Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/energy

Exergy and thermo-economic analysis of ghee production plant in

dairy industry
Gurjeet Singh a, *, P.J. Singh a, V.V. Tyagi b, P. Barnwal c, A.K. Pandey d
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Punjab Engineering Collage, Chandigarh 160012, India
b
School of Energy Management, Shri Mata Vaishnao Devi University, Jammu 180001, India
c
Dairy Engineering Division, ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal 132001, India
d
Research Centre for Nano-Materials and Energy Technology (RCNMET), School of Science and Technology, Sunway University, No. 5, Jalan Universiti,
Bandar Sunway, Petaling Jaya, 47500, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The India’s annual milk and ghee production are approximately estimated as 160 MT and 1.72 MT
Received 7 March 2018 respectively. India has the largest production of Ghee in the dairy Industry worldwide. Ghee con-
Received in revised form sumption in India is 28% annually after fluid milk i.e. 44% due to high consumer demand. The butter
8 July 2018
churner, butter melter, ghee boiler and ghee clarifier are the key subunits of ghee production plant. The
Accepted 23 October 2018
Available online 7 November 2018
dairy industry is characterised by high energy consumption for production of Ghee and Butter in the
country. The thermo-economic analysis and thermodynamic derivatives calculated in this study. The
value of the universal exergy efficiency and specific exergy destruction of the plant was found as 34.21%
Keywords:
Energy
and 438.61 kJ/kg respectively. The cost rate of exergy destruction for the entire plant was calculated as
Exergy 3270.68 R/H; 39% of which was contributed by boiler for ghee production (ghee boiler). The highest value
Exergy efficiency of percentage relative cost difference was associated with butter melter (97.29%) followed by butter
Exergy destruction churner (96.73%). The thermo-economic factor butter churner (8.00%) and ghee boiler (1.09%) revealed
Thermo-economic that impact of capital investment was more influential in former while exergetic degradation appeared to
be more noticeable in latter.
© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Ghee is an Indian name for clarified butter fat (anhydrous milk
fat) which is produced by heat desiccation of butter [1]. In process
of ghee production, the traces of moisture are completely elimi-
nated from multiphase emulsion of milk fat globules and water i.e.
butter, which is materialised by churning of cream in a butter
churner mechanism [2]. The systematic procedure of ghee pro-
duction is as follows: milk cream pasteurisation and its subsequent
storage at less than 10
C temperature, churning the milk cream in
the butter churner for nearly 45 min, for its conversion into solid
butter which is melted in a butter melter using thermal energy
from steam followed by heating the melted butter in a ghee boiler
for sufficient period of time to get the ghee in liquid form. The ghee
thus produced passed through clarifier to remove presence to
sludge or crud in it [3]. India produces 19.54% of world’s annual
milk production i.e. 817 MT, but numerical value of its capability of
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: gurjeetsingh@pec.ac.in (G. Singh).
conversion from raw milk to value added product is very low [4].
The annual growth in production and consumption of ghee was
estimated as 6.4% and 2.5% respectively [5]. The per capita butter
and ghee consumption in India are estimated as 3.9 kg and 15.6 kg
per year respectively [6]. World milk production is projected to
increase at an average rate of 1.8% during the next 10 years
compared to 2.3% average annual growth experienced in the past
decade. The globalization of dairy industry, international demand
patterns, and economic prosperity has led to paradigm shift of in-
ternational dairy markets from being supply driven to demand
driven [7]. The prospects of sustained high prices for dairy products
is creating incentives for investment expansion and restructuring of
local dairy industries [8]. India is ranked at eighteenth position in
global milk food exports with a 0.68% share in international trade;
in which contribution of Ghee is determined as 15%. The world
dairy exports have increased from US$27.61 billion in 2001 to
US$84.46 billion in 2013. In 2015, India’s dairy exports grew to
US$203.80 million compared to its imports of US$128.30 million
and emerged as the net exporter of dairy products [9]. Going by the
aforementioned figures; it could be easily ascertained that most of
the energy demands of food processing industry are met primarily

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2018.10.138
0360-5442/© 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618 603

Nomenclature r Percentage Relative Cost Difference (%)

R/MJ Rupees per Mega-joule
AC Annual Cost of Component (R) T Temperature (K)
 s Specific Entropy (kJ/kg K)
C : Cost Flow Rate (R/H)
S Entropy (kJ/K)
c Exergetic Cost (R/MJ)
S Salvage Value (R)
CE Chemical Exergy
SI Sustainability Index
cf,k Unit Exergetic Cost of Fuel (R/MJ)
TCI Total Cost of Investment (R)
cp,k Unit Exergetic Cost of Product (R/MJ)
TOCR Total Operating Cost Rate (R/H)
cp Specific Heat (kJ/kg K)
TPD Tons per day
CRF Capital Recovery factor
n Specific Volume (m3/kg)
DD,k Cost Rate of Exergy Destruction (R/H)
 W Work Rate (kW)
E Energy (kJ/s) 
 ZT Levelized Cost Rate associated with Capital
EL Energy Loss Rate (kW) Investment and Operation & Maintenance cost (R/H)
Eb,k Relative Energy Destruction Ratio (%) 
Z CI Levelized Cost Rate associated with Capital
Exb, k: Relative Exergy Destruction Ratio (%)
Investment (R/H)
EF, k: Energetic Factor (%) 
ExF, k: Exergetic Factor (%) Z OM Levelized Cost Rate associated with Operation &
ex Specific Exergy (kJ/kg) Maintenance cost (R/H)

Ex Exergy Rate (kW)
 GREEK LETTERS
Ex D Exergy Destruction Rate (kW) Rg Universal Gas Constant (8.314 kJ/mol K)
EIP Energy Improvement potential (kW) r Density (kg/m3)
ExIP Exergy Improvement Potential (kW) h Energy Efficiency (%)
f Exergoeconomic Factor of Component J Exergy Efficiency (%)
F Fuel Exergy Rate (kW) 0 Dead State
h Specific Enthalpy (kJ/kg) R Indian National Rupee
H Hour
I Interest rate (%) SUBSCRIPTS
J Ratio of salvage value BM Butter Melter
kWh Kilowatt Hour BSP Butter Supply Pump

m : Mass Flow Rate (kg/s) CSP Cream Supply Pump
MF Milk Fat CST Cream Storage Tank
PE Physical Exergy GB Ghee Boiler
PEC Purchase Equipment Cost (R) in Inlet
PRCD Percentage Relative Cost Difference k Any Component
PWF Present Worth Factor out Outlet
PW Present Worth of Component (R) T Total

by huge amount of fossil fuel consumption. The scenarios of
growth, production, consumption and international trade of dairy
products suggests that futuristic modes of growths as well as
profitability will be dependent upon many factors such as energy
management, degree of renewability, population rise, and de-
mographic changes etc. Therefore, it has become highly imperative
to involve ultra modern tools such as exergoeconomic, pinch and
life cycle analyses for accurate estimation of cost-energy matrix as
well as overall performance of the plant [10]. In continuation to the
same, exergy analysis is adjudged to be meaningful and realistic
platform for qualitative and quantitative estimation of energy re-
quirements in an energy system. The same has been extensively
explored in various different fields, in order to improve design
characteristics, achieve optimal performance of energy system, and
modify the existing architecture of the thermal system to materi-
alise optimum cost benefit [11e15]. Additionally, Sorgiwan and
Ozilgen [16] developed platform for calculation of energy, exergy
consumption and CO2 emissions in production, processing, trans-
port activities of plain yogurt production plant. In another energetic
evaluation; Waheed et al. [17] found that in 1 tonnes of orange
processing, the proportion of thermal energy consumption out-
weighed the electrical energy counterpart, whereas contribution of
manual energy was comparatively meagre. Further, in a similar
kind of attempt Dowlati et al. [18] identified an ice cream produc-
tion factory to perform the exergetic survey and pinpointed the
thermodynamic deficiencies in subunits of the plant. Furthermore,
Mojarab and Aghbashlo [19] exercised concerted efforts to unearth
the exergetic significance of each subunit of drinking yogurt pro-
duction plant. The exergy deficiency and specific exergetic
destruction were ascertained to be 31.21% and 3185.36 kJ/kg
respectively. Similarly, in an another thermodynamic analysis,
Nasiri et al. [20] applied exergy gauge on industrial scale ultra fil-
trated cheese production unit located in Tehran, Iran, wherein cu-
mulative exergy destruction of thermal and electrical energy
consuming units was reported as 149.24 kW and 64.57 kW
respectively. As far as sustainability of food technologies with re-
gard to food waste were concerned; Goot et al. [21] performed a
broad survey of food processing technologies to understand and
underline the origin of food waste generation, inefficient food
processing techniques, thermal behaviour, innovative food pro-
duction technologies conjoined with related imperfections. In view
of increasing environmental degradation, the approaches which
conform to ultramodern design of mechanical system and improve
sustainable behaviour of food production units; are serious need of
604 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618
hour. In a recent work, performed in a sugar production plant;
Taner and Sivrioglu [22] identified raw juice production, purifica-
tion, stiffening, refining granulation are the key activities related to
processing of sugarcane juice apart from steam generation. In
extension of the similar exercises, Garg et al. [23] determined de-
ficiencies and improvements in a sugar processing and clarification
plant. The raw juice processing subunit reflected an energy and
exergy deficiency of 40% and 17% respectively. As far as thermoe-
conomic analysis of energy systems were concerned; Taner and
Sivrioglu [24] performed the same upon turbine plant integral to a
sugar production plant. The cost per unit exergy and electricity
were established to be 3.142 $/kW and 0.87 $/kW respectively for a
repayment period of 4.32 years. In perpetuation of the same; Erbay
and Koca [25] executed exergoeconomic analysis of cheese powder
production unit. For an inlet temperature in the range of
1600Ce230
C, the exergy efficiency and exergoeconomic factor for
the drying chamber had reported a variation of 4.25% and 3.13%
respectively, On a similar note, Tsatsaronis G. [26] developed some
quite intriguing outcomes associated with thermo-economic
characteristics of energy system which otherwise was never
discovered by traditional tools of economic evaluation. In prolon-
gation to the existing economic analysis conjoined with energy
analysis of subunits of the plant, Lazzaretto and Tsatsaronis [27]
understood significance of unification of exergy and economic de-
rivatives. In this platform; cost balance equations were solved in
connection with auxiliary equations to procure monetary figures of
exergy demolition in a process flow framework.
Despite having a variety of studies pertaining to thermodynamic
and thermo-economic analysis of different kinds of food produc-
tion and processing units; there is still severe dearth of research
works related to production and processing of value added dairy
products, such as milk cream, butter and ghee etc, to the best
knowledge of author. Further, the scope of waste heat recovery and
heat integration apart from productivity enhancement, improve-
ment in overall sustainability of plant, had not been comprehen-
sively addressed before [28e35]. Moreover, the conventional way
of thermal analysis of any energy system had not given an extensive
coverage to possible extent of economic or energy savings;
particularly for the plants where aforementioned scopes are not
effectively brought to the light [36e41].
In view of huge energy requirement in dairy processing in-
dustry, the exact estimation of energy resource consumption along
with its economic value is the serious need of hour; the knowledge
of which would help plant designer and mangers to evolve stra-
tegies for achievement of optimal plant performance. In light of
same, the present study is carried out with a motive to highlight the
scope of heat recovery, productivity enhancement, sustainability
increment as well as possible innovation in the present technology
along with an approximate measure of monetary benefit that could
be secured by meeting above stated requirements. Further, an
exhaustive estimation of thermodynamic and thermoeconomic
derivatives such as universal exergy efficiency, specific exergy
destruction and cost rate of exergy destruction were carried out.
The percentage relative cost difference, thermoeconomic factor,
total operating cost rate will act as a basis for fruitful estimation of
thermoeconomic behaviour in an industrial scale ghee production
plant of the dairy industry in India.
2. Plant description and methodology
2.1. Plant description
The ghee production plant of a dairy industry is presented in
Fig. 1 which consists of cream storage tank, cream supply pump,
butter churner, solid butter transfer trolley, butter melter, liquid
Fig. 1. Schematics of an actual Ghee Production Plant.
butter supply pump, ghee boiler, ghee supply pump, ghee storage
tank, ghee clarifier, balance tank and final packing. The raw milk is
received at raw milk reception desk (RMRD) of dairy factory, where
necessary chilling i.e. < 4
C is provided to it using plate heat
exchanger arrangement. The milk is then pumped to pasteurisation
unit where, by suitable adjustment of control valves, milk cream
with variable fat contents is separated. The cream separation ac-
tivity usually carried out in the temperature range of 550e57
C, as
the said temperature range is conducive for performing the same.
The remaining skim milk is passed through the pasteurisation
circuit to achieve complete pasteurisation of skim milk. However,
the cream with requisite fat content may be recombined to acquire
desired level of fat in the milk. The cream obtained by cream sep-
aration process may contain different contents of fat as it purely
depends upon fat content present in the raw milk. The cream also
obtained in this manner is prone to pathogenic disorder if not
properly pasteurised. Thus, in order to protect the cream from
attack of micro-organisms; the pasteurisation of milk cream is
carried out in the temperature range of 85e90
C for different
residence time settings. The complete pasteurisation of milk is
characterised by phosphate test for inactivation of coliform bacteria
at residence time - temperature conditions of 15s 72
C. Similarly,
complete pasteurisation of milk cream is characterised by storch’s
peroxide test, wherein the enzymatic activity in cream is
completely arrested by heating and holding the milk cream at 90
C
for nearly 1s of time [42]. The cream or milk pasteurised in this
manner is stored for production of other value added products such
as flavoured milk, ice cream, butter and ghee etc.
The cream is received in the storage tank at a temperature
condition of less than 10
C and stored for a sufficient period of time
till it is used for specific purposes. The cream at above specified
temperature condition is pumped into a butter churner, which
contains baffles/beaters for generation of turbulations inside it. The
butter churner rotates at 40 rpm in such a manner that after rota-
tion for 45 min it produces butter and butter milk. During this
process, cream undergoes phase inversion as the fat globule
membranes are dispersed, globule coalesce to form clarified butter
and oil leaks out to form continuous phase [43] i.e. butter milk. The
butter is passed on to a butter melter whereas butter milk is stored
in some other storage tank.
The butter melter contains coils all along its length through
which hot water is passed. The activity helps in melting of butter
and thereby temperature rise up to 80
C is obtained. The melted
butter is pumped to a ghee boiler where butter is heated for suf-
ficient span of time and gets converted into clarified butter i.e. ghee.
Finally, the ghee produced in this manner is clarified in a ghee
clarifier to remove any impurity or curd formation present in it. The
pure ghee prepared in this manner is stored in a storage tank and
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618 605

further, packed into suitable size bags for its final disbursement to

the market. Exout
j¼   100 (v)
Exin
2.2. Methodology The physical, chemical and total value of exergy rates of different
materials at all the state points of flow streams were estimated as
In order to accomplish the objective of exergy and exer- follows:
goeconomic analysis, the required data was acquired from Dairy     
Unit located in northern part of India, which has a ghee production   T
Ex ¼ m cp T  T0  T0 ln þ nðP  P0 Þ (vi)
capability of 3 TPD. The technical data used for the aforementioned T0
analysis was measured and recorded by the mechanical manpower
of the dairy factory, continuously for the year 2017. The ensuing " #
  X X
assumptions were incorporated in the current analysis: Ex ch ¼ mn xi εi þ Rg T0 xi lnðxi Þ (vii)
i i
1. The whole of the plant and its ingredients were operated in a
steady state condition.   
Ex T ¼ Ex ph þ Ex ch (viii)
2. The kinetic and potential energy magnitude were ignored owing
to negligible contribution towards total exergy [44]. The key thermodynamic derivatives for all the subunits of the
3. The dead state temperature and pressure were considered as plant have been tabulated in Table 1.
298.15 K and 101.325 kPa respectively. Further, the mathematical formulations for energy and exergy
4. The exergy destruction due to crud formation was disregarded for each of the constituents of the plant is given in Table 2.
due to its negligible content.
5. The change in surrounding temperature was disregarded.
6. The contribution of fat formation of exergy was negligible and 3.2. Thermo-economic analysis
the same was disregarded [44].
In current study; the economic data is secured from the actual
quotation of the supplier during the computation of the cost rates
3. Thermodynamic analysis at various positions of the processing plant. In order to obtain the
perfect results; costs of main units were taken into consideration
Basically, there are two laws of thermodynamics which on its and cost allotment to subsystems, operational and maintenance
application to any energy system generate energetic and exergetic expenditures were procured from the maintenance section of the
information. The exergy principle target upon recovery of infor-
mation related to energy degradation during product processing Table 1
which otherwise could not be procured by first law of thermody- Key Factors related to Energy and Exergy Analysis [45,46].
namics. Therefore, it could be clearly understood that second law
S. No
enables a plant manger to locate the domains of exergy destruction
and improvement thereof. Name of the Factor Pertaining to Energy Analysis
1 Energy efficiency 
Eout;k
h¼   100
Ein;k
  
3.1. Energy and exergy analysis 2 Energy Destruction
EL;k ¼Ein;k  Eout;k
3 Energy Improvement Potential  
EIP;k ¼ ð1  hI Þ  EL;k
The following mass balance equation was incorporated into our 
4 Relative Energy Destruction Ratio
study to perform energy and exergy analysis. EL;k
Eb;k ¼ P   100
X  X 
EL;k

min ¼ mout (i) 5 Energetic Factor
Ein;k
Ef ;k ¼ P   100
The subscript ‘in’ and ‘out’ stand for input and output Ein;k
6 Energy Efficiency of Plant P
respectively. E
hp ¼ P out;k  100
The general energy equilibrium equation is expressed as Ein;k
follows: Name of the Factor Pertaining to Exergy Analysis
1 Exergy efficiency 
 X X Exout;k
   j ¼  100

Q net;in  W net;out ¼ mout hout  min hin (ii) Exin;k
2 Exergy Destruction   
The first law efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output to Ex D ¼ Ex in  Ex out
3 Exergy Improvement Potential  
energy input as: Ex IP ¼ ð1  jÞ  Ex D
4 Relative Irreversibility Factor 
Ex D;k
 Exb;k ¼ P   100
X Eout Ex D;T
h¼   100 (iii) 5 Exergetic Factor 
 Ex in;k
Ein Ex G;k ¼ P   100
Ex in;k
The general exergy balance is expressed as: 6 Sustainability Index 1
SI ¼
1j
  X 7 Exergy Efficiency of Plant P
Exin  Exout ¼ ExD (iv) Ex
Jp ¼ P out;k  100

Exin;k
The second law efficiency is generally defined as:
606 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

Table 2
Energetic and Exergetic Formulations for subunits of Ghee Production Plant.

S.NO COMPONENT THERMODYNAMIC FORMULATIONS

1    
m1 þ m12 ¼ m2 þ m13
    
EL ¼ ðE1 þ E12 þ W22 Þ  ðE2 þ E13 Þ
    
Ex D ¼ ðEx 1 þ Ex12 þ W22 Þ  ðEx2 þ Ex 13 Þ
 
E2 þ E13
h¼    100
E1 þ E12 þ W22
 
Ex2 þ Ex 13
j ¼    100
Ex1 þ Ex12 þ W22

2  
m2 ¼ m3
  
EL ¼ E2 þ W23  E3
  
ExD ¼ Ex 2 þ W23  Ex3

E3
h¼   100
E2 þ W23

Ex3
j ¼   100
Ex2 þ W23

3   
m3 ¼ m4 þ m27
    
EL ¼ ðE3 þ E24 Þ  ðE4 þ E27 Þ
    
Ex D ¼ ðEx3 þ Ex24 Þ  ðEx 4 þ Ex 27 Þ
 
E4 þ E27
h¼    100
E3 þ E24
 
Ex4 þ Ex 27
j ¼    100
Ex 3 þ Ex 24

4     
m4 þ m14 þ m15 ¼ m5 þ m16
     
EL ¼ ðE4 þ E14 þ E15 þ W31 Þ  ðE5 þ E16 Þ
     
ExD ¼ ðEx 4 þ Ex 14 þ Ex 15 þ W31 Þ  ðEx 5 þ Ex 16 Þ
 
E5 þ E16
h¼     100
E4 þ E14 þ E15 þ W31
 
Ex 5 þ Ex 16
j ¼     100
Ex 4 þ Ex 14 þ Ex 15 þ W31
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618 607

Table 2 (continued )

S.NO COMPONENT THERMODYNAMIC FORMULATIONS

5  
m6 ¼ m7
  
EL ¼ E6 þ W22  E7
  
ExD ¼ Ex6 þ W22  Ex 7

E7
h¼   100
E6 þ W30
 
Ex 7  Ex6
j ¼  100
W30

6      
m6 þ m17 þ m26 ¼ m7 þ m18 þ m28
      
EL ¼ ðE 6 þ E17 þ E26 Þ  ðE 7 þ E18 þ E28 Þ
      
ExD ¼ ðEx 6 þ Ex 17 þ Ex26 Þ  ðE x7 þ Ex 18 þ Ex28 Þ
  
E7 þ E18 þ E28
h¼     100
E6 þ E17 þ E26
  
Ex7 þ Ex18 þ Ex28
j ¼     100
Ex 6 þ Ex 17 þ Ex 26

7  
m7 ¼ m8
  
EL ¼ E7 þ W29  E8
  
Ex D ¼ Ex7 þ W29  Ex8

E8
h¼   100
E7 þ W29
 
Ex8  Ex7
j ¼  100
W29

8     
m8 þ m19 þ m20 ¼ m9 þ m21
     
EL ¼ ðE 8 þ E19 þ E20 Þ  ðE 9 þ E21 Þ
     
ExD ¼ ðE x8 þ Ex 19 þ Ex20 Þ  ðE x9 þ Ex21 Þ
 
E9 þ E21
h¼     100
E8 þ E19 þ E20
 
Ex 9 þ Ex21
j ¼     100
Ex8 þ Ex19 þ Ex 20

9  
m9 ¼ m10
  
EL ¼ E9 þ W30  E10
  
ExD ¼ Ex 9 þ W30  Ex 10

E10
h¼   100
E9 þ W30
 
Ex10  Ex9
j ¼  100
W30

(continued on next page)

608 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

Table 2 (continued )

S.NO COMPONENT THERMODYNAMIC FORMULATIONS

10  
m10 ¼ m11
  
EL ¼ E10  E11
  
ExL ¼ Ex 10  Ex 11

E11
h¼   100
E10

Ex 11
j ¼   100
Ex 10

concern. The economic aspects include the hourly levelised cost The sum total of levelised cost rate for the capital investment as
rate of capital investment cost, purchase equipment cost, operating well as operation and maintenance cost is represented as:
and maintenance cost rate and the total cost rate of the ghee pro-
  
duction plant and its sub components. Z T ¼ Z CI þ Z OM (xiv)
The exergoeconomic evaluation consists of the discernment of
cost flow rates at each step of complete processing unit i.e. from the The hourly levelised cost rate for each of the constituents of the
processing of unprocessed resources to resultant output [45,46]. In plant is calculated by the algorithm explained in the following six
the current work, specific exergy costing (SPECO) method was systematic steps.
instituted to secure cost matrix of the whole plant. As per the The present worth of the ghee plant under consideration is
mentioned scheme, fuels and products were categorically defined represented by
by exergy introduction to and expulsion from each matter and
energy influx and outflux. The three steps involved in this kind of PW ¼ TCI  S  PWF (xv)
examination were as follows: 1. Calculation of exergy out fluxes 2.
Quantification of Input (fuel) and Output (product) exergy value for where, TCI of the total capital investment at the initial stage which
each of the constituents 3. Fabrication of mathematical expressions was Rs 1300000, S is the salvage value of the plant which is given
for cost balance exercises. the following relation
In order to discern exergy costing characteristics, a cost is
merged with each exergy stream. Exergy transmission equations S ¼ TCI  J (xvi)
for input and output of the matter by power and heat transferral The term J, indicate that ratio of salvage value i.e. which is 8% in
rates may be written as: the present analysis. Further, mathematical representation of single
payment present worth factor (PWF) or single payment discount
 
C i ¼ ci Ex i (ix) factor is given by following relationship.


1
 PWF ¼ (xvii)
C e ¼ ce Ex e (x) ð1 þ iÞn

  wherein, annual interest rate and the number of years for which the
C w ¼ cw Ex w (xi) facility is operational; are denoted by i and n; the value of the same
are given as 10% and 10 years. Furthermore, annual cost of subunit
  is given by the following equation.
C q ¼ cq Ex q (xii)
For the plant units, receiving electrical work and transferring AC ¼ PW  CRF (xviii)
heat from the surface, we may write the thermo-economic equi- The term CRF is the capital recovery factor in the aforemen-
librium equation as [45,46]. tioned equation, the mathematical representation of which is by
X  X  equation given as follows:
    
ci Ex i þ cw Ex w þ Z k ¼ ce Ex e þ cq Ex q (xiii)
i e iði þ 1Þn
CWF ¼ (xix)
ð1 þ iÞn  1
This equation reflects that sum total cost of exiting energy
streams is numerically equal to the cost of incoming exergy streams The operational and maintenance cost (O&M) of plant is
in addition to capital and other costs. In cost equilibrium equations calculated as Rs. 432900, and the plant is operation for 300 days
all the terms are on positive side. For n number of exergy outgoing and the production activity is continued for 7 h in a day. Thus, the
streams, there will be an n-1 number of auxiliary equations which total number of hours for which the plant is under operational
italicize F and P postulates of SPECO technique. The F proposition condition, is computed as 2100 h for one year. The annualised
proclaims that the undivided cost adjoined with exergy discharge equipment cost of the ghee production system is given by the
must be equal to cost at which this exergy is invested into the same following mathematical equation.
stream. The P concept elucidates that each exergy unit injected into
 
any stream is attached to the products at the same average cost cp AC PEC
ZT;k ¼ ð1 þ 4Þ P (xx)
which is decided by cost balance equations carved out by F theory. t PEC
In the present section, exergetic cost equilibrium equations and
correlated auxiliary equations were lined up for each subsystem of where, PEC, AC and t are purchase equipment cost, annual cost of
ghee production plant. the subunits and total number of operational hour in a year
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618
respectively. From the above mentioned steps of algorithm, the
hourly levelised cost of capital investment ZCI;k ðR=HÞ as well as
operation and maintenance cost ZOM;k ðR=HÞ of the plant is quanti-
fied to be 97.54 ðR=HÞ and 32.19 ðR=HÞ Further, the total levelised
cost ZT;k ðR=HÞof the ghee production plant is determined as 129.73
ðR=HÞ.
3.2.1. Performance parameters
In the present section, the main parameters associated with
thermodynamic and thermo-economic evaluation of each subunit
as well as that of the plant has been described in detail. The average
cost per unit exergy for the fuel and product for the component k
was clearly explicated by using equations given as follows:

C f ;k
cf ;k ¼

Ex f ;k
 In addition to above discussed formulations, the specific heat
C p;k
cp;k ¼  (xxii)
Ex p;k
 
where, C f ;k and C p;k are the mean unit cost of fuel and product
respectively. In order to materialise the thermodynamic analysis in
combination with economic constraints and variables for each
component of the plant, the indices such as Thermoeconomic
 cp ¼
Factor (fk), Cost Rate of Exergy Degradation (DD;k ) and Percentage
Relative Cost Difference (rk) were estimated by involving the re-
lations provided in the Table 3.
The thermo-economic factor is the most prominent index of
thermo-economic evaluation which basically line up all the sub-
units of the plant as per their thermo-economic ranking i.e. weigh
up the impact of capital investment cost or cost of energy demo-
lition on performance of each subunit. The costs merged with
processing of material as well as ingrained thermodynamic de-
ficiencies are computed from viewpoints of evaluation of their
thermo-economic merits.
Further, apart from calculation of destruction cost, the relative
qualitative worthiness of the each constituent is effective gauged
by the aforementioned technique. The percentage relative cost
difference of any component diagnoses the rise in monetary ex-
penses in processing of a material from its raw shape to final
product. Obviously, PRCD act as a unique index in judgement of
technical inadequacies along with manifestation of probable causes
of shortfall in optimum performances.
The cost configuration projected by exergoeconomic evaluation
of all the components of the plant assist in judgement of impact of
investment cost or exergy destruction cost on overall characteris-
tics of the plant.
In nutshell, the analysis nailed down the requirement of an
Table 3
Key factors related to thermo-economic analysis [45,46].
S.No Name of the Factor Mathematical Representation
1 Percentage Relative Cost Difference  
C f ;k  C p;k
rk ¼   100
C f ;k
2 Cost Rate of Exergy Destruction  
DD;k ¼ cf ;k  Ex D;k
3 Thermo-economic Factor 
Zk
fk ¼  
Z k þ cf ;k  Ex D;k
609
optimum equilibrium between thermal deficiency and capital in-
vestment cost. The objectives of thermo-economic evaluation are
as follows:
1. To diagnose the orientation and intensity of thermal degrada-
tion as well as losses in combination with economic framework
for performance enhancement of the plant.
2. To have a clear cut estimation of exergy cost, cost per unit exergy
and manufacturing cost of the resultant output.
3. To help in the formulation of technical and economical archi-
tecture for better performance of the plant.
4. To pinpoint and investigate various different choices and sub-
stitutes with lesser thermal deficiency.
5. To calibrate the cost consolidated within exergy destruction and
various cost-related shortages in an energy system.
(xxi) Further, the mathematical formulations for exergy cost rate
balance equations for each of the constituents of the plant is given
in Table 4.
and specific volume of milk components could be displayed as a
function of the processing temperature. These equations reported
about the values of specific heat and specific volume as given in
Table 5.
Accordingly, subsequent equations were employed to compute
the unspecified specific heat capacities and the specific volume of
milk derivatives at distinct points of the plant respectively.
X
Yi  cp;i (xxiii)
i
XXi
n¼ (xxiv)
i
ri
Further, the composition of milk and its derivatives used in
computation of specific heat capacity and specific volume is given
in Table 6.
3.3. Uncertainty analysis
The uncertainty analysis was accomplished using the strategy
developed by the Holman [48] to manifest the replication and
characterization of exploratory figures.
 
vF vF vF
U¼ u þ u …þ un (xxv)
vz1 1 vz2 2 vzn
4. Result and discussion
4.1. Specific chemical exergy of milk and its derivatives
The composition and specific chemical exergies of milk and its
derivatives in ghee production plant are summarised in Table 7. The
composition of raw milk consists of water, carbohydrate, fatty acids,
protein and ash in form of lactose, glycerides, casein and salts
respectively. The highest value specific chemical exergy was
determined for ghee with 99.5% fat content i.e. 38427.66 kJ/kg,
while skim milk (0.05% fat) was found to have lowest specific
chemical exergy (1745.86 kJ/kg) content. Obviously increment in
the fat content of the fluid would lead to the higher level of specific
 100
chemical exergy content which is attributed to higher chemical
exergy of fat components compared to pure water.
610 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

Table 4
Exergetic Cost Rate Balance Equations for the units of Ghee Production Plant [45,46].

S.No Component Exergetic Cost rate Balance Equations for main units Auxiliary Equations
of Ghee Production Plant

1 Cream Storage Tank       c4 ¼ c27 c7 ¼ c28 c6 ¼ c7 c22 ¼ c23 ¼ c25 ¼ c26

C 1 þ C 12 þ C 22 þ Z T;CST ¼ C 2 þ C 13
   
c29 ¼ c30 ¼ c22 ¼ c23
2 Cream Supply Pump
C 2 þ C 23 þ Z T;CSP ¼ C 3
3 Butter Churner      
C 3 þ C 24 þ C 22 þ Z T;BC ¼ C 4 þ C 27
4 Butter Melter      
C 4 þ C 14 þ C 15 þ Z T;BM ¼ C 5 þ C 16
5 Butter Supply Pump    
C 5 þ C 25 þ Z T;BSP ¼ C 6
6 Ghee Boiler       
C 6 þ C 26 þ C 17 þ Z T;GB ¼ C 7 þ C 28 þ C 18
7 Ghee Supply Pump    
C 7 þ C 29 þ Z T;GSP ¼ C 8
8 Ghee Storage Tank     
C 9 þ C 14 þ Z T;GST ¼ C 10 þ C 12
9 Ghee Clarifier    
C 9 þ C 30 þ Z T;GC ¼ C 10
10 Balance Tank   
C 10 þ Z T;BT ¼ C 11

Table 5
The relation for Specific Heat and Density of Milk and Milk Derivatives [47].

Component Specific Heat Capacity Equation Density Equation

Protein 1:2089  T 1:3129  T 2 5:184  T

cp;protein ¼ 2:0082 þ  rprotein ¼ 2:0082  103 
103 106 10
Fat 1:4733  T 4:808  T 2 4:1757  T
cp;fat ¼ 21:9842 þ  rfat ¼ 9:2559  102 
103 106 10
Carbohydrate 1:9625  T 5:9399  T 2 3:1046  T
cp;carbohydrate ¼ 1:5488 þ  rcarbohydrate ¼ 1:5991  103 
103 106 10
Ash 1:8896  T 3:6817  T 2 2:8063  T
cp;ash ¼ 1:0926 þ  rash ¼ 2:4238  103 
103 106 10
Water 9:0864  T 5:4731  T 2 3:1439  T 3:7574  T 2
cp;water ¼ 4:1762 þ  rwater ¼ 9:9718  10 þ3 
103 106 103 103

Table 6
The Composition of Milk and its Derivatives [47].

Constituents Whole Milk (3.79% MF) Skim Milk (0.05% MF) Milk Cream (40% MF) Butter (81.11% MF) Buttermilk (3.28% MF) Ghee (Clarified Butter) (99.5%
Composition Composition Composition Composition Composition MF) Composition

Water 0.8790 0.9103 0.5465 0.1587 0.8810 0.0030

Fat 0.0379 0.0005 0.4000 0.8111 0.0328 0.9950
Carbohydrate 0.0457 0.0475 0.0285 0.0006 0.0474 0.0000
Protein 0.0324 0.0336 0.0202 0.0085 0.0329 0.0015
Ash 0.0078 0.0081 0.0048 0.0211 0.0059 0.0005

4.2. Thermodynamic analysis processing plant (Table 9 and Table 10).

The energy analysis unveils the intriguing and non intriguing
chapters of energy and cost conservation in a thermal system, while
the exergy analysis captures the most prominent bottlenecks which
crop up during the thermal processing of the fluids. The sustainable
and non sustainable characteristics of the plant emerge from
exergy conservation and degradation respectively.
The exergetic appraisal of processing plant often eliminates the
misrepresentation generated by energetic gauging of the subunits
of the plant. On one side, where energy analysis create less pro-
ductive picture of subunits of the plant, while on the other hand,
exergy analysis provides ample illumination to the hidden potential
of plant constituents. Consequently a rational and realistic techno-
economic picture is portrayed by exergoeconomic analysis of the
plant. The type of fluid and its state parameters such as pressure,
temperature and mass flow rates for the streams of milk are given
in Table 8 based on their state numbers displayed in Fig. 1.
With the help of data shown in the Table 8, thermodynamic
derivatives were computed for each of the subunits of dairy
A little focus upon the energy and exergy chart would provide us
information on estimation of energy and exergy efficiency of ghee
plant, which was enumerated as 70.08% and 34.21% respectively
(Tables 9 and 10). The low magnitudes of the above specified de-
rivatives gave us insight about the poor performance and remu-
nerative returns of the plant. The deficiencies in the technological
features of subunits of the plant portrayed less productive behav-
iour of ghee production plant. The energy efficiencies of butter
churner, butter melter and ghee boiler were diagnosed to be
22.88%, 66.71% and 60.05% respectively whereas its exergy coun-
terparts were recognised to be 1.03%, 21.48% and 38.43% respec-
tively (Fig. 2).
The least values of exergy efficiencies were estimated for butter
churner (1.03%) after the centrifugal pumps (0.67%) as the same
consumed substantial amount of electrical energy for the purpose
of conversion of cream fluid to butter and fluid pumping respec-
tively. As far as energy and exergy efficiency of individual units
were concerned, the electrical energy consuming elements of the
plant recorded much less magnitude compared to its thermal
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618 611

Table 7
Compositions and standard specific chemical exergy of milk constituents [47].

Sr. Component Standard Chemical g/kg of 0.05% Fat g/kg of 3.8% Fat g/kg of 3.28% Fat g/kg of 40% Fat g/kg of 81.11% Fat g/kg of 99.50% Fat Ghee
No. Exergy (kJ/mol) Skim Milk Whole Milk Butter Milk Milk Cream White Butter (Clarified Butter)

1 Water 9.500E-01 9.103Eþ02 8.790Eþ02 8.810Eþ02 5.465Eþ02 1.587Eþ02 8.835Eþ02

2 Lactose 5.988Eþ03 4.750Eþ01 4.570Eþ01 4.740Eþ01 2.851Eþ01 6.000E-01 4.611Eþ01
3 Butyric 2.320Eþ03 2.200E-02 1.655Eþ00 1.429Eþ00 1.763Eþ01 3.534Eþ01 1.320Eþ00
4 Caproic 3.626Eþ03 1.200E-02 9.122E-01 7.873E-01 9.620Eþ00 1.947Eþ01 7.200E-01
5 Caprylic 4.931Eþ03 7.010E-03 5.423E-01 4.681E-01 5.610Eþ00 1.158Eþ01 4.210E-01
6 Capric 6.237Eþ03 1.350E-02 1.025Eþ00 8.848E-01 1.085Eþ01 2.188Eþ01 8.100E-01
7 Lauric 7.543Eþ03 1.650E-02 1.245Eþ00 1.075Eþ00 1.322Eþ01 2.658Eþ01 9.500E-01
8 Myristic 8.848Eþ03 5.460E-02 4.151Eþ00 3.583Eþ00 4.370Eþ01 8.860Eþ01 3.280Eþ00
9 Pentadecylic 9.501Eþ03 4.500E-03 3.388E-01 2.924E-01 3.610Eþ00 7.232Eþ00 2.600E-01
10 Palmitic 1.015Eþ04 1.530E-01 1.165Eþ01 1.005Eþ01 1.227Eþ02 2.486Eþ02 9.200Eþ00
11 Margaric 1.081Eþ04 2.000E-03 1.487E-01 1.283E-01 1.600Eþ00 3.174Eþ00 1.100E-01
12 Stearic 1.146Eþ04 6.110E-02 4.646Eþ00 4.010Eþ00 4.890Eþ01 9.916Eþ01 3.670Eþ00
13 Arachidic 1.277Eþ04 1.000E-03 7.852E-02 6.778E-02 8.010E-01 1.676Eþ00 6.130E-02
14 Caproleic 6.020Eþ03 1.500E-03 1.129E-01 9.746E-02 1.200Eþ00 2.410Eþ00 9.210E-02
15 Myristoleic 8.631Eþ03 4.000E-03 3.029E-01 2.614E-01 3.210Eþ00 6.465Eþ00 2.410E-01
16 Palmitoleic 9.937Eþ03 5.010E-03 3.806E-01 3.285E-01 4.010Eþ00 8.124Eþ00 3.010E-01
17 Heptadecenoic 1.059Eþ04 5.010E-04 3.713E-02 3.205E-02 4.010E-01 7.926E-01 3.120E-02
18 Oleic 1.124Eþ04 1.140E-01 8.676Eþ00 7.489Eþ00 9.139Eþ01 1.852Eþ02 6.850Eþ00
19 Linoleic 1.102Eþ04 8.010E-03 6.073E-01 5.242E-01 6.410Eþ00 1.296Eþ01 4.810E-01
20 Linolenic 1.081Eþ04 3.500E-03 2.657E-01 2.293E-01 2.800Eþ00 5.671Eþ00 2.100E-01
21 Trans Palmitoleic acid 9.937Eþ03 2.000E-03 1.521E-01 1.313E-01 1.600Eþ00 3.246Eþ00 1.200E-01
22 Vaccenic acid 1.124Eþ04 1.050E-02 7.992E-01 6.899E-01 8.420Eþ00 1.706Eþ01 6.300E-01
23 Linoelaidic acid 1.102Eþ04 1.000E-03 7.569E-02 6.533E-02 8.010E-01 1.615Eþ00 6.010E-02
24 Conjugated linoleic acid 1.102Eþ04 2.000E-03 1.520E-01 1.312E-01 1.600Eþ00 3.244Eþ00 1.200E-01
25 as1-casein 5.837Eþ05 1.036Eþ01 9.992Eþ00 1.015Eþ01 6.220Eþ00 2.621E-02 1.006Eþ01
26 as2-casein 6.145Eþ05 2.690Eþ00 2.598Eþ00 2.638Eþ00 1.620Eþ00 6.816E-03 2.620Eþ00
27 b-casein 6.176Eþ05 1.057Eþ01 1.019Eþ01 1.035Eþ01 6.350Eþ00 2.674E-02 1.026Eþ01
28 k-Casein 4.832Eþ05 3.420Eþ00 3.296Eþ00 3.347Eþ00 2.050Eþ00 8.647E-03 3.320Eþ00
29 b-Lactoglobulin 4.734Eþ05 3.310Eþ00 3.196Eþ00 3.245Eþ00 1.990Eþ00 8.385E-03 3.220Eþ00
30 a-Lactalbumin 3.585Eþ05 1.240Eþ00 1.201Eþ00 1.220Eþ00 7.510E-01 3.152E-03 1.210Eþ00
31 Serum albumin 1.691Eþ06 4.140E-01 4.179E-01 4.243E-01 2.500E-01 1.096E-03 4.020E-01
32 Immunoglobulin G1 4.113Eþ06 5.180E-01 5.135E-01 5.214E-01 3.110E-01 1.347E-03 5.030E-01
33 Immunoglobulin G2 3.832Eþ06 5.180E-02 5.018E-02 5.096E-02 3.100E-02 1.317E-04 5.120E-02
34 Immunoglobulin A 1.025Eþ07 1.030E-02 3.023E-02 3.070E-02 6.200E-03 7.931E-05 1.120E-01
35 Immunoglobulin M 2.555Eþ07 9.330E-02 8.956E-02 9.094E-02 5.600E-02 2.350E-04 9.100E-02
36 Lactoferrin (LF) 1.906Eþ06 5.180E-02 4.996E-02 5.073E-02 3.100E-02 1.311E-04 5.010E-02
37 Proteose-peptone 5.621Eþ05 8.290E-01 7.963E-01 8.086E-01 4.900E-01 2.089E-03 8.010E-01
38 Calcium chloride 1.970Eþ01 2.540Eþ00 2.459Eþ00 2.459Eþ00 1.520Eþ00 6.653E-02 2.470Eþ00
39 Potassium chloride 1.460Eþ01 2.820Eþ00 2.731Eþ00 2.731Eþ00 1.690Eþ00 7.389E-02 2.740Eþ00
40 Magnesium chloride 4.040Eþ01 9.840E-01 9.463E-01 9.463E-01 5.910E-01 2.560E-02 9.210E-01
41 Sodium chloride 5.100Eþ00 1.710Eþ00 1.658Eþ00 1.658Eþ00 1.030Eþ00 4.485E-02 1.660Eþ00
Total Specific Chemical 1743.85 3101.76 2978.58 16439.49 31087.04 38427.66
Exergy (kJ/kg)

Table 8
List of energy and exergy values at all state points of ghee production plant.

S.NO STATE T (K) P (bar)  Exergy (kW) Energy (kW)

mðkg=sÞ

1 40% F CREAM 281.15 1.25 0.144 0.25 8.18

2 40% F CREAM 278.15 1 0.144 0.34 9.62
3 40% F CREAM 278.15 2 0.144 0.35 9.62
4 81.11% F BUTTER 288.15 1 0.119 0.04 2.51
5 81.11% F BUTTER 368.15 1 0.119 1.79 17.57
6 81.11% F BUTTER 368.15 2 0.119 1.80 17.57
7 99.5% F GHEE 383.15 1 0.101 1.73 14.35
8 99.5% F GHEE 383.15 2 0.101 1.74 14.35
9 99.5% F GHEE 348.15 1.5 0.101 0.64 8.44
10 99.5% F GHEE 348.15 1.25 0.101 0.64 8.44
11 99.5% F GHEE 348.15 1 0.101 0.64 8.44
12 CHILLED WATER 274.65 2.5 0.0834 0.35 8.20
13 COLD WATER 276.65 1.5 0.0834 0.29 7.50
14 STEAM 404.45 2.81 0.013 8.84 34.20
15 WATER 298.15 1.5 0.152 0.01 0.00
16 CONDENSATE 308.15 1.25 0.165 0.12 6.90
17 STEAM 406.67 3 0.052 35.64 136.93
18 CONDENSATE 388.15 1.25 0.052 12.85 75.89
19 STEAM 393.36 2 0.0022 1.42 5.76
20 WATER 298.15 1.5 0.832 0.04 0.00
21 CONDENSATE 301.15 1 0.834 0.05- 10.47
27 3.28%F BUTTERMILK 288.15 1 0.025 0.02 0.95
28 WATER VAPOUR 383.15 1 0.018 0.34 2.85
612 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

Table 9
Energy analysis of all components of ghee production plant.

S.NO ITEM Ein (kW) Eout (kW) EL (kW) h (%) EIP (kW) Eb, k EF,k

1 STORAGE TANK 17.13 17.12 0.01 99.94 0.00 0.01 5.57

2 PUMP-1 11.12 9.62 1.5 86.51 0.20 1.63 3.62
3 BUTTER CHURNER 15.12 3.46 11.66 22.88 8.99 12.67 4.92
4 BUTTER MELTER 36.71 24.49 12.22 66.71 4.07 13.28 11.94
5 PUMP-2 19.08 17.58 1.5 92.14 0.12 1.63 6.20
6 GHEE BOILER 155.01 93.09 61.92 60.05 24.73 67.30 50.41
7 PUMP-3 15.85 14.35 1.5 90.54 0.14 1.63 5.15
8 STORAGE TANK 20.11 18.91 1.2 94.03 0.07 1.30 6.54
9 GHEE CLARIFIER 8.94 8.44 0.5 94.41 0.03 0.54 2.91
10 BALANCE TANK 8.44 8.44 0 100.00 0.00 0.00 2.74

Table 10
Exergy Analysis of all components of Ghee Production Plant.

S.NO ITEM Exin (kW) Exout (kW) ExD (kW) J (%) ExIP(kW) Exb,k (%) ExF,k (%) SIk

1 STORAGE TANK 1.35 0.63 0.72 46.67 0.38 1.63 2.00 1.88
2 PUMP-1 1.84 0.35 1.49 0.66 1.48 3.36 2.73 1.01
3 BUTTER CHURNER 5.85 0.06 5.79 1.03 5.73 13.07 8.69 1.01
4 BUTTER MELTER 8.89 1.91 6.98 21.48 5.48 15.76 13.20 1.27
5 PUMP-2 3.29 1.8 1.49 0.66 1.48 3.36 4.89 1.01
6 GHEE BOILER 37.94 14.58 23.36 38.43 14.38 52.73 56.34 1.62
7 PUMP-3 3.2 1.74 1.46 0.66 1.45 3.30 4.75 1.01
8 STORAGE TANK 3.2 0.69 2.51 21.56 1.97 5.67 4.75 1.27
9 GHEE CLARIFIER 1.14 0.64 0.5 56.14 0.22 1.13 1.69 2.28
10 BALANCE TANK 0.64 0.64 0 100.00 0.00 0.00 0.95 1.00

120

100.00
99.94 100.00
100 92.14
94.03 94.41
90.54
86.51

80
66.71

60.05
60 56.14

46.67

38.43 Energy Efficiency (%)

40
Exergy Efficiency (%)
22.88 21.48 21.56

20

0.66 1.03 0.66 0.66

Fig. 2. Comparative Analysis of Energy and Exergy Efficiency for each subunits of Ghee Production Plant.

energy counterparts. Amongst the units involved with thermal liquid and solid phases of milk fat, is realised at the cost of sufficient
energy consumption, the exergy efficiency of cream storage unit amount of cool exergy destruction i.e. 5 kJ/kg of pasteurised cream.
was measured up to be highest i.e. 46.67%, followed by ghee boiler The amount of exergy destruction in the butter churner equip-
(38.43%) and ghee storage tank (21.56%). ment is mainly influenced by fat content of cream, cream feed
The specific energy and exergy destruction figures for the entire temperature, and shear rate of baffle/beater or rotational speed of
plant were calculated as 911 kJ/kg and 438.61/kg respectively butter churner. The high shearing effect has direct impact upon
(Tables 9 and 10). The destruction of cool exergy [18] in the cream globule structure, i.e. destruction of Van der Waal’s force of
storage tank was ascribed to rapid rate of cooling, primarily attraction existing amongst the milk fat globules causes huge fat
required for achievement of effective cream ripening or instanta- loss with the butter milk [49]. The operation of aforementioned
neous crystallization of milk fat and optimum yield of butter con- factors under controlled regime will materialise phase inversion of
tent. The structural integrity or mechanical strength of milk fat is milk cream with desirable fat content, whereby the fat globule
primarily obtained by expeditious chilling activity accompanied by membranes are disrupted, globule coalesce and oil leaks out from
non violent agitation of milk fat in cream storage tank. The initia- the continuous phase of milk fat composition. The butter quality
tion of high degree of partial coalescence among milk fat globules often gets deteriorated under low churning speed, in order to
or establishment of Van der Waal’s forces of attraction between the overcome the same difficulty, the optimum operational speed of
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618
butter churner is in the range of 45e60 rpm [2]. The vigorous
agitation inside the butter churning equipment creates pressure
upon fat globules owing to severe shearing action; which causes
destabilisation of emulsion. The process of frequent collisions
amongst the fat globule is always accompanied by excessive
amount of exergy destruction; the magnitude of which for the
present case is estimated as 40.21 kJ/kg of pasteurised cream.
Further, multiphase emulsion of milk fat suddenly experiences a
rise in viscosity after churning activity; caused by irregular aggre-
gation of butter grains which exists as three dimensional crystal
networks [50] in continuous phases of milk fat composition. In the
butter melting unit, the thermal and electrical energies are
consumed in melting of heterogeneous fatty acid composition,
primarily composed of glycerides, as well as in uniform distribution
or penetration of heat into continuous phases of solid and liquid
milk fat with aqueous droplets dispersed in it, respectively.
After weighing upon the exergetic performance of key units, it
was found that highest level of irreversibility was determined for
ghee boiler i.e. 380.50 kJ/kg of ghee production (Fig. 3). The pro-
duction activity of clarified butter from the butter required severe
heat treatment along with regular agitations of the liquid fluid in
the ghee boiler. The value of Prandtl Number for the butter is more
than two times higher than that of cream fluid; consequently, the
thermal diffusivity of butter is comparatively lower than that of its
cream counterpart. Hence, high degree of thermal treatment
assisted by regular agitation is required for deeper penetration of
thermal energy content into the continuous phase of liquid fat
content so that necessary latent heat content could be made
available for complete removal of aqueous content dispersed inside
it. The aforementioned process is always accompanied by high
temperature gradient owing to large difference in temperature of
steam and liquid butter content which could be adjudged as the key
reason for highest amount of exergy degradation in the ghee boiler.
In case of ghee clarifier, the electrical energy was consumed i.e.
4.95 kJ/kg of ghee, in removal of high density solid impurities
present in the clarified butter fat, with the help of centrifugal ac-
tion, in such a manner that sedimentation of solids assisted by disk
stack arrangement settle towards the outer periphery of centrifugal
clarifier.
The joint contribution of butter churner, butter melter and ghee
boiler towards total energy and exergy destruction was 92.48% and
81.56% respectively. Therefore, it could be understood that the
70
60
50
40
30
20
11.66 12.22
10 5.79
6.98
1.501.49
0.010.72
0
Fig. 3. Comparative Analysis of Energy and Exergy Destruction for each subunits of Ghee Production Plant.
613
contribution made by pumping and storage unit towards the same
was comparatively very small i.e. 18.44%. It is worth pointing out
that the electrical energy consumption of the pumping systems in
dairy processing plants can be markedly lowered using the variable
speed drive (VSD) controller. The combined share of butter churner
and melter towards total energy and exergy destruction was
ascertained to be 25.95% and 28.53% respectively. However, a major
chunk of exergy destruction had come from ghee boiler (52.96%);
the energy counterpart of which was calculated as 67.30%.
The energy destruction in the ghee boiler was 5.31 and 5.07
times to that of butter churner and butter melter respectively. The
magnitude of irreversibilities in case of butter melter and ghee
storage tank was ascertained to be nearly equal in values i.e. 21.48%
and 21.56% respectively. Despite the higher level of agitations of
cream in butter churner, the level of irreversibility in the cream
processing section was far lower in magnitude than that of butter
processing section which could be ascribed to the fact that heat and
mass transfer in the butter processing section occurred at elevated
temperature in comparison to cream processing section. Thus, the
role of thermal energy degradation was far more pronounced than
that of electrical energy consumption.
The specific energy and exergy improvement potential of the
entire plant was computed to be 379.80 kJ/kg and 322.57 kJ/kg
respectively. The highest value of energy and exergy improvement
potential was associated with ghee boiler followed by butter
churner and butter melter (Tables 9 and 10). The combined share of
butter churner and butter melter towards exergy improvement
potential was notified to be 34.41%. The energy and exergy
improvement potential for the entire plant was determined to be
41.69% and 73.94% of its total destructive counterpart. The butter
churner and melter had reported almost same value of exergy
improvement potentials whereas the energy derivative of former
was more than two times to that of latter. The combined value of
exergy improvement potential and exergy destruction for pumping
and storage units of the plant were calculated to be 5.01 kW and
7.17 kW respectively. There was approximately a difference of
10.5 kW between exergy destructions and exergy improvements of
butter processing section.
The relative energy and exergy destruction ratio were found out
to be highest for the ghee boiler i.e. 67.30% and 52.73% respectively
(Fig. 4).
Similarly, the energetic and exergetic factor of the ghee boiler
61.92
23.36 Energy Loss (kW)
Exergy Destruction (kW)
2.51
1.501.49 1.501.46 1.20
0.500.50 0.000.00
614 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

showed similar trend i.e. 50.41% and 56.34% respectively. The sus-
tainability index of cream storage tank (SI: 1.88) was second highest
Specific Exergy Consumption (%)
after ghee clarifier (SI: 2.28) while the value of sustainability index
for the ghee boiler and butter melter were reported as 1.62 and 1.27
respectively (Table 10). From the Table 10; it was quite evident that
the sustainability index of the entire ghee production plant was
Electrical Energy
quite low as the amount of exergy destruction for 1 kg of ghee 26.52%
production was substantially high i.e. 438.61 kW and the same was Thermal Energy
discovered as a main reason behind low productivity of the plant. 73.48%
Further, the complete absence of heat integration amongst key
units of plant such as ghee boiler, ghee storage tank and butter
melter resulted into excessive thermal energy destruction vis a vis
its electrical energy counterpart. The overall picture of resource
consumption for the ghee production plant was prominently
occupied by thermal energy i.e. 73.48% (Fig. 5), while rest of the Fig. 5. Percentile contribution of energy to the specific exergy consumption of Ghee
energy requirement was fulfilled by electrical energy counterpart. Production Plant.

4.3. Thermo-economic analysis
The thermo-economic technique was instituted for better un-
derstanding of impact of thermal and economic variables or con-
straints upon the overall performance of the system. The laws of
thermodynamics are integrated with economic limitations in order
to develop linear set of thermo-economic equations, which upon its
solution would produce a rational picture of exergetic destruction
or losses along with their monetary quantification. The insightful
information about the hidden potentials and deficiencies of a plant
are better communicated by Specific Exergy Costing Method
(SPECO).
The solution of linear set of exergoeconomic equation produced
cost flow rates and that too in close interrelation with exergetic
input or output at all the state points of the system, uncovers the
role of each constituting element of the plant in terms of key
indices such as percentage relative cost difference (PRCD), cost rate
of exergy demolition, exergoeconomic factor, exergetic cost, cost
per unit exergy and specific manufacturing cost of the material
being processed.
The gravity of total cost rate of exergy destruction could be
weighed up in terms of the fact that higher the magnitude of it,
greater will be the impact of a subunit on the characteristcis or
behaviour of overall system.
Hence, by restructuring the order of performance of each con-
stituent of the plant on the basis of SPECO background, the vital
information pertaining to upgradation of plants’ performance is
synthesized and processes.
The Table 11 displayed the condensed form of thermo-economic
output in terms of aforementioned indices. Thus, from the Table 11,
it was elucidated that total levelised cost rate of ghee production
plant was calculated to be 129.73 R/H. The maximum and mini-
mum values of levelised cost rate was associated with butter
churner (75.12 R/H) and feed pumps (2.03 R/H) respectively. The
key subunits of plant such as butter churner, butter melter, ghee
boiler and ghee clarifier had consumed 77.44% share of total lev-
elised cost rate. Similarly, the combined value of levelised cost rate
for the all pumping units as well as storage cum balance tanks was
computed to be 19.06 R/H. The levelised cost of cream storage tanks

80

70 67.30

60
52.73

50 Relative Energy
Destruction ratio
40 (%)

30 Relative Exergy
Destruction Ratio
20 (%)
15.76
12.6713.07 13.28

10 5.67
3.36 3.36 3.30
1.63 1.63 1.63 1.63 1.30
0.01 0.54 1.13 0.00 0.00
0

Fig. 4. Comparative analysis of relative energy and exergy destruction ratio for ghee production plant.
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618 615

Table 11
Cost Rates associated with first capital investment and O&M costs for subcomponents of the Ghee Production Plant.
   
S.NO ITEM PEC (R) Z CI;k (R/H) Z OM;k (R/H) Z T;k (R/H) D D;k (R/H) rk (%) fk (%) TOCRk (R/H)

1 STORAGE TANK 90000 7.63 2.52 10.15 108.55 2.79 8.55 118.70
2 PUMP-1 18000 1.53 0.50 2.03 209.04 2.70 0.96 211.07
3 BUTTER CHURNER 666000 56.48 18.64 75.12 863.78 96.73 8.00 938.89
4 BUTTER MELTER 95000 8.06 2.66 10.72 341.07 97.29 3.05 351.79
5 PUMP-2 18000 1.53 0.50 2.03 81.00 1.05 2.45 83.03
6 GHEE BOILER 125000 10.60 3.50 14.10 1275.52 45.36 1.09 1289.62
7 PUMP-3 18000 1.53 0.50 2.03 82.18 2.85 2.42 84.21
8 STORAGE TANK 25000 2.12 0.70 2.82 228.22 63.99 1.22 231.04
9 GHEE CLARIFIER 75000 6.36 2.10 8.46 81.32 6.38 9.42 89.78
10 BALANCE TANK 20000 1.70 0.56 2.26 0.00 2.43 100.00 2.26

was nearly 3.6 times higher than its ghee counterpart as high ca-
pacity tank was required to store the pasteurised cream.
The material processing was found to be highly expensive in the
butter melter (97.29%) followed by butter churner (96.73%), ghee
storage tank (63.99%) and ghee boiler (45.36%). The fluid processing
cost in ghee storage tank was far higher than that of its cream
processing counterpart (Fig. 6).
The range of variation of PRCD value for the pumps was reported
as 1.05e2.85%. The PRCD value for the ghee clarifier was signifi-
cantly higher than other electrical energy consuming units of the
plant and computed as 6.38%. The material processing cost of butter
melter and butter churner was estimated to be more than two
times higher than that of ghee boiler.
The substantially high value of exergoeconomic factor for ghee
clarifier (9.42%), storage tank (8.55%) and butter churner (8.00%)
designated the dominance of capital investment over degree of
thermodynamic degradation where as the prominence of latter was
truthfully concluded for subunits such as ghee boiler (1.09%), ghee
storage tank (1.22%) and all the three pumps (Table 11). Quite
intriguingly, it was noticed that although the exergoeconomic
factor for the cream storage tank and butter churner was more or
less close to each other, however the former was influenced more
by investment factor while the latter registered higher pre-
eminence of thermal degeneracy.
The study has divulged that percentage relative cost difference
was directly proportional to cost rate of exergy degradation (CRED)
i.e. for all the subunits which have low values of PRCD, their CRED
values were also of low magnitudes and vice versa. The total
operating cost rate for ghee boiler was almost 37.36% higher than
butter churner while contrary to aforementioned conclusion; the
PRCD value for butter churner was more than two times higher
than its ghee boiler counterpart which clearly elucidated that the
repercussions of thermodynamic losses was far more discernible in
the latter case. The total operating cost rate was found to be highest
for ghee boiler i.e. 1289.62 R/H followed by butter churner
(938.89 R/H) and butter melter (351.79 R/H) respectively (Fig. 7).
The pumping sets and storage units together comprised 21.40%
of TOCR while there was a difference of less than 1% in TOCR for two
of them. The main subunits of the plant e.g. butter churner, ghee
boiler and butter melter consumed 75.88% share of total cost
composition matrix.
Amongst the key electrical energy consuming units of the plant;
the maximum value of total operating cost rate was reported for
cream supply pump (211.07 R/H) followed by ghee clarifier

Percentage Relative Cost Difference (r%)

BALANCE TANK 2.43

GHEE CLARIFIER 6.38

STORAGE TANK 63.99

PUMP-3 2.85

GHEE BOILER 45.36

PUMP-2 1.05

BUTTER MELTER 97.29

BUTTER CHURNER 96.73

PUMP-1 2.70

STORAGE TANK 2.79

0 20 40 60 80 100 120

Fig. 6. Percentage Relative Cost Difference of each component of Ghee Production Plant.
616 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618

Total Operating Cost Rate (R/H)

BALANCE TANK 2.26

GHEE CLARIFIER 89.78

STORAGE TANK 231.04

PUMP-3 84.21

GHEE BOILER 1289.62

PUMP-2 83.03

BUTTER MELTER 351.79

BUTTER CHURNER 938.89

PUMP-1 211.07

STORAGE TANK 118.70

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Fig. 7. Total Operating Cost Rate for each subunit of Ghee Production Plant.

(89.78 R/H) and ghee supply pump (84.21 R/H). It was quite inter-
esting to note that consumption of thermal resources for the ghee
storage tank was probed to be nearly two and three times of ghee
storage tank and butter melter respectively, which showed that
energy consumption in chilling activity was lower than its heating
counterpart. The aforementioned statement was supported by
respective PRCD values and exergoeconomic indices i.e. higher
thermal degradation was reported for ghee storage tank while its
lower counterpart was associated with cream storage tank. The
thermal deteriorations were sounded most prominent in butter
melter and ghee boiler, the clear reflection which was made by
their respective thermo-economic indices.
Despite the higher value of TOCR for ghee boiler, the fluid pro-
cessing cost linked with it; was not that significant as it was with
units such as butter churner and butter melter, as the consumption
of high grade energy in the former was comparatively cheaper than
that of thermal energy counterpart in the latter. The aforemen-
tioned conclusion was quite perfectly endorsed by their respective Fig. 8. Concept of heat recovery in ghee production plant.
exergoeconomic factors.

4.4. Thermal refinement of plant by heat recovery
The present architecture of the ghee production plant could be
suitably modified to exploit the available thermal energy potential
associated with ghee boiler. As part of innovation, the thermal
energy associated with molten ghee as well as condensate, coming
out from the ghee boiler, could be fruitfully used in heating the
butter in butter melter to the required temperature of 368.15 K. The
proposed conceptual change in the configuration of plant is re-
flected in Fig. 8.
The clarified butter (ghee) in molten state is passed through
ghee clarifier to remove crud or sludge present in the ghee so that
presence of crud must not corrode or block the pipelines. Further,
ghee as well as condensate coming out from the ghee boiler is
passed through butter melter with some additional retrofitting
(piping arrangement) so as to make use of thermal energy potential
associated with both the entities. In the final stage, the ghee coming
out from the butter melter is directly sent for packing via balance
tank. The major outcomes of the proposed conceptual configura-
tion are tabulated below in Table 12.
In the light of current scenario of ghee production and con-
sumption in Indian Subcontinent, the appropriate modifications or
retrofitting in ghee production unit could assist in achievement of
higher production rates at the current level of resource consump-
tion. Further, it is quite feasible to design and develop solar or
biomass energy assisted scraped surface heat exchanger for ghee
production activity, which would be a big breakthrough in reducing
dependence upon fossil fuel consumption.
Overall, exergy and exergoeconomic concept of system evalua-
tion offer a strong substitute to many techniques available in
literature in identification of possible exergetic improvements in
plant; on the basis of which, major exergy and economic savings
could be ascertained. In the line of same, methods such as pinch
analysis, exergoeconomic optimization, life cycle assessment and
exergoenvironmental analysis could help in preparation of sensible
perception about operational costs as well as in measurement of
environmental impact of complex energy system.
4.5. Uncertainty analysis
The magnitudes of total uncertainty for the main variables of
ghee production plant are given in Table 13. The consequences
intimated that uncertainties associated all the thermal parameters
were well within the reasonable range (<5%).
 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618 617

Table 12
Major advantages of the proposed configuration in Ghee Production Plant.

S.No Technical Parameter Existing Configuration Proposed Configuration Change in Value (%)

1 Universal Exergy Efficiency of Plant (%) 34.21% 38.47% 4.26% (↑)

2 Overall Exergy Destruction (kW) 44.30 36.01 18.71% (↓)
3 Overall Sustainability Index 1.52 1.63 7.24% (↑)
4 Exergy Efficiency of Butter Melter (%) 21.38% 63.30% 41.92% (↑)
5 Sustainability Index of Butter Melter 1.27 2.73 Doubles
6 Overall Steam Consumption (kg/h) 241.92 187.20 29.23% (↓)
7 Cost Rate of Exergy Destruction (R/h) 3270.68 2765.54 15.44% (↓)
8 Specific Manufacturing Cost 9.35 7.96 14.86% (↓)
of Ghee Production (R/kg)

Table 13 important consequences.

The Uncertainty analysis for technical parameters of Ghee Production Plant [25]. In proposed conceptual configuration of the ghee production
S.No Parameter Total Uncertainty plant, the thermal energy potential available with ghee boiler,
1 Uncertainty in Cream Temperature Measurement ±1:8027
could be fruitfully exploited by suitably retrofitting it with butter
2 Uncertainty in Cream Pressure Measurement ±0:3605 melter, so as to achieve an increment of 4.26% in universal exergy
3 Uncertainty in Cream Mass Flow Rate Measurement ±0:0215 efficiency with simultaneous decrement in magnitudes of overall
4 Uncertainty in Butter Temperature Measurement ±3:7527 exergy destruction, overall steam consumption and cost rate of
5 Uncertainty in Butter Pressure Measurement ±0:4123
exergy destruction i.e. 18.71%, 29.23% and 15.44% respectively;
6 Uncertainty in Butter Mass Flow Rate Measurement ±0:0067
7 Uncertainty in Ghee Temperature Measurement ±2:8206 thereby having significant improvement in sustainability charac-
8 Uncertainty in Ghee Pressure Measurement ±:0347 teristics of butter melter as well as that of complete ghee produc-
9 Uncertainty in Ghee Mass Flow Rate Measurement ±0:1182 tion plant.
10 Uncertainty in Steam Mass Flow Rate Measurement ±0:0037
Further, in the existing configuration of ghee production plant,
11 Uncertainty in Steam Pressure Measurement ±0:0284
exergetic cost and cost per unit exergy of the plant were calculated
to be 113.53 R/H and 49.46 R/MJ respectively. In view of optimum
performance of the ghee production plant; it was highly imperative
5. Conclusions to secure equilibrium among thermal and economic variables of the
all constituents of the plant so that specific manufacturing cost of
In order to achieve thermodynamic perfection, it was quite ghee production could be minimised; which in the present case
imperative to secure a blend of optimum values for all the thermal was enumerated as 9.35 R/H; and by exercising the heat recovery
and economic variables so that exergetic and exergoeconomic option, the latter would register a decrement of 14.86% in its
fertility could be magnified. The necessary improvements in magnitude.
constructional features of constituents of the plant could assist in
realisation of thermo-economic prosperity of the plant. The cost
Acknowledgement
rationalisations as well as better quantification of thermodynamic
framework were identified as key essentials for upliftment of
The author would like to acknowledge the assistance given by
overall performance of the ghee production plant.
National Dairy Research Institute Karnal, Haryana (India) and
The overall energy efficiency and universal exergy efficiency of
greatly appreciate the cooperation of technical staff and manage-
ghee production plant were diagnosed to be 70.04% and 34.21%
ment of Dairy Plant throughout plant assessment phase.
respectively. The specific energy and exergy destruction of ghee
production plant were recognised as 911 kJ/kg and 438.61 kJ/kg
respectively. The specific energy and exergy improvement potential References
of ghee production plant were ascertained to be 379.80 kJ/kg and
[1] Juriaanse AC, Heertje I. Microstructure of shortenings, margarine and butter -
322.57 kJ/kg respectively. a review. Food Struct 1988;07(2):181e8. https://digitalcommons.usu.edu/
The highest value of specific energy and exergy destruction was foodmicrostructure/vol7/iss2/8.
calculated for ghee boiler i.e. 613.07 kJ/kg and 231.29 kJ/kg [2] Kalla Adarsh M. Development and performance evaluation of frustum cone
shaped butter churn. Master Thesis. Chhattisgarh, India: College of Dairy
respectively. The highest fluid processing cost or percentage rela- Science and Food Technology; 2014.
tive cost difference was associated with butter melter (97.29%) [3] Kumar M, Pandya HB, Dodiya KK, Bhatt R, Mangukiya M. Advancement in
followed by butter churner (96.73%) and ghee storage tank (63.99%) industrial methods of ghee making process at Sarvottam Dairy, Bhavnagar,
Gujrat, India. Int J Sci Environ Technol 2017;06(03):1727e36.
respectively. [4] Joshi R.M. India’s Dairy Export: opportunities, challenges and strategies IIFA
The total operating cost rate for the ghee production plant was 2015; National Seminar, New Delhi, India.
computed to be 3400.41 R/H, which is the summation of cost rate of [5] Indian dairy industry: current status, challenges and issues under WTO
regime. 2015. http://wtocentre.iift.ac.in/workingpaper/dairy.pdf [Accessed 27
exergy destruction, levelised cost rate of capital investment and
December, 2017].
levelised cost rate of operation and maintenance cost. Further, the [6] Statista. The statistics portal UK. 2018. https://www.statista.com [Accessed 14
maximum contribution towards total operating cost rate was given May, 2018].
[7] Outlook Food. Biannual report of global food markets. 2017. http://www.fao.
by ghee boiler (37.92%) followed by butter churner (938.89 R/H)
org/3/a-i7343e.pdf [Accessed 27 December 2017].
and butter melter (351.79 R/H). [8] Dairy industry vision 2030 “ reimaging indian industry”. 2014. https://www.
The highest value of exergoeconomic factor was calculated for suruchiconsultants.com/pageDownloads/report/63_Surchi_DIV_2030.pdf
ghee clarifier (9.42%) followed by cream storage tank (8.55%) and [Accessed 27 December, 2017].
[9] India’s dairy sector: structure, performance, and prospects. 2017. https://
butter churner (8%) which magnified the role of capital investment www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/82639/ldpm-272-01.pdf?v¼42800
towards total cost composition of the plant. Similarly, the magni- [Accessed 27 December, 2017].
tude of exergoeconomic factor for ghee boiler (1.09%) and butter [10] Zisopoulos FK, Rossier-Miranda FJ, Goot AJV, Boom RM. The use of exergetic
indicators in the food industryeA review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2017;57:
melter (3.05%) reflected that the exergetic degradations were of 197e211. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2014.975335.s.
618 G. Singh et al. / Energy 167 (2019) 602e618
[11] Taner T. Optimisation processes of energy efficiency for a drying plant: a case
of study for Turkey. Appl Therm Eng 2015;80:247e60. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.applthermaleng. 2015.01.076. (2015).
[12] Taner T. Energy and exergy analyze of PEM fuel cell: a case study of modelling
and simulations. Energy 2018;143:284e94. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2017.10.102.
[13] Topal H, Taner T, Altinci Y, Amirabedin E. Application of Tri-generation with
direct co-combustion of poultry waste and coal: a case study in the poultry
industry from Turkey. Therm Sci 2017. https://doi.org/10.2298/
TSCI170210137T.
[14] Topal H, Taner T, Naqvi SAH, Altinsoy Y, Amirabedin E, Ozkeymak M. Exergy
analysis of a circulating fluidized bed power plant co-firing with olive pits: a
case study of power plant in Turkey. Energy 2017;140:40e6. https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.energy.2017.08.042.
[15] Taner T. Thermoeconomic analysis for the power plants of sugar factories.
J Faculty Eng Arch Gazi Univ 2014;29(2):407e14.
[16] Sorgüven E, Ozilgen M. Energy utilization, carbon dioxide emission, and
exergy loss in the flavoured yogurt production process. Energy 2012;40(1):
214e25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2012.02.003.
[17] Waheed MA, Jekayinfa SO, Ojediran JO, Imeokparia OE. Energetic analysis of
fruit juice processing operations in Nigeria. Energy 2008;33(1):35e45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2007.09.001.
[18] Dowlati M, Mojarab Soufiyan M, Aghbashlo M. Exergetic performance analysis
of an Ice-Cream manufacturing plant: a comprehensive survey. Energy
2017;123:445e59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.02.007.
[19] Mojarab Soufiyan, Aghbashlo M. Application of exergy analysis to the dairy
industry: a case study of yogurt drinks production plant. Food Bioprod Process
2017;101:118e31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fbp.2016.10.008.
[20] Nasiri F, Aghbashlo M, Rafiee S. Exergy analysis of an industrial-scale ultra-
filtrated (UF) cheese production plant: a detailed survey. Heat Mass Tran
2017;53(2):407e24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00231-016-1824-3.
[21] Goot AJV, Pelgrom PJM, Berghout JAM, Geetrs MEJ, Jankowiak J, Hardt NA,
Keijer J, Schutyser MAI, Nikifordias CV, Boom RM. Concept of further sus-
tainable productions of foods. J Food Eng 2007;80(4):1188e93. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.07.010.
[22] Taner T, Sivrioglu M. Energy-exergy analysis and optimisation of a model
sugar factory in Turkey. Energy 2015;93:641e54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2015.09.007.
[23] Garg A, Sharma MP, Sharma V. Exergy and energy analyses of a sugarcane
juice production and clarification unit. Int J Exergy 2016;19(1):78e90. https://
doi.org/10.1504/IJEX.2016.074268.
[24] Taner T, Sivrioglu M. A techno-economic & cost analysis of turbine power
plant: a case study for sugar plant. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2017;78:
722e30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2017.04.104.
[25] Erbay Z, Koca N. Exergoeconomic performance assessment of a pilot-scale
spray dryer using specific exergy costing method. Biosyst Eng 2014;122:
127e38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biosystemseng.2014.04.006.
[26] Tsatsaronis G. Recent developments in exergy analysis and exergo-economics.
Int J of Exergy 2008;5(5/6):489e99. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEX.2008.
020822.
[27] Lazzaretto A, Tsatsaronis G. SPECO: a systematic and general methodology for
calculating the efficiencies and costs of thermal system. Energy 2006;31:
1257e89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2005.03.011.
[28] Mojarab Soufiyan M, Dadak A, Hosseini SS, Nasiri F, Dowlati M, Tahmasebi M.
Comprehensive exergy analysis of a commercial tomato paste plant with a
double-effect evaporator. Energy 2016;111:910e22. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2016.06.030.
[29] Jekayenfa SO. Ergonomic evaluation and energy requirements of bread op-
erations in south western Nigeria. Nutr Food Sci 2008;38(3):239e48. https://
doi.org/10.1108/00346650810871920.
[30] Balkan F, Colak N, Hepbasli A. Performance evaluation of a triple-effect
evaporator with forward feed using exergy analysis. Int J Energy Res
2005;29(5):455e70. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.1074.
[31] Genc M, Genc S, Goksunger Y. Exergy analysis of wine production: red wine
production process as a case study. Appl Therm Eng 2017;17:511e21. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2017.02.009.
[32] De Monte M, Padoano E, Pozzetto D. Waste heat recovery in a coffee roasting
plant. Appl Therm Eng 2003;23:1033e44. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1359-
4311(03)00033-4.
[33] Aghbashlo M, Kainmehr MH, Arabhosseini A. Energy and exergy analyses of
thin-layer drying of potato slices in a semi-industrial continuous band dryer.
Dry Technol 2008;26(12):1501e8. https://doi.org/10.1080/
07373930802412231.
[34] Amjad W, Hensel O, Munir A, Esper A, Sturm B. Thermodynamic analysis of
drying process in a diagonal-batch dryer developed for batch uniformity using
potato slices. J Food Eng 2016;169:238e49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
jfoodeng.2015.09.004.
[35] Degerli B, Nazir S, Sorguven E, Hitzmann B, Ozilgen M. Assessment of the
energy and exergy efficiencies of farm to fork grain cultivation and bread
making process in Turkey and Germany. Energy 2015;93:421e34. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.10.031.
[36] Mahmood A, Parshetti GK, Balasubramanian R. Exergy, energy and techno-
economic analyses of hydrothermal oxidation of food waste to produce
hydro-char and bio oil. Energy 2016;102:187e98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2016.02.042.
[37] Luo X, Hu Jiahao, Zhao J, Zhang Bingjian, Chen Y, Mo Songping. Improved
exergoeconomic analysis of retrofitted natural gas based cogeneration system.
Energy 2014;72:459e75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.05.068.
[38] Gurturk M, Oztop HF, Hepbasli A. Comparison of exergoeconomic analysis of
two different pearlitic expansion furnaces. Energy 2015;80:589e98. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2014.12.015.
[39] Ozdil NFT, Tantekin A. Exergy and exergoeconomic assessment of an elec-
tricity production system in a running waste water treatment plant. Renew
Energy 2016;97:390e8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2016.05.039.
[40] Oni AO, Fadare DA, Adeboye LA. Thermo-economic and environmental ana-
lyses of a dry process cement manufacturing in Nigeria. Energy 2017;135:
128e37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2017.06.114.
[41] Bagdanavicius A, Jenkins N. Exergy and exergoeconomic analysis of a com-
pressed air energy storage combined with a district energy system. Energy
Convers Manag 2014;77:432e40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.
09.063.
[42] The dairy handbook. first ed. Sweden: Tetra Pak Processing System; 2003.
[43] Wright JA. The effect of minor components on milk fat crystallization
behaviour, microstructure and mechanical properties [Ph.D Thesis]. Canada:
The University of Guelph; 2001.
[44] Jafaryani Jokandan M, Aghbashlo M, Mohtasebi SS. Comprehensive exergy
analysis of an industrial-scale yogurt production plant. Energy 2015;93:
1832e51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.energy.2015.10.003.
[45] Atmaca A, Yumrutas R. Thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analysis of a
cement plant: Part I e Methodology. Energy Convers Manag 2014;79:790e8.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.11.053.
[46] Atmaca A, Yumrutas R. Thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analysis of a
cement plant: Part I e Methodology. Energy Convers Manag 2014;79:
799e808. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2013.11.054.
[47] Mojarrab Soufiyan M, Aghbashlo M, Mobli H. Exergetic performance assess-
ment of a long-life milk processing plant: a comprehensive survey. J Clean
Prod 2016;140(2):590e607. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.11.066.
[48] Holman JP. Analysis of experimental data. In: Holman JP, editor. Experimental
methods for engineers. Singapore: McGraw-Hill; 2001. p. 48e143.
[49] Physical chemistry of foods. second ed. New York (USA): Marcel Dekker, Inc;
2003.
[50] Boston G, Palfreyman K, Illingworth D, Cant E, Keen R. Milk fat product e a
digital manual - version 2001. New Zealand Dairy Research Institute; 2001.