NAME – Sahil Yadav

CLASS –

XIIth ROLL

NO -
 SUBJECT –
BIOLOGY
INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT

Universe Public School

Jaipur
Certificate
 INDEX

S.No Topic Pag

. e
 No.
1. Acknowledgemen 1
t
2. Introduction 2–
3
3. Presentation 4-
4. Conclusion
5. Bibliography
ACHKNOWLEG
EMENT
I would like to convey our
sincere gratitude to our
Biology teacher
for letting us to do this project. I
would like to thank my friends
for helping me in this project and
a
special thanks to Mrs. Saroj Sharma
(Biology teacher) for guiding
throughout the project. I
sincerely have worked hard
to complete this project. I
tried to
make this project as Good as
possible. Last but not least I
would like to thank my
classmate and parents for their
valuable suggestion about this
project.
 Submitted to: Mrs. Saroj
Sharma

INTRODUCTIO
N
What are microbes?

What are microbes? A microorganism

or microbe is a microscopic organism
comprises either single cell (unicellular), cell
clusters, or multicellular relatively complex
organisms. The study of microorganisms is
called microbiology, a subject that began with
Anton van Leeuwenhoek's discovery of
microorganisms in 1675, using a microscope
of his own design. Microorganisms are very
diverse; they include bacteria, fungi, algae,
and protozoa; microscopic plants (green
algae); and animals such as rotifers and
planarians. Some microbiologists also
include
viruses, but others consider these as
nonliving. Most microorganisms are
unicellular (single-celled), but this is not
universal, since some multicellular
organisms
are microscopic, while some unicellular
protists and bacteria, like Thiomargarita
namibiensis, are macroscopic and visible to
the naked eye.

Microorganisms live in all parts of the

biosphere where there is liquid water,
including soil, hot springs, on the ocean
floor, high in the atmosphere and deep
inside rocks
within the Earth's crust. Microorganisms are
critical to nutrient recycling in ecosystems as
they act as decomposers. As some
microorganisms can fix nitrogen, they are a
vital part of the nitrogen cycle, and recent
studies indicate that air borne microbes may
play a role in precipitation and people
biotechnology, both in traditional food and
beverage preparation, and in modern
technologies based on genetic engineering.
However, pathogenic microbes are
harmful,
since they invade and grow with in other
organisms, causing diseases that kill humans,
other animals and plants. But they have a
lot of uses too. Let’s discuss about some of
them.

A little description:

A little description Microorganisms are vital

to humans and the environment, as they
participate in the Earth's element cycles
such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle,
as well
as fulfilling other vital roles in virtually all
ecosystems, such as recycling other
organisms' dead remains and waste products
through decomposition. Microbes also have
an important place in most higher-order
multicellular organisms as symbionts. Many
blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on
an improper balance of microbes.

PRESENTATIO
N
Microbes are very important part of ecology
the main or general function of microbes to or
environmental well fare is to work as
decomposers. Microbes like bacteria and
fungi are also used in industrial production of
enzymes and proteins or some antibiotics.
Some fungi like yeast are also used in
making wine and other in dairy products.
The
another useful function of microbe is to
study the action and mechanisms of genetic
disease
as E.coli is many time taken as model to
study genetic diseases.
Uses in food:

Uses in food Microorganisms are used in brewing,

winemaking, baking, pickling and other food-
making processes. They are also used to
control the fermentation process in the
production of cultured dairy products such
as yogurt and
cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and
aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.
Fermentation in food processing typically is the
conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and
carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts,
bacteria, or a combination thereof, under
anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in
simple terms is the chemical conversion of
sugars into
ethanol. The science of fermentation is also
known as zymology, or zymurgy. Fermentation
usually implies that the action of microorganisms
is desirable, and the process is used to produce
alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and
cider. Fermentation is also employed in the
leavening of
bread (CO 2 produced by yeast activity), and
for preservation techniques to produce lactic
acid in
sour foods such as sauerkraut, dry sausages,
kimchi and yogurt, or vinegar (acetic acid) for
use in pickling foods.
Uses in water treatment:

Uses in water treatment Specially-cultured

microbes are used in the biological treatment of
sewage and industrial waste effluent, a process
known as bioaugmentation. Bioaugmentation
is the introduction of a group of natural
microbial strains or a genetically engineered
variant to treat contaminated soil or water.
Usually the steps involve studying the
indigenous varieties present in the location to
determine if biostimulation is possible. If the
indigenous variety do not have the
metabolic capability to perform the
remediation process, exogenous varieties with
such
sophisticated pathways are introduced.
Bioaugmentation is commonly used in
municipal wastewater treatment to restart
activated sludge bioreactors. Most cultures
available contain a
research based consortium of Microbial cultures,
containing all necessary microorganisms ( B.
licheniformis , B. thurengensis , P. polymyxa , B.
sterothemophilus , Penicillium sp., Aspergillus
sp., Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas,
Streptomyces, Saccaromyces, Triphoderma, etc.).
Whereas activated sludge systems are generally
based on microorganisms like bacteria, protozoa,
nematodes, rotifers and fungi capable to
degrade bio degradable organic matter.
Uses in energy:

Uses in energy Microbes are used in

fermentation to produce ethanol, and
in
biogas reactors to produce methane.
Scientists are researching the use of algae to
produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert
various forms of agricultural and urban waste
into usable fuels. Ethanol fermentation , also
referred to as alcoholic fermentation , is a
biological process in which sugars such as
glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted
into cellular energy and thereby produce
ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic
waste products. Because yeasts perform this
conversion in the absence of oxygen, ethanol
fermentation is classified as
anaerobic. Ethanol fermentation
occurs in the
production of alcoholic beverages and
ethanol fuel, and in the rising of bread
dough. Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel
produced from
wood, grasses, or the non-edible parts of
plants. It is a type of biofuel produced from
lignocellulose, a structural material that
comprises much of the mass of plants.
Lignocellulose is composed mainly of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin.
Corn
stover, switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips
and the by products of lawn and tree
maintenance are some of the more popular
cellulosic materials for ethanol production.
Production of ethanol from lignocellulose
has the advantage of abundant and diverse
raw
material compared to sources like corn
and cane sugars, but requires a greater
amount of processing to make the sugar
monomers available to the microorganisms
that are
typically used to produce ethanol
by fermentation.

Algae fuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that

uses algae as its source of natural deposits.
Several companies and government
agencies are funding efforts to reduce
capital and
operating costs and make algae fuel
production commercially viable.
Harvested
algae, like fossil fuel, release CO 2 when
burnt but unlike fossil fuel the CO 2 is
taken out of the atmosphere by the growing
algae. High oil prices, competing demands
and other bio fuel sources, and the world
food crisis, have ignited interest in
algaculture (farming algae) for making
vegetable oil, biodiesel, bioethanol,
biogasoline, biomethanol, biobutanol and
other biofuels, using land that is not suitable
for agriculture.

Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics:

they can be grown with minimal impact on
fresh water resources, can be produced
using ocean and wastewater, and are
relatively harmless to the environment if
spilled. Algae cost more per unit mass (as
of
2010, food grade algae costs ~$5000/tonne),
due to high capital and operating costs, yet
are
claimed to yield between 10 and 100 times
more fuel per unit area than other second-
generation biofuel crops. One biofuels
company has claimed that algae can
produce
more oil in an area the size of a two car
garage than a football field of soybeans,
because almost the entire algal organism
can use sunlight to produce lipids, or oil.
The United States Department of Energy
estimates that if algae fuel replaced all the
petroleum fuel in the United States, it
would require 15,000 square miles (39,000
km 2 ) which is only 0.42% of the U.S.
map, or
area of Maine. This is less than 1 ⁄ 7 the
area of corn harvested in the United States
in 2000.
However, these claims remain unrealized,
commercially. According to the head of the
Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can
reach price parity with oil in 2018 if
granted production tax credits.

Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.:

Use in production of chemicals, enzymes

etc. Many microbes are used for
commercial and
industrial production of chemicals, enzymes
and other bioactive molecules. Examples of
organic acid produced include Acetic acid :
Produced by the bacterium Acetobacteraceti
and other acetic acid bacteria (AAB) Acetic
acid bacteria(AAB) are bacteria that derive
their energy from the oxidation of
ethanol to acetic acid during
fermentation. They are
Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped
bacteria. They are not to be confused with
the genus
Acetobacterium, which are anaerobic
homoacetogenic facultative autotrophs and
can reduce carbon dioxide to produce acetic
acid, for example, Acetobacteriumwoodii .

Butyric acid (butanoic acid): Produced by the

bacterium Clostridium butyricum.
Clostridium butyricum is a strictly
anaerobic endospore-forming Gram-
positive butyric
acid producing bacillus subsisting by means
of fermentation using an intracellularly
accumulated amylopectin-like α-polyglucan
(granulose) as a substrate. It is uncommonly
reported as a human pathogen and widely
used as a probiotic in Asia (particularly
Japan).
C. butyricum is a soil inhabitant in
various parts of the world, has been
cultured from the stool of healthy children
and adults, and is common in soured milk
and cheeses.
Lactic acid : Lactobacillus and others
commonly called as lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) The lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
comprise a clade
of Gram-positive, low-GC, acid-tolerant,
generally non-sporulating, non-respiring rod
or cocci that are associated by their common
metabolic and physiological characteristics.

These bacteria, usually found in decomposing

plants and lactic products, produce lactic acid
as the major metabolic end-product of
carbohydrate fermentation. This traithas,
throughout history, linked LAB with food
fermentations, as acidification inhibits the
growth of spoilage agents. Proteinaceous
bacteriocins are produced by several LAB
strains and provide an additional hurdle for
spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms.
Furthermore, lactic acid and other metabolic
products contribute to the organoleptic and
textural profile of a food item. The
industrial importance of the LAB is
further evinced by
their generally recognized as safe (GRAS)
status, due to their ubiquitous appearance in
food and their contribution to the healthy
microflora of human mucosal surfaces.

Citric acid : Produced by the fungus

Aspergillus niger Aspergillus niger is a
fungus
and one of the most common species of the
genus Aspergillus . It causes a disease called
black mold on certain fruits and vegetables
such as grapes, onions, and peanuts, and is a
common contaminant of food. It is
ubiquitous in soil and is commonly reported
from indoor environments, where its black
colonies can be confused with those of
Stachybotrys (species of which have also been
called "black mould").
Microbes are used for preparation of
bioactive molecules and enzymes.
Streptokinase produced by the bacterium
Streptococcus and modified by
genetic engineering is used as a clot
buster for
removing clots from the blood vessels of
patients who have undergone myocardial
infarctions leading to heartattack.
Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used
as an immunosuppressive agent in organ
transplantation Stains produced by the yeast
Monascus purpureus is commercialised as
blood cholesterol lowering agents which
acts by competitively inhibiting the enzyme
responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.

Uses in science:

Uses in science Microbes are also

essential tools in biotechnology,
biochemistry,
genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts
( Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and fission yeast
(
Schizosaccharomyces pombe ) are important
model organisms in science, since they are
simple eukaryotes that can be grown
rapidly in large numbers and are easily
manipulated.
They are particularly valuable in genetics,
genomics and proteomics. Microbes can
be
harnessed for uses such as creating steroids
and treating skin diseases. Scientists are
also
considering using microbes for living fuel
cells, and as a solution for pollution.

Uses in warfare:

Uses in warfare In the Middle Ages, diseased

corpses were thrown into castles during
sieges using catapults or other siege
engines.
Individuals near the corpses were exposed
to the deadly pathogen and were likely to
spread That pathogen to others. Biological
warfare (also germ warfare ) is the use of
biological toxins or infectious agents such
as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with intent to
kill
or incapacitate humans, animals or plants
as an act of war.

Biological weapons (often termed

"bio- weapons" or "bio-agents") are
living organisms or replicating
entities (viruses) that reproduce or
replicate with in their host victims.
considered a type of biological
warfare. Biological weapons may be
employed in
various ways to gain a strategicor tactical
advantage over an adversary, either by threats
or by actual deployments. Like some of the
chemical weapons, biological weapons may
also be useful as area denial weapons. These
agents may be lethal or non-lethal, and may be
targeted against a single individual, a group of
people, or even an entire population. They
may be developed, acquired, stockpiled
or deployed by nation states or by non-
national
groups. In the latter case, or if a nation-state
uses it clandestinely, it may also be
considered bioterrorism.
Importance in human health:

Importance in human health Microorganisms

can form an endosymbiotic relationship with
other, larger organisms. For example, the
bacteria that live with in the human
digestive system contribute to gut
immunity, synthesise vitamins such as folic
acid and biotin, and ferment complex
indigestible carbohydrates.
The human microbiome (or
human microbiota ) is the
aggregate of
microorganisms that reside on the surface
and in deep layers of skin, in the saliva and
oral
mucosa, in the conjunctiva, and in the
gastrointestinal tracts. They include
bacteria,
fungi, and archaea. Some of these organisms
perform tasks that are useful for the human
host. However, the majority have no known
beneficial or harmful effect. Those that are
expected to be present, and that under
normal circumstances do not cause disease,
but instead participate in maintaining health,
are deemed members of the normal flora .
Though widely known as "microflora", this
is, in technical terms, a misnomer, since the
word root "flora" pertains to plants, and
biota
refers to the total collection of organisms
in a particular ecosystem. Recently, the
more
appropriate term "microbiota" is applied,
though its use has not eclipsed the
entrenched use and recognition of "flora"
with regard to bacteria and other
microorganisms. Both terms are being used
in different literature. Studies in 2009
questioned whether the decline in biota
(including microfauna) as a result of human
intervention might impede human health

Importance in ecology:

Importance in ecology Microbes are

critical to the processes of decomposition
required to cycle nitrogen and other
elements back to the
natural world. Decomposition (or rotting )
is the process by which organic substances
are
broken down into simpler forms of matter.
The process is essential for recycling the
finite
matter that occupies physical space in
the biome. Bodies of living organisms
begin to decompose shortly after death.
Although no two organisms decompose
in the same way, they all undergo the
same sequential stages of
decomposition.
The science which studies decomposition is
generally referred to as taphonomy from the
Greek word taphos , meaning tomb. One can
differentiate abiotic from biotic
decomposition (biodegradation). The former
means "degradation of a substance by
chemical or physical processes, eg
hydrolysis).
The latter one means "the metabolic
Break down of materials into simpler
components by living organisms",
typically by microorganisms.

Hygiene:

Hygiene Hygiene is the avoidance of infection

or food spoiling by eliminating
microorganisms from the surroundings. As
microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are
found virtually everywhere, the levels of
harmful microorganisms can be reduced to
acceptable levels. However, in some cases,
it is required that an object or substance be
completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living
entities and viruses. A good example of this
is
a hypodermic needle. In food preparation
microorganisms are reduced by preservation
methods (such as the addition of
vinegar), clean utensils used in
preparation, short
storage periods, or by cool
temperatures. If complete sterility is
needed, the two most
common methods are irradiation and the use
of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure
cooker.
There are several methods for investigating
the level of hygiene in a sample of food,
drinking water, equipment, etc. Water
samples can be filtrated through an
extremely
fine filter. This filter is then placed in a
nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the
filter then grow to form a visible colony.
Harmful microorganisms can be detected
in food by placing a sample in a nutrient
broth designed to enrich the organisms
in question. Various methods, such as
selective media or PCR, can then be used
for detection. The hygiene of hard
surfaces, such as cooking pots, can be
tested by touching them with a
solid piece of nutrient medium and then
allowing the microorganisms to grow on it.
microorganisms would grow, and therefore
often several different methods are needed.
For example, a food sample might be
analyzed on three different nutrient
mediums designed to indicate the presence
of "total" bacteria (conditions where many,
but not all, bacteria grow), molds
(conditions where the growth of bacteria is
prevented by, e.g., antibiotics) and coliform
bacteria (these indicate a sewage
contamination).