OF LYCOPODIUM TAKEN
S=NUMBER OF LYCOPODIUM SPORES IN THE SAME 25 FIELDS
M=WEIGHT IN mg OF SAMPLE CALCULATED ON BASIS OF DRIED SAMPLE AT 105 C
P=2,86,000 IN CASSE OF GINGER STARCH GRAIN POWDER
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Pharmacognosy-I
Section B
Source of Drugs:

Cantharanthus roseus Penicillium Fungi Marine Algae and sponge

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Macrofungi Bacteria Semi-synthetic drug

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Pharmacognosy-I
Section
Classification B drugs
of crude

• Crude drug i.e Simple drug

• Crude drugs are plant, animal or their parts
which after collection are subjected only to
drying or making them into transverse/
longitudinal slices pieces or peeling them in
some cases. They exist in natural form.
• Crude drugs may be derived from various
natural sources like plants, animals, minerals
and micro-organisms etc. 31

• Because of their wide distribution the arrangement

of classification in a definite sequence is necessary
to understand easily. Although each system of
classification has its own merits and demerits, but
for the purpose of study the drugs are classified in
the following different ways:
Alphabetical classification
Morphological classification
Taxonomical classification
Pharmacological classification
Chemical classification
Chemo-taxonomical classification
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1. Alphabetical classification
• The crude drugs are arranged according to
the alphabetical order/form of their Latin
and English names. Some of the
Pharmacopoeias and reference books which
classify crude drugs according to this system
are as follows.
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1) Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 1955 (Latin)

2)Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP) 1966 (English)
3)British Pharmacopoeia (BP) (English)
4)British Pharmacopoeia Codex (BPC) (English)
5)United States of Pharmacopoeia (USP)
(English)
6)European Pharmacopoeia (Latin)
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• Advantages:
• It is simple method, in this system location, tracing and
addition of the drug is easy,
• No technical person is required for handling the system.
• Disadvantages:

• Scientific nature of the drug cannot be identified by this

method, whether they are organised or unorganised drug.

• This system does not help in distinguishing the drugs of plant,

animal and mineral source. (Original source is not clear)
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• Examples:

• Acacia, Agar, Benzoin, Beeswax, Cinchona,

Cinnamon, Digitalis, Datura, Ephedra,
Fennel, Ginger, Isapagol, Jalap, Kino, Linseed,
Mustard, Nutmeg, etc.

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2. Morphological classification:
• Here the crude drugs are arranged (Grouped)
according to the part of the plant or animal
represented into organised (Cellular) drugs and
unorganised ( Acellular ) drugs.

• Organised (Cellular):

• Drugs are the direct parts of the plant and are divided
into leaves, barks wood, root, rhizome, seed, fruit,
flower, stem, hair and fibers.
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• Unorganised ( Acellular):

• Drugs are the products of plant, animal and

mineral source and they are divided into
dried latex, dried juice, dried extracts, gums,
resins, fixed oils and fats, waxes, volatile oil,
animal products, minerals (Solids, liquids, semi
solids etc).
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Plant parts Drugs

Leaves Datura, Senna, Vasaka, Digitalis,

Barks Cinnamon, Cinchona, Kurchi,

Organised drugs
Wood Quassia, Sandalwood, Red sanders
(Plant)
(Cellular drugs)
Roots Rauwolfia, Liquorice, Ipecac
Rhizomes Ginger, Podophyllum, Turmeric
Flowers Clove, Saffron, Pyrethrum
Seeds Nux vomica, Linseed, Isapgol
Fruits Fennel, Coriander, Dill
Stems Ephedra
Hair and Fibres Cotton, Hemp, Jute
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Plant, animal, Mineral Drugs

Dried latex Opium, Papain

Dried Juice Aloe, Kino

Dried extracts Agar, Catechu, Pectin

Unorganised drugs Gums Acacia, Tragacanth, Stericulia

(Acellular drugs)
Resins Benzoin, Colophony, Asafoetida

Fixed oils and fats Castor , Chaulmoogra, Cotton seed

Waxes Beeswax, Spermaceti

Volatile oils Coriander, Cinnamon, Clove

Animal products Bees wax, Shark liver oil, Gelatin

Minerals Bentonite, Kaolin, Talc

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• Advantages:
• This system of classification is more convenient for
practical study especially when the chemical nature of
the drug is not clearly understood.
• This type of classification is very useful in identifying the
adulterants used.
• Disadvantages:
• It does not give an idea about biological source,
chemical constituents and uses.
• When different parts of the plant contain different
chemical constituents, it is difficult to classify them.
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3. Chemical classifications of crude drugs

• Here, the crude drugs are divided into

different groups according to the chemical
nature of their most important constituent
present in the drug to which the
pharmacological/therapeutic activity of drug
is attributed.
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Chemical constituents Drugs

Alkaloids Datura, Vasaka, Vinca, Lobelia

Glycosides Cascara, Senna, Digitalis
Tannins Catechu, Myrobalan, Ashoka
Volatile oil Clove, Eucalyptus, Cinnamon
Lipids Castor oil, Beeswax, Arachis oil
Carbohydrates and derived Acacia, Agar, Honey, Linseed
products Tragacanth, Starch
Resins Colophony, Benjoin,
Vitamins & hormones Yeast, Shark liver oil, Insulin
Proteins & enzymes Gelatin, Papain,
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• Advantages :
• Chemical constituents are known,
• Medicinal uses are known
• Disadvantages :
• Drugs of different origin are grouped under similar chemical
titles.
• This type of classification makes no proper placement of
drugs containing two different types of chemicals.
• Eg: Certain drugs are found to contain alkaloids and
glycosides (Cinchona), Fixed oil and volatile oil (Nutmeg) of
equal importance together and hence it is difficult to
categorize them properly
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4. Taxonomical classification of crude drugs

• In this system the drug are arranged
according to taxonomical studies. The drugs
are arranged according to their phylum,
order, family, genus and species. It is purely
a type of botanical classification or
biological classification and restricted
mainly to crude drugs from plant source.
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Phylum Order Family Drugs

Angiosperms Liliflorae Liliaccae Colchicum, Asparagus
(Monocotyledons) Dioscorea, Vanilla
Microspermae Dioscoriaceae

Angiosperms Papaverales Papaveraceae Opium

(Dicotyledons)
Rosales Rosales Almond, Rose oil
Leguminaceae Glycyrihiza, Senna
Rutales Rutaceae Bael,Lemon, Orange

Rhamnales Rhamnaceae Cascara

Malvales Malvaceae Cotton
Umbelliflorae Umbelliferae Coriander,Caraway,
Fennel
Gentianales Loganiaceae Nuxvomica
Gentianceae Chirata
Apocyanaceae Kurchi, Strophanthus

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• Advantages:
• Easy for the classification of crude drugs
• Disadvantages:
• The system is criticized for its failure to recognize the
organised / unorganised nature of crude drugs in their
morphological studies.
• The system fails to face into an account chemical nature of
active constituent and therapeutic significance of crude
drugs.
• The drugs obtained from plants having alternate leaves,
flowers, seeds, capsules (Hyocyamus, Datura, Bellodonna,
Stromonium) are considered with other members of
solanaceae.
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6. Pharmacological classification of crude drugs:

• Here, the crude drugs are grouped according
to pharmacological action (Therapeutic
action) of their chief active constituent (most
important) or therapeutic uses.

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• Bitter - Quassia, Cinchona, Gentian

• Carminatives - Dill, Clove, Fennel, Coriander

• Emetics - Ipecac

• Anti-amoebic - Kurchi, Ipecac

• Bulk Laxatives - Agar, Isapgol

• Purgatives - Senna, Castor oil

• Expectorant - Liquorice, Vasaka, Ipecac

• Antitussive - Opium

• Bronchodilators - Ephedra, Tea

• Cardio- tonics - Digitalis, Squill, Stropanthus

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• Cardiac depressant - Cinchona, Veratrum

• Antihypertensive - Rauwolfia

• Central analgesics - Opium

• CNS stimulants - Coffee
• CNS depressants - Opium
• Antispasmodics - Bellodonna
• Anticancer - Vinca, Podophyllum, Cochicum
• Antirheumatics - Aconite, Guggul, Colchicum
• Anthelmintics - Vidang, Quassia, Malefern
• Astringents - Catechu.
• Antimalarials - Cinchona, Artemisia.
• Local anesthetics - Coca
•
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• Advantages
• The special advantage is that if even chemical constituents
of the crude drugs are not known they can be classified
properly on the basis of therapeutic or pharmacological
uses.
• Disadvantages
• Regardless of morphology, taxonomical status or chemical
nature, the drugs are grouped together, provided they
exhibit similar pharmacological uses.
• Eg: Senna, Castor oil, Jalap, Colocynth are grouped together
as purgatives/laxatives because of their common
pharmacological action.

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6. Chemo- taxonomical classification of crude drugs

• In this system of classification, the equal
importance is given for taxonomical status
and chemical constituents. There are certain
types of chemical constituents which are
characteristics of certain classes of plants.
• Eg: Tropane alkaloids generally occur in most
of the members of Solanaceae
• Eg: Volatile oils occur in the members of
Umbelliferae and Rutaceae.
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Collection of medicinal plants

• Drugs may be collected from wild or cultivated

plants.

• It is known that the active constituents of

medicinal plants are affected by many factors and
may vary during the course of plant growth.

• Proper time of collection is very important to obtain

a drug of a good quality.

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Factors affecting collection

1. Time of the year:
The plant may contain a substance in winter that is not present
in summer, or its amount varies markedly e.g. Rhubarb
contains no anthraquinone in winter, instead it contains
anthranols, which in summer, are oxidized to
anthraquinones.

Colchicum corm is free from bitterness and is devoid of the

alkaloid colchicine in autumn, hence is used in Austria as a
food, instead of potatoes. Bitterness starts to appear in
spring and early summer when it is used as a drug.

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2- Time of the day:

Some drugs, like Digitalis, contain different
amounts of active constituents in different
times of the day. Being highest in the
afternoon.

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3- Stage of maturity and age:

• The value and content of active constituents of many
drugs depends on the stage of maturity and age.
• Conium fruits contain coniin when fruits are mature
and unripe.
• Santonica flowers are rich in santonin, when
unexpanded, when it starts to open, the santonin
content decreases.

4- A geographical source or history of a drug

a- Cannabis indica (growing in India)
b- Tamarinds indica (India)

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5. Thumb Rules for collection of plant parts

The following general rules are based on assuming that the
material is best collected when the organ in question has
reached its optimal state of development:

1. Roots and rhizomes are collected at the end of the vegetation period,
i.e. usually in the autumn. In most cases they must be washed free of
adhering soil and sand.
2. Bark is collected in the spring.
3. Leaves and herbs are collected at the flowering stage.
4. Flowers are usually gathered when fully developed.

5. Fruits and seeds are collected when fully ripe.

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6. Methods of collection
• Medicinal plants must be largely collected by hand. This is
especially true in the case of wild plants.
• With cultivation on a large scale, it may be possible to use
modern agricultural harvesters, but in many cases, e.g.
barks, manual collection is unavoidable. Thus, the cost of
drug production is largely the cost of the labor involved.

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Drying of crude drugs

Reasons for drying:
1. To help in their preservation.
2. To fix their constituents, by preventing reactions
that may occur in presence of water.
3. To prevent the growth of micro-organisms such as
bacteria and fungi.
4. To facilitate their grinding.
5. To reduce their size and weight.
6. Insufficient drying favors spoilage by micro-
organisms and makes it possible for enzymatic
destruction.
59

Methods of drying
Drying is carried out either by natural or artificial
methods.
1- Natural drying: this is accomplished by natural air in
sun or shade.
2- Artificial drying: this is a rapid method done at well-
controlled temperature and is accomplished by:
• direct fire.
• Use of heated stones.
• Use of stoves.

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61

• Lyophilization (Freeze drying):

Frozen material is placed in an evacuated apparatus which has a cold
surface maintained at -60 to -80 °C. Water vapour from the frozen
material passes rapidly to the cold surface.
It is used for drying heat-sensitive substances e.g. antibiotics and proteins.

• Chemical drying using desiccators

• An absolutely dried drug is that completely freed from water, when

exposed to air it absorbs 8-10% of moisture and is called air-dry drug.

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63

Stabilization
• On long storage, enzymatic reactions will slowly
destroy the constituents, because the last traces
of water can never be removed.
• In order to avoid this degradation, the enzymes
should be destroyed before drying, a process
usually called stabilization.
• The most common method being brief exposure
(a few minutes only) of the plant material to
ethanol vapor under pressure (0.5 atm).

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Fermentation
• Enzymatic transformation of the original plant
constituents is sometimes desirable. e.g. Vanilla pods
• The fresh material is placed in thick layers, sometimes
covered and often exposed to raised temperatures (30-40
°C) and humidity, so as to accelerate the enzymatic
processes.
• The fermented product must be dried afterwards to
prevent attack by microorganisms, e.g. moulds.

65

Preservation and protection of crude drugs

Storage represents the last stage of preparing crude drugs. drugs usually
deteriorate along the time of storage, except in few cases e.g. Cascara and
Frangula should not be used except after certain period of storage.
Certain drugs as Nux vomica are hardly affected by storage.

 Generally, changes that take place during storage of crude drugs are
objectionable, e.g. drugs containing volatile oils gradually lose their
aroma.

 Improper methods of storing and inadequate protection during storage

can cause a pronounced deterioration.

There are two principal reasons for deterioration:

 Physiochemical: moisture, heat, air and light.
 Biological: fungi, bacteria, insects and rodents.

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Physicochemical factors
1. Moisture: moisture sometimes affects drugs adversely
through activating the enzymes (as in cardiac glycosides).

2. Heat: rise of temperature up to 45 activates the enzymes

causing decomposition of active constituents. Volatile oil
containing drugs are also affected by higher temperatures,
their content decreases.

3. Air: oxygen of air oxidizes certain constituents of crude

drugs, e.g. linseed and lemon oil, it causes rancidity of fixed
oils and resinification of volatile oils.

4. Light: it affects drugs, especially those having marked

colours.e.g. yellow colour of Rhubarb changes to reddish tint,
white coloured corollas turn brown.

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Biological factors
1. Bacteria: cotton fibres are rendered brittle by bacterial attack
which makes the cotton wool objectionable and dusty.

2. Moulds: the mycelium of delicate hyphae produces an

unpleasant mass of clinging particles in powdered drugs.

3. Insects: they seem to attack all drugs but have preferences to

certain drugs as ginger, belladonna, kola, liquorice,.....

Insects which infest vegetable drugs include beetles, mites and

moths. They render drugs porous and powdery.

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Methods for controlling insects

1. Heat treatment: it is the simplest method and is
done by exposing the drug to a temperature of 60-
65. it is effective especially for insect eggs which
are not affected by insecticides.

2. Fumigation: this is done by volatile insecticidal

agents in closed areas e.g. CCL4, CS2, CN. Most
fumigants do not kill eggs of insects. It is advisable
to repeat fumigation at intervals to obtain better
results.

69

3. Liming: liming of certain drugs as ginger, nutmeg to

protect against insect attack provides only partial
protection.

4. Low temperature storage: this method is preferred

to fumigants and liming. Adult insects, pupae, larvae
and eggs are sometimes killed by very low
temperatures.

5. Exposure to alternate periods of low and high

temperatures: frequently is more effective for killing
insects than a prolonged period of low temperature
exposure.

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Rodents: they cause much spoilage of crude

drugs during storage, especially if wrapped in
paper, cloth or put in cardboard or wooden
containers. The presence of rodent's filth,
excreta, hairs causes rejection of the drug.

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Adulteration of crude drugs

Definition:

• Adulteration is a practice of substituting original crude drug partially or whole with

other similar looking substances but the latter is either free from or inferior in
chemical and therapeutic properties.

OR

• Adulteration in simple words is the debasement of an article.

OR

• Adulteration is broadly defined as admixture or substitution of original or genuine

article/ drug with inferior, defective or otherwise useless or harmful substances.

ADULTRANT :

The adulterant must be some material which in both cheap and available in fairly
large amounts.
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TYPES OF ADULTERATION

• 1. Deliberate ( Intentional ) adulteration

• 2. Accidental ( In-deliberate) adulteration

Deliberate adulteration – Are normally commercial mainly with the intention of

enhancement of profits

REASONS FOR ADULTERATION

1. Scarcity of the drug

2. The high price of the drug in the market, eg: Clove, Cinnamon, Cardamom
3. It is very common with the contraband drugs e.g. Opium

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Condition of adulteration:
The term 'adulteration' or debasement of an article covers a number of
conditions, which may be deliberate or accidental.

1. Interiority is a natural substandard condition (e.g. where a crop is taken whose natural
constituent is below the minimum standard for that particular drug) which can be avoided
by more careful selection of the plant material.
2. Spoilage is a substandard condition produced by microbial or other pest infestation,
which makes a product unfit for consumption, which can be avoided by careful attention to
the drying, and storage conditions.
3. Deterioration is an impairment of the quality or value of an article due to destruction or
abstraction of valuable constituents by bad treatment or aging or to the deliberate
extraction of the constituents and the sale of the residue as the original drugs.
4. Admixture is the addition of one article to another through accident, ignorance or
carelessness e.g. inclusion of soil on an underground organ or the co-collection of two
similar species.
5. Sophistication is the deliberate addition of spurious or inferior material with intent to
defraud; such materials are carefully produced and may appear at first sight to be
genuine e.g. powder ginger may be diluted with starch with addition of little coloring
material to give the correct shade of yellow colour. 74

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Condition of adulteration:
6. Substitution is the addition of an entirely different article in place of that
which is required e.g. supply of cheap cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.

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TYPES OF ADULTERATION OR SUBSTITUTION OF HERBAL

DRUGS

 Different methods used for adulteration may be grouped as follows:

1. Substitution with Inferior Commercial Varieties
Due to morphological resemblance to the authentic drugs, different inferior
commercial varieties are used as adulterant which may or may not have any
chemical or therapeutic potential as that original natural drug
E.g. Arabian Senna (Cassia angustifolia ) and dog Senna (Cassia obovata ) have been
used to adulterate Senna (Cassia senna)
E.g. Japanese ginger ( Zingiber mioga ) to adulterate medicinal ginger (Zingiber
officinale).

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• E.g. Arabian Senna (Cassia angustifolia ) and

dog Senna (Cassia obovata ) have been used to
adulterate Senna (Cassia senna)

• E.g. Japanese ginger ( Zingiber mioga ) to

adulterate medicinal ginger (Zingiber
officinale).
77

2. Adulteration by Artificially Manufactured

Substitutes
To provide the general form and appearance of
various drugs, some materials are artificially
manufactured and are used as substitute of the
original one. E.g. artificial invert sugar for honey;
paraffin wax after yellow coloration substituted
for bees wax.
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3. Substitution by Exhausted Drugs

Here the same plant material is mixed which is
having no active medicinal components as
they have already been extracted out. This
practice is most common in case of volatile oil
containing materials like clove, fennel etc.,

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• where the dried exhausted material resembles

the same like original drug (similarly with
drugs like Cascara sagrada and ginger).
Sometimes when coloring matters have been
extracted or removed during exhaustion, the
residue is re-colored with artificial dyes as is
done with saffron and red rose petals. 80

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4. Substitution by Superficially Similar but

Cheaper Natural Substances
Usually here the adulterated product has no
relation with the genuine article, may or may
not have any therapeutic or chemical
component desired,

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• e.g. leaves of species - Ailanthus are

substituted for belladonna, senna, mint etc.;
Leaves of Phytolacca and Scopolia for
belladona; Leaves of Xanthium for
stramonium and dandelion for henbane;
Indian dill with European dill or caraway etc.
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5. Adulteration by Addition of Worthless

Heavy Materials
A large mass of stone mixed with Liquorice
root, pieces of limestone are found in
asafoetida and lead shot has occurred in
pieces of opium etc.

83

6. Addition of Synthetic Principles

Sometimes to fortify inferior natural
products, synthetic principles are added e.g.
adding citral to oil of lemon; benzyl benzoate
to balsam of Peru etc.

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7. Usage of Vegetative Matter from the Same

Plant
This is done by mixing adventitious matters or
naturally occurring with the drug in excessive
amount or parts of plant other than that
which constitutes the drugs.

85

• For example liver warts and epiphytes

growing in bark portion are mixed with
Cascara or Cinchona; stems of buchu are
sometimes cut into short lengths and added
to the drug.

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Quality control & Standardization of

herbal drugs

87

Herbal technology
All technologies for the manufacture of value
added plant products can be called as herbal
technology
 Herbal drugs and pharmaceuticals,
 Nutraceuticals,
 Functional foods, designer foods or health foods
and health drinks
 Cosmaceuticals
 Biocontrol agents
 Biopesticides

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Herbal drugs in international health care

 Economic aspects:
Global market of herbal drugs, Nutraceuticals ~$60 billion with 6%
annual growth rate. Major share of Chinese and Koreans. Indian
share variously estimated at 0.35-3.0%. Chinese production
increased 200% between 1995-1999.
 Local acceptance:
Developed
USA: 42% use CAM spending over 29 billion US$ and 629 million
visits in 1998.
UK: 28% use, spent 1.6 billion pounds and 127 million visits in 1998.
Australia: 60% use, A$ 620 billion in 1999.
Developing
Malaysia: Per capita consumption of traditional drugs, more than
double of modern pharmaceuticals.
S.Korea: Per capita consumption of traditional drugs 36% more than
modern drugs.
African countries: 9 to 10 patients attending hospital OPD have first
consulted a traditional healer.

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Advantages of herbal drugs

 Modern drugs can produce serious side effects
Latrogenic diseases fourth leading cause of death in
USA and other developed nations (JAMA, April 1998).
Side effects of drugs kill more Americans annually
than the world war II and Vietnam war combined (M.
Rath N. Y. Times 28.2.2003).
Around 2600 persons died in the Twin Tower tragedy
on 11th September 2001 causing global repercussions.
It is, however, not recognized that about the same
number die in USA from side effects of prescription
drugs every 10 days (JAMA, April 1998).

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Herbal drugs are best suited for:

 PRIMARY HEALTH CARE
 INFECTIOUS DISEASES
AIDS and other viral infections
Opportunistic infections
MDR infections (e.g. T.B., Malaria)
 DEGENERATIVE & GERONTOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
Osteoporosis
Chronic arthritis like osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis
Neurological like Alzheimer, Parkinsonism
Anti-aging
 Metabolic disorders
Diabetes
Dyslipidemias
 Other conditions
Microcirculatory disorders
Liver diseases
Immunostimulants
Anti-cancer
Drugs affecting male libido

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Herbal Drugs
 Inclusions in Pharmacopoeia:
Chinese Pharmacopoeia: 1997 edition has 647 traditional drugs.
European Pharmacopoeia: 2000 edition contains monographs on
152 crude drugs.
Indian Pharmacopoeia: 1996 edition number shrinked to 57
including only 12 crude drugs.
 Inclusion in essential drug list:
None in India.
In Shanghai hospitals:
500 herbal drugs in essential drugs list of about 1000.
Expenditure on drugs decreased from 67% of hospital budget in 1992 to
51% in 1996.
Growth rate of drug expenditure decreased from 23.4% to 0.3% for outdoor
and from 28.2% to 2.4% for indoor patients.
Approximate annual saving of 600 million US$ in 7 hospitals. (Hu, 2001)

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The global flora, an unfathomed ocean

GLOBAL FLORA:
About 2 million flora & fauna scientifically named. Estimates up to -10 million
Over 50% plants. -45000 species of angiosperms only
Only 5-15% of plants properly studied for biological activity (Cragg et al, 1997)
One in 125 plant species contains useful pharmaceutical (Callahan, 1996)
MEDICINAL PLANTS:
WHO compiled an inventory of 21,000 plants used for medicinal purposes in 91
countries (Penso, 1983)
Less than 10,000 species have been investigated (Bhatt, 1997)
THE INDIAN SCENE:
Over 17 ,500 species, many endemic
Traditional systems of medicine use 2,000; Ayurvedic medicines alone need 800
species
Folklore use of 8,000 plants reported. Includes most plants used in traditional
systems also
CSIR has screened about 4000 species but few other broad based studies

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Traditional heritage
India is a mega-diversity country rich in all three
levels of biodiversity species, genetic and
ecosystem/ habitat. India is also rich in cultural
diversity with a history of over 6000 years. India’s
medical heritage is most important heritage.

 Organized, codified and systematically arranged

written traditions with conceptual philosophy and
rationales like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani and Amchi use
almost 2000 plant species
 Oral traditions – practiced by village physicians, folk
healers, tribal healers – called as local health tradition
use over 8000 plant species

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Bioprospecting
Chemical Prospecting
Gene Prospecting
Drugs and pharmaceuticals
Genetic engineering
Pesticides
Crop development
Cosmetics
Fermentation
Food additives
Cell culture
Other industrially valuable
Chemical products

Bionic Prospecting
Designs
Sensor technologies
Architecture
Bioengineering
Biomodeling

95

Bioprospecting: Linkages and leads

Biodiversity Biotechnology Bioprospecting

& IK/TK
Information
technology
Drug development
Herbal
Pharmaceuticals
technology
Agrochemistry
Cosmetics
Proteins
Conservation Sustainable Benefit Bioinformatics Enzymes
use sharing
New crop varieties
GMOs
GM foods
IPR Designs etc.
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Standardization of Herbal drugs

Raw Drugs
 Passport data of Raw Plant Drugs (Crude drugs)
 Correct taxonomic identification & authentication
 Study on the medicinal part: root, stem, bark, leaves,
flowers, fruits,nuts, gum, resins etc.
 Collection details: Location, stage & development/ growth
of the plants, time, pre-processing storage etc.
 Organoleptic examination of raw drug:
Evaluation by means of sensory organs: touch, odour taste
 Microscopic & molecular examination
 Chemical composition (TLC, GLC, HPLC, DNA
fingerprinting)
 Biological activity of the whole plant
 Shelf life of raw drugs

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Standardization of Herbal drugs-

Herbal Formulation
 Follow defined Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
 Scientific Verification
Toxicity evaluation
Chemical profiling
Pharmacodynamics – effect of drug in the body
Pharmacokinetics – absorption, distribution, metabolism,
mechanism of action and execution
Dosage
Stability and shelf life
Presentation and Packing
Therapeutic merits – Compared with other drugs

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Good Practices/Techniques in Herbal Products

 Good Survey of literature (Ancient & Modern)

 Develop and Observe Norms of:
Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
Good Collection/Harvesting and Post Harvest Handling
Practices (GCP/ GHP & GPHP)
Good Laboratory Practices (GLP)
Good Clinical Practices (GCP)
Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP)
Good Marketing Techniques (GMT)

99

Standardization & Quality Evaluation of Herbal drugs

QUALITY EVALUATION OF
HERBAL DRUGS

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