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Properties of Fluids: Unit 1
Properties of Fluids: Unit 1
Learning Outcomes:
Pretest:
Basic Concepts
Mechanics is a physical science that deals with the action of fluids at rest
or in motion and with applications and devices in engineering using fluids.
Referring to Fig 1, the shear modulus of solid and coefficient of viscosity for fluid
can be defined by (S) and (µ)
F F
Shear Stress A Shear Stress A
S = = μ = Shear Strain Rate μ = Δμ
Shear Strain Δx
h h
The shear force (F) is acting on the certain cross-sectional area (A), (h) is the
height of the solid block/height between two adjacent layer of the fluid
element, (∆x) is the elongation of the solid block, and (∆µ) is the velocity
gradient between two adjacent layers of the fluid.
Properties of Fluids
M
ρ = V Where:
P = Absolute pressure of gas
Water: 1000 kg/m3; R = Gas constant
Mercury: 13546 kg/m3; T = Absolute Temperature
Air: 1.23 kg/m3;
Absolute temperature is the temperature of a fluid in reference to
absolute zero, expressed in Rankine for the English System and Kelvin in Metric
System.
Temperature in Kelvin; K = oC + 273
Temperature in Rankine; R = oF + 460
We have:
Weight mass x g
γ = Volume γ = Volume γ =ρxg
Specific Volume (vs) is the volume occupied by a unit mass of the fluid.
It is the reciprocal of density.
Volume 1
vs = Mass vs = Density
V 1
vs = M vs = ρ
Where:
γ = Specific weight of a certain fluid
ρfluid γ w = specific weight of water at
S =
ρstandard fluid standard condition
= 62.4 lbs/ft
Viscosityγ is the property of a fluid
= which
9.81 kN/mdetermines
3 the amount of its
SG =
resistance toγwshearing forces. It is the =resistance
1 kg/liter of a fluid to motion. Viscous
force is that force of resistance offered by a layer
= 1000kg/m 3 of fluid for the motion of
Capillary is important when using tubes smaller that about 3/8 inch
(9.5mm) in diameter.
Where:
4 σcosθ
h=
γd h = capillary rise or depression in
meter
For complete wetting as with water γ = unit weight in N/m3
on Clean glass, angle θ is zero:
d = diameter of the tube in m
4θ
h= γd σ = surface tension in Pa.
2. Compressibility (β) also known as coefficient of compressibility is the
fractional change in the volume of a fluid per unit change in pressure in a
constant temperature process.
Δv / v 1
β = β =
Δp EB
Δp
EB = Δv/ v
Where:
∆V = change in volume
V = original volume
∆p = change in pressure
√ E B gas
Property changes in Ideal
C=
βP
For any ideal gas experiencing any process; the equation of state is
express as:
P1V 1 P2V 2
T1
= T2
P1 V1 = P2 V2 V1
=
P2V 2
T1 T2
Where:
P1 = Initial absolute pressure of gas
P2 = Final absolute pressure of gas
V1 = Initial volume of gas
V2 = Final volume of gas
T1 = Initial absolute temperature of gas
T2 = Final absolute temperature of gas
Sample Problems:
W γ γ oil
γ= V
ρ=
g Sp. gr =
γ water
W 1 55
ρ= Vs = Sp. Gr =
g ρ 9.81
P = γ wh P = γ wh
62.45 62.45
h = 9.81 h = 9.81(13.6)
h = 6.37 m h = 0.47 m of mercury
b. Height in oil
Learning Activity 1: Multiple Choice
Directions: Choose the letter of the correct answer: write your answer on the
space provided for:
__________ 1. Which type of matter do not have a free surface?
a)Solid b) Liquid c) Gas d) Fluid
Learning Outcomes:
F= γ hcg A
The line of action of the force passes through the
center of pressure.
Centroids
RECTANGLE TRIANGLE
d
d
b
bh3
A = bh Icg =
12 bh bh3
A = 2 Icg =
36
CIRCLE
A = πd2
O c.g. d πd 4
Icg = 64
dp = γ y sinƟ dA Eq. 1
P = γ sinƟ ∫ ydA
P = γ sinƟ A y Eq. 2
But h = y sinƟ
P=γhA
Py p = ∫ y dp
From Eq. 1 and 2
(γ sinƟ A y) yp = ∫ γ y sinƟ dA y
y2
yp = ∫ dA Is = Moment of Inertia of the plane with respect to
Ay
the water surface
2
y
Is = ∫ Ay dA
2
Is =∫ y dA
Y Is
p=¿ ¿
Ay
center of gravity
Y Ig
p=¿
Ig + A y 2
¿ y+e = +y
Ay Ay
Ig A y2 Ig
Yp = A + y+e= S +y
y Ay s
Ig Ig
Yp = A + y e =
Ss
y
Sample Problem:
1. A vertical triangular plate whose height is 3.6 meters has its base
horizontal and vertex uppermost in the water surface.
a. Find the depth to which it must be lowered from its vertex so
Figure : that the difference in level between the center of gravity and the
C
center of pressure shall be 20 cm.
b. How
Water far is the center of pressure below
surface y the water surface?
c. What is the base width of the plate if the total hydrostatic force
h acting
CG on the plate is 76.28 kN?
20cm 3.6m
Sample Problem 2:
A square frame 3 meters x 3 meters is submerged in water vertically with
its tops 3 meters from the surface. If oil with specific gravity of 0.80
occupies the top meter; determine the following:
a. The horizontal pressure acting on the plane
b. The pressure at the top of the gate
c. The pressure at the bottom of the gate
Solution:
Oil 1 m
h Water 2 m
P 3 meters
3 meters
P = γ hA
h = 1(0.80) + 2 + 1.5
h = 4.3 meters
P = 9.81(4.3)(3)(3)
P = 379.65 kN
Learning Activity:
h
e 3m
Learning Outcomes:
water surface 4m 1m
P h = γw h A
Ph h
h/3
P
Pv
h/3 is the distance of the hydrostatic pressure from the water surface.
R2 = Ph2 + Pv2
Sample Problem 1
The 6 feet diameter cylinder weighs 5000 lbs. and is 5 feet long.
Determine:
a. The upward force due to the effect of oil on the left side.
b. The horizontal reaction at A
c. The vertical reaction at B
Figure:
E C
Oil A
Oil D
(0.80)
B
B
a) Upward force due to the effect of oil on the other side
Pv = γVol E C
Pv = (0.80)(62.4) π ¿ ¿ D
Pv = 3529 lbs. upward Ph A
Pv B
R
b) Horizontal Reaction at A
Ph = γ hA
Ph = 62.4(0.80)(3)(6)(5)
Ph = 4492.8 lbs. to the left
c) Vertical reaction at B
R +Pv = weight of cylinder
R = 5000 – 3529
R = 1471 lbs. (upward)
Sample Problem 2:
Learning Activity
Water surface
WP
P1 P2
F1 F2
R
Mastery Test
H2O
B
Water surface T
0.80m
Pretest
Discuss/describe the following:
1. Equilibrium 4. Tangential force
2. Circumference 5. Dams
3. Hydrostatic Pressure 6. Pipes
Figure:
Hoop Tension or Circumferential Tension (T/S) is the
circumferential force per unit areas in the pipe wall due to internal pressure. It
can be explained as the largest tensile stress in a supported pipe carrying a fluid
under pressure. Hoop stress is equal to the internal pressure times the internal
diameter of the cylinder divided by twice the wall thickness.
Sample Problem:
Solution:
PD
2. Ss = 3. Tangential force on the steel
Learning Activity
1. A 45- inch diameter steel pipe ¼ inch thick carries oil with specific
gravity equal to 0.82 under a head of 350 feet of oil. Compute:
a. The pressure inside the pipe in psi.
b. The stress in the steel required to carry a pressure of 240 psi, with
an allowable stress of 16,000 psi.
c. The thickness of steel required to carry a pressure of 240 psi with
an allowable stress of 16000 psi.
P DT
7 ft hoops
Lesson 2 : Dams
Learning Outcomes:
Identify the different dam cross sections and the forces acting on it
Determine the hydrostatic pressure and hydrostatic uplift acting on
dams
Solve related problems
h
P= γw h A h= 2
h
A = h (1) P= γ h (1)
h2
P = γw2
R. M. = W 1 X 1 + W 2 X 2 Righting Moment – the force that
Keeps the dam in place
Ph
O.M. = Overturning Moment – the force
3
that tends to overturn the dam
R x = RM – OM
Factor of Safety against factor of safety against sliding
overturning
RM μR
F.S. = OM F.S. = P
μR
F.S. = R = W 1 +W 2
P
Where:
P = total hydrostatic force
D = depth of the dam
h = depth of the water surface
B = base of the dam
W1 = weight of the rectangular section of the dam
W2 = weight of the triangular section of the dam
R = resultant force
X1 = location of centroid of the rectangular section of the dam
reckoned from the toe
X2 = location of the centroid of the triangular section of the dam
reckoned from the toe
x = location of the resultant reckoned from the toe
OM Case 2: Considering
= overturning moment Hydrostatic Uplift
γw = unit weight of water
FS = factor of safety
μ = coefficient of friction between the soil and base of the dam
Due to the presence of water on the upstream face of the dam which is
raised up to a certain height “h” the water tends to seep under the base of the
dam and flows towards the lower level on the downstream side. This seepage is
under pressure and exerts a hydrostatic uplift on the dam which reduces the
stability of the dam against sliding and overturning.
h 2
RY = W1 + W2 – U O.M. = P ( ) + U ( B)
3 3
h
R x = R.M. – O.M U = γw 2 B
e = the eccentricity from the centroid of the dam towards the center of
pressure.
1 3
Ig = 12 D
Ss = Ah ; Ss = D(1) h
R = W1 + W2 + W3
W1 and W2 are the weights of the dam while W3 is the weight water
that passes on top of the dam which helps to stabilize the dam.
R.M. = W1 X1 + W2 X2 + W3 X
D
O.M. = P ( −e ¿
2
Rx = R.M. – O.M.
γw
U = hB R.M. = W1X1 + W2X2 + W3X3
2
D 2
O.M. = P ( −e ¿ + U ( B) R x = R.M. – O.M.
2 3
Ig D3
e = Ig =
Ss 12
Ss = Ah Ss = D(1) h
Case 5: Dams with water on both upstream and downstream side with
uplift pressure
γwh 2
P1 = 2
1
R = W1 + W2 + W3 – U1 – U2
γwh 2 P 2 h2
2
Pressure distribution at the base
R = P(B)(1)
R
P = (average)
B
B
X =
3
R = ( PB+2 0 )(B)(1)
PB
R = (twice the average pressure)
2
3. Resultant outside the
middle-thirds
P (3 x)
R =
2
2R
P = 3x
R MC
Pmin = A - I Eq. 1
R MC
Pmax = A + I Eq. 2
B
A = B (1) C =
2
(1) B3
M = Re I =
12
B
R ℜ B /12 R ℜ( )
Pmin = B - B 3 /12
Pmax = B + 3
2
B /12
R 6 eR R ℜ6
Pmin = B - B2
Pmax = B + B2
R R 6e
Pmin = B ¿) Pmax = B (1 + B)
B
e = 2 −x
Sample Problem 1.
A trapezoidal masonry dam with vertical upstream face is 6 meters high,
0.6 meter at the top and 3.0 meters wide at the bottom. Weight of concrete is
23.5 kN/m3.
a. Find the depth of water on the vertical upstream face.
b. Using the computed depth of water, compute the hydrostatic
uplift force if the uplift varies from full hydrostatic pressure at the
heel and zero at the toe.
c. Compute the factor of safety against sliding if the coefficient of
friction on the base is equal to 0.80
Solution:
a. Depth of water
h
P = γ w hA P = 9.81( 2 )h(1) b) Uplift Force
P = 4.905h2 γ w h = 9.81(5.31)
Solve for total weight of the dam γ w h = 52.10 kN/m2
52.10
U ¿ (3)
2
W1 = (0.60) (6)(1) (23.5) U = 78.14 kN
W1 = 84.6 kN
W2 = 6(3-0.60)(1)(23.5) c) Factor of safety against sliding
μR
W2 = 169.2 kN F.S. (sliding) =
P
R = W 1 + W2
R = 84.6 + 169.2 P = 4.905(5.31)2
R = 253.8 kN P = 138.30 kN
0.80(253.8)
R.M. = W1(2.7) + W2(1.6) F.S. (sliding) =
138.30
R.M. = 84.6(2.7) + 169.2(1.6)
R.M. = 499.15 kN-m F.S. (sliding) = 1.47
O.M. = P (h/3)
O.M. = 4.905h2(h/3)
O.M. = 1.635h3
Rx = R.M.- O.M.
(253.8) (1) = 499.15 – 1.635h3
h = 5.31 meters
Sample Problem 2:
A trapezoidal dam having a top width of 0.80 m and a bottom width of 1.4m
is 2m high. The depth of water on the vertical side of the dam is 2.4 m. Unit
weight of concrete is 23.5 kN/m 3, neglecting hydrostatic uplift, determine the
following:
The weight of the overflowing water above the dam helps keep the dam in
place. Treat the trapezoidal dam as a rectangular and triangular section.
Learning Outcomes:
FB = ɤ W VD
Where :
FB = Buoyant Force
VD = Volume displaced
ɤ W = unit weight of the fluid
Positive buoyancy takes place when an object happens to be lighter than
the fluid it displaces, therefore the object will float. This is because the buoyant
force is greater than the weight of the object.
For a freely floating object with no external forces, the weight of the object
(acting downward) is equal to the buoyant force on the object (acting upward)
W = FB
W= ɤV D
F1 = ɤ W h1 A F1 = ɤ W h1 (2)(2)
F2 = ɤ W h2 F2 = ɤ W h2 (2)(2)
F2 ¿ F1 = (Unbalance Force)
F2 – F 1 = ɤ W h2 (2)(2) - ɤ W h1 (2)(2)
F2 – F1 = Buoyant Force
FB = ɤ W V
From the 2nd figure an object having a weight W floats in a liquid. Assume
the cross-sectional area of the object as “A” and a height of h. the object has a
certain specific gravity.
A d (ɤW) = A h (sp.gr.)( ɤ W)
d = h (sp.gr)
W = A d(ɤW)
FB = W
An object will float at a depth equal to its height multiplied by its specific
gravity. This will hold true only for rectangular or square objects.
In addition to the force of gravity on weight, all objects submerged in a
fluid are acted on by a force FB. the buoyant force acts upward and is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced by the object. The upward buoyant force also
acts through the center of gravity or centroid of the displaced volume which is
known as the center of buoyancy.
Sample Problem:
A piece of metal weighs 350N on air and when it is submerged
completely in water it weighs 240N.
Floating bodies are those which are totally out of the liquid but are in contact
with it.
Learning Outcomes:
Half-submerged bodies are those which are half inside the liquid and half
outside. Discuss the relative equilibrium of bodies at rest and in motion
Familiarize the Law of Hydrostatics which applies to both
Stability floating
of floating
andbodies is defined
submerged as its ability to return to its neutral
bodies
position after the external
Solve relatedforce has been applied and removed. For a floating
problems
body in static equilibrium and in the absence of any other external force, the
buoyant force must balance the weight of the body. The location of the
metacenter is important in determining the stability.
buoyant force always acts for small angles of tilt. For a large angle of tilt, the
metacenter may move along the neutral axis. For stability to exist, the object’s
center of gravity must be below its metacenter.
For objects totally submerged in a fluid, the metacenter is located at its
center of buoyancy.
Where:
B = center of buoyancy
G = center of gravity
M = metacenter
Ɵ = angle of tilt or angular displacement
FB = Buoyant force
a = bottom of the object
aM = aB + MB
aM = distance from the bottom of the object to the metacenter
aB = distance from the bottom of the object to the center of buoyancy
MB = B2 ( 1+ tan2 Ɵ)
12D 2
MG = MB – GB
MG = metacentric height
MB = IS
V
Where:
IS = moment of inertia about the largest axis of the area produced if the
object were cut at the waterline.
If M were below G the couple would be an overturning couple and the original
equilibrium would have been unstable. When M coincides with G, the body will
assume its new position without any further movement and thus will be in
neutral equilibrium. Therefore for a floating body, the stability is determined not
simply by the relative position of B and G, rather by the relative position of M
and G. the distance of metacenter above G along the line BG is known as
metacentric height GM which can be written as GM = BM – BG. Hence the
condition of stable equilibrium for a floating body can be expressed in terms of
metacentric height as follows:
The angular displacement of a boat or ship about its longitudinal axis is known
as” rolling” while that about its transverse axis is known as “pitching”.
A rectangular scow 9 meters wide 15 meters long and 3.6 meters high has a
draft in sea water 0f 2.4 meters. Its center of gravity is 2.7 meters above the
bottom of the scow.
a. Determine the initial metacentric height.
b. If the scow is tilted until one end is just submerged in water, find the
sidewise shifting of the center of buoyancy.
c. Final metacentric height MG
Solution:
Is 911.25
MB = = MB = 2.81 m
V 324
x
Sin Ɵ = x = 2.81 sin 14.93o x = 0.724 m
MB
c. Final metacentric height
B2 tan 2 θ (9)2 tan 2 14.93°
MB = (1 + ) = 12(2.4) (1 + )
12 D 2 2
to be carried in a ship is put into a number of separate compartments so as to
minimize its movement within the ship.
Learning Activity
Discuss
The different thefluid
types of flowflow:
of Ideal and Real Fluids.
Classify flow types (Pathlines, Streamlines and flownets)
Steady and Unsteady
Solve related Flow
problems
Uniform and Non-uniform Flow
Laminar and Turbulent Flow
Compressible and Incompressible Flow
Rotational and Irrotational Flow
One, Two, Three-dimensional Flow
Steady flow is defined as that type of flow in which the fluid characteristics
like velocity, pressure, density, etc., at a point do not change with time.
∂v ∂p ∂ρ
∂ t = 0, ∂t = 0 ∂t = 0 (x0, y0, z0)
∂v ∂p ∂ρ
≠ ≠ 0, ≠ 0
∂ t 0, ∂t ∂t (x0, y0, z0)
Uniform flow is defined as that type of flow in which the velocity at any given
time does not change with respect to space (i.e. length of direction of flow).
Where:
∂ υ = change of velocity
𝜕s = length of flow in the direction s
Non-uniform flow is that type of flow in which the velocity at any given time
changes with respect to space.
Turbulent flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles move in a
zigzag way. Due to the movement of fluid particles in a zigzag way, the
eddy formation takes place which are responsible for high energy loss.
For a pipe flow, the type of flow is determined by a non-dimensional
number VD called the Reynold number.
Where:
D = diameter of pipe
V = mean velocity of flow in pipe
v = Kinematic viscosity of fluid
If the Reynold is less than 2000, the flow is called laminar. If the Reynold
number is more than 4000, the flow is turbulent. If the Reynold number
lies between 2000 and 4000, the flow may be laminar or turbulent.
Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the fluid
changes from point to point or in other words the density (ρ) is not
constant for the fluid, thus for compressible flow
ρ ≠ Constant
Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density is constant
for the fluid flow. Liquids are generally impressible while gases are
compressible. Thus for incompressible flow;
ρ ¿ Constant
5. Rotational and Irrotational Flow
Rotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles while
flowing along streamlines, also rotate about their own axis. and if the
fluid particles while flowing along stream lines do not rotate about their
own axis, then that type of flow is called irrotational flow.
u = f(x), v = 0 and w = 0
Then: Q = (A)(V)
Q = AV
ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
This equation is applicable to the compressible as well as incompressible
fluids and is called continuity equation. If the fluid is incompressible, then ρ 1 =
ρ2. The continuity equation reduces to:
A1 V 1 = A2 V2
Sample Problem 1:
The diameters of a pipe at sections 1 and 2 are 10 centimeters and 12
centimeters respectively. If the velocity of water flowing through the pipe at
section 1 is 5 m/sec, determine:
a. The discharge through the pipe
b. Velocity at section 2
5 m/s 12 cm
10cm
Solution:
a. Discharge through the pipe
Q = A1 V1
πd 2 π (0.10)2
A1 = = A1 = 0.00785 m2
4 4
π (0.12)2
A2 = A2 = 0.0113 m2
4
Q = 0.00785 (5)
Q = 0.008878 m3
b. Velocity at section 2
A1 V1 = A2 V2 (0.00785) (5) = (0.0113) V2
V2 = 3.47 m/s
Sample Problem 2
Pipe 1, a 25-cm diameter pipe conveying water with a velocity of 2.5 m/s,
branches into two pipes 2 and 3 of diameters 20 cm and 15 cm respectively. If
the average velocity in the 20cm diameter pipe is 1.8 m/sec. determine:
a. The discharge in pipe 1
b. Discharge in pipe 2
c. The velocity in pipe 3
Solution:
a. Discharge in pipe 1
Q1 = A 1 V 1
A1 = π (0.25)2
4
A1 = 0.0491 m2
Q1 = (0.0491)(2.5)
Q1 = 0.12275 m3/s
b. Discharge in pipe 2
Q2 = A2 V2
A2 = π (0.20)2
4
Q2 = 0.03142 m3/s
c. Velocity in pipe 3
Q3 = A3 V3
Q1 = Q 2 + Q 3
0.12275 = 0.03142 + Q3
Q3 = 0.09133 m3/s
Substitute values:
0.09133 = π (0.15)2 V3
4
V3 = 5.17 m/s
U
Unit
Learning4Activity:
Momentum Equations of Fluid Flow
`
Pretest:
Learning Outcomes:
Learning outcomes:
Learning Activity:
Mastery Test
Unit 5
Bernoulli/Navier-Stokes Equation
Pretest
Learning Outcomes:
Learning activity
Lesson 2: Trajectories
Learning outcomes:
Learning Outcomes:
Learning activity:
Mastery Test
References:
ANSWERS
Unit 1:
Learning Activity 1
1) c 2) b 3) b 4) d 5) c 6) a 7) a 8) b 9) c 10) d
Learning Activity 2
1) a. 1,333.3 kg/m3 b. 13.08 kN/m c. 4.905 kN
2) a. 254.84 kg/m3 b. 1.27 kg c. 0.0039 m3/kg
3) a. 55 MPa b. 0.02
4) 5.9 mm
5) A. 3.81 kg/m3 b. 0.152 kg c. 1.49 N
Mastery Test
1) a. 6,117.21 kg/m3 b. 0.0001635m3/kg c. 6.117
2) a. 20 cu.m. b. 1 MPa c. 50 MPa
3) a. 7.3575 N/m b. 42.37 N/m
Learning Activity
UNIT 3
BUOYANCY
1. a. 206.96 N b. 1.32 c. 12.94 kN/m3
2. a. 12.5% b. 0.824 c. 0.118 kN