Module I Introduction To Tribology

1 Module-I: Introduction to Tribology
Introduction to Tribology
Contents: Introduction; Historical background; Practical Importance; Application of Tribology; Lubricants;

Properties of lubricants; Types of lubricants; Selection of the right lubricant; Principles of Selection;
Standard Grades of Lubricants; lubrication system; Types of lubrication system; Principles of Viscosity
Measurements; Viscosity Measurement Methods
What is Tribology?
Tribology is derived from the Greek word “Tribos”. Meaning of Tribos is Rubbing.
• Tribology is a science that deals with friction, lubrication and wear in all contacting pairs.
• Tribological knowledge helps to improve service life, safety and reliability of interacting
machine components; and yields substantial economic benefits.
Basic knowledge gained by Tribology course is very useful for industries related to power,
steel, cement, oil etc. Practicing such knowledge in problems ranging from house hold
appliances to large size ships earns great economic benefits. Therefore tribology course is
often named as : “Industrial Tribology”, “Applied Tribology”.
Historical background:
Tribology is the study of the science and engineering of interacting surfaces in relative motion and
includes the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear. The word
‘tribology’ was first used in a landmark report by Jost (1966). It was derived from the Greek
term tribos meaning rubbing, so that the literal meaning would be ‘the science of rubbing’.
Leonardo da Vinci was the first to state the two laws of friction governing the motion of a
rectangular block sliding over a flat surface, but his work remained unpublished and scientific
studies of wear developed very little until the twentieth century. Since the beginning of the
twentieth century, however, knowledge in all areas of tribology has expanded tremendously,
due to enormous industrial growth, which led to the demand for an improved understanding
of tribology
Philosophical change is in progress in manufacturing. Today, engineers look for means of

reducing environmental and energy losses in machines and in their frictional components. As
By: Dr. Srinivasa C.V., Professor & Dean IPR, MED, GM IT, Davangere-577 006
a result, overcoming frictional forces accounts for 1.5 – 2% of power consumption in a modern
jet engine, 9% of power consumption in a piston airplane engine, up to 40-45% in a new auto
engine (from the world lending manufacturers), more than 50% in railroads trains, and more
than 80% of the installed power at textile enterprises.
Therefore, in an industrial world, frictional measurements are an essential matter. Since

power could be saved by friction reduction, it is important to measure the friction of materials
used in the industry. Frictional measurement methods in various machines differ from the
application of that certain machine. In a Tribology Machine (Tribomachine) where friction is
sensed using a load cell it is crucial to obtain an accurate and efficient frictional coefficient
value. Tribology is the science and technology of interacting surfaces in relative motion. It
incorporates the study and application of the principles of friction, lubrication and wear.
Generally, a Tribomachine uses a weighing or frictional indicator to display frictional
coefficient of the specimen used in kilogram (kg)
Nowadays, there are high demands for tribological machines. This is due to the necessity of
tribological investigation for new materials. As a result of the unreliability of mathematical
models to predict the tribological characteristics of materials, experimental work becomes
the key part in determining the tribological properties of materials.
Practical Importance
The study of friction, wear, and lubrication is of enormous practical importance, because the function
of many mechanical, electromechanical, and biological systems depends on the appropriate friction
and wear values. In recent decades, this field, termed tribology, has received increasing attention as
it has become evident that the wastage of resources resulting from high friction and wear is greater
than 6% of the Gross National Product. The potential savings offered by improved tribological
knowledge are immense.
The current insights into tribology, focusing on such fundamental concepts as surface energy, elastic
and elastoplastic deformation, micro-fracture, and surface interactions at the micro- and nano-scale.
Special consideration is given to the application of fundamental knowledge to control friction and
wear behaviour through lubrication and the selection of materials and coatings in practical situations.
Furthermore, modern experimental methods are discussed and several case studies are used to
illustrate how fundamental tribology knowledge can be applied in the design of tribological
components and systems.
Application of Tribology
Most common components (rolling or sliding): • Bearings • Gears • Cams • Brakes • Seals
The most common elements, most common components, which are used in number of
machines, machines which have relative motion, any rotary motion, any sliding motion, take
an example of car, which is an automobile, aircraft, turbines, any compressor all these require
tribo elements, they require some sort of sliding motion, some sort of rotational motion. And
that is why we require, application of tribology to design those components, which are utilized
for relative motion under load.
Common elements are the bearings, gears, cams, brakes and seals, what we say, bearing
means to bear the load, this element needs to bear the load and provide some sort of
isolation, isolation between rotating part and stationary part, isolation between sliding part
and stationary part, so they are meant to support the load and provide isolation. Take an
example of gears, gears are also supposed to bear the load, cams are also supposed to bear
the load, brakes they are supposed to bear the load, seals also they have some sort of sliding,
some sort of relative motion. So, in fact, all these components can be categorized as the
bearings, then question comes while we are writing five different categories, bearings is
separate category, gears are separate category, cams in separate category, brakes and seals
in separate category, what is the logic, what is the reason behind that? You say this category
of classification is from functional point of view, not from fundamental point of view, it is
more like functional point of view. In the case or gears the main aim is to transmit the torque
or transmit the motion; particularly they have been used as the amplification factors to
enhance the torque to carry much more load. So, they are supposed to increase the torque
from 1 unit to 40 unit and if we require much larger than that, then we can use the multi stage
gears. Coming to cams, the functionality is basically to convert rotary motion in reciprocating
motion, the function is different, and then gives that the function is different than the
bearings even though fundamental knowledge required designing these kinds of cams may
be same. Coming to the brakes, these components are required to stop the motion, we do
not have a motion or they are supposed to restrict the motion, sometimes we use the
category clutches and brakes well as you have seen in clutches, we want motion to be
transmitted. In brakes we need to stop the motion fundamentals are same, the design
procedure remain same, so we will be discussing the brakes and may be to some extent we
can describe about the clutches. Next category is the seals, the functionality again change, we
want to stop the leakage of the liquid or gases many times there are harmful gases and we
cannot allow to release those gases into the environment, so we require seals. There are very
harmful liquids, which cannot be allowed to leak, so we require seals. Many times the leakage
of the lubricant which we use in the contaminant environment, as well as product take an
example of textile, if we use a lubricant and textile these get contaminated with liquid
lubricant; that fabric will not be useful, so we want to restrict that, we want to restrict the
leakage of the lubricant.
So, function is to stop or minimize the leakage that is why, we require products, to stop the
motion we require brakes, transmit the motion from rotary to reciprocating motion or
oscillatory motions, then we require cams, transmit the motion with high torque, we require
gears to support the load we require bearings. And of course, as I mentioned here that, there
is a possibility of rolling and sliding in almost all the components there are some sliding, some
rolling; we know very well rolling causes the lesser friction, and causes the lesser wear
compared to the sliding. That is why, as far as possible we should move to the rolling or we
should, but if it is not permitted or functionality is not allowing it, then we can think about
the sliding. And whenever this kind of classification comes, and we think about the bearings,
what comes to a mind, some rolling bearing, elements bearings which is most popular, most
commonly used readily available in a market, that is why I say, when I talk about bearing or
when we think about that bearing, bearing appears in a mind, bearing have some sort of risk
or ring it is an inner ring; some rolling elements, while we are saying, because they have their
own axis of the rotation. And there is some sort of outer ring, if inner ring rotates there is a
possibility that outer ring remains stationary; so they are providing some sort of isolation,
rotary motion from this point is not getting transmitted to the outer portion, which is required
in many times in number of mechanisms. We need to think about this kind of bearing, design
of this kind of bearing or selection of this kind of bearing.
What are lubricants?
Lubricants are substances which reduce friction and wear between two surfaces. It is applied at the
interface of the two surfaces. Lubricants also help reduce the heat that is generated at the interface
of the two surfaces that are in contact with each other and moving.
Some of the main functions of lubricants are:
Keep parts moving smoothly
Transfer heat to prevent overheating
Reduce friction and increase efficiency
Anti-stick coating on surfaces that tend to stick to one another
Carry away debris to prevent clogging
Transporting foreign particles
Transmit power from one equipment to another
Protect against wear and lengthen the life of the equipment
Prevent corrosion when a piece of equipment is being used in a corrosive or wet environment
Seal for gas to prevent it from escaping or losing pressure
Besides industrial applications, lubricants have some interesting domestic applications as

well. For example, lubricants are used as oils in cooking and baking. They are also used in
medical applications like ultrasound therapy.
Properties of lubricants
Lubricants that are considered good or high-quality will normally possess the following properties:
1. Viscosity: A measure of a lubricant’s resistant to flow.

2. Oxidation Stability: Hydrocarbon oils react with O2 to form acid. Influenced by raw material
properties and response to antioxidants.
3. Corrosion inhibitors: Moisture present in oil of condensing from atmosphere can lead to
corrosion in engine. Rust inhibitor with oil afford protection.
4. Pour Point: Temperature at which oil stops flowing. Dewaxing oil or using pour point
depressants are used to reduce the level.
5. Flash Point: The temperature at which it gives off inflammable vapors. This weakens the oil
film strength, sealing ability, it may be caused by fuel system leaks, ignition problem, etc.
6. Acidity: It is measured in terms of potassium hydrooxide (KOH) needed to neutralize acidity.
Total Acid No. (TAN) increases with service. The TAN is indicative of strong inorganic sulphuric
acids which may lead to copper or lead bearing erosion. Total Base No. (TBN) is present to
naturalize the harmful acids formed as a result of composition process.
7. Detergenting: Detergent properties are required to keep combustion and oil degradation
product in suspension and prevent their depositing and baking in high temperature zones.
which the basestock mixes with other hydrocarbons.
8. Additive Response. Characteristics determining how the base oil and additives work together
9. Consistency. Repeatability from batch to batch.
10. Appearance. Color, cleanliness and clarity
Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity
From everyday experience, it should be common knowledge that viscosity varies with
temperature. Honey and syrups can be made to flow more readily when heated. Engine oil
and hydraulic fluids thicken appreciably on cold days and significantly affect the performance
of cars and other machinery during the winter months. In general, the viscosity of a simple
liquid decreases with increasing temperature. As temperature increases, the average speed
of the molecules in a liquid increase and the amount of time they spend "in contact" with
their nearest neighbours decreases. Thus, as temperature increases, the average
intermolecular forces decrease. The actual manner in which the two quantities vary is
nonlinear and changes abruptly when the liquid changes phase.
Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under extreme pressure often
experience an increase in viscosity. Since liquids are normally incompressible, an increase in
pressure doesn't really bring the molecules significantly closer together.
• On liquid particles - viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces between the
molecules in liquids. So, when the temperature increases viscosity of liquid particles
decreases.
• On Gas particles - viscosity is caused by molecular collision in gases. When

temperature rises the velocity in gas particle increases, so there will be more
collision therefore the viscosity increases.
• Viscosity is normally independent of pressure, but liquids under
extreme pressure often experience an increase in viscosity.
Types of lubricants
Based on the molecular structure of the lubricant material as well as its shear strength, lubricants
are classified as follows:
Solid Lubricants
A solid lubricant is a solid material which is applied or inserted between two moving surfaces or
bearing surfaces. This material will shear a lot more easily than the bearing or moving surfaces. The
three main requirements for a material to be a solid lubricant are the ability to support the applied
load without major distortion, a low coefficient of friction, and a low rate of wear. Solid lubricants are
generally used when the conditions are extreme. Solid lubricants are used in a powder form, as
lubricating grease, in suspensions, in metallic films, or in bonded lubricants. Anti-friction linings use
solid lubricants.
The durability of solid lubricants is increased by coating the binders along with lubricating pigments.
These bonded coatings provide greater film thickness and increase the wear life of the lubricant and
the surface on which the lubricant is applied. The popular applications of bonded coating of solid
lubricants are cylindrical brushes, separator cage of rolling bearing, and electrical brushes.
Solid lubricants can be further classified into four sub-types, namely polymer, metal-solid, carbon and
graphite, and ceramic and cermet.
Polymers
Polymers are one of the largest groups of solid lubricants. They are suitable for use with light loads.
They have a lower thermal conductivity which the amount of heat that they are able to dissipate.
There are three main polymer solid lubricants, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), Nylon, and synthetic
polymers.
Polytetrafluoroethylene is a polymer which is derived from ethylene. All the hydrogen atoms in an
ethylene molecule are replaced by fluorine atoms to give polytetrafluoroethylene. It is more popularly
known as Teflon, a trade name given to PTFE by the famous company Du Pont. It is commonly used as
a solid lubricant because of its low friction, its chemical stability, its low surface energy, and its greater
chemical inertness. PTFE also happens to be non-toxic and hence is suitable for use in industries such
as food and pharmaceuticals.
For all the plus points of polytetrafluoroethylene, there are some downsides as well. Firstly, it has a
relatively high rate of wear. Secondly, it has high thermal expansion and low thermal conductivity
which makes it less desirable for use in high-temperature environments. Lastly, it has low load
capacity.
However, many of these disadvantages can be addressed through the use of synthetic polymers.
Synthetic polymer lubricant can be prepared by mixing glass and carbon-based fillers with PTFE.
Impregnating PTFE with metal structures such as bronze or lead is also an option. This modification
also allows the synthetic PTFE to withstand higher loads and improve the wear rate.
Metal-solid
These solid lubricants contain lamellar solids and achieve low friction through a process known as film
transfer. Molybdenum disulfide is the most commonly used metal-solid lubricant. Some of the
advantages of a metal-solid lubricant like molybdenum disulfide are a high load carrying capacity, good
high-temperature performance, and low friction. It is also stable in vacuum up to 1000 degrees Celsius.
Hence, molybdenum disulfide also finds use in space applications. Its disadvantages are sub-optimal
performance in the presence of moisture and high film thickness. A thicker film does not last as long
because it is more prone to wear and tear.
Carbon and graphite
Carbon graphite seals are used as solid lubricants. They have desirable properties such as high-
temperature stability, high oxidation stability, and sustainable performance in high sliding speed
applications. Graphite as a material has low friction and can withstand moderate loads. Graphite,
however, is prone to corrosion and does not work very well in vacuum. The lubrication performance
of graphite actually increases with an increase in temperature. However, beyond 500 degrees Celsius,
the incidence of corrosion increases.
Ceramic and cermet
Ceramic and cermet coatings are used as lubricants in situations where a lower wear rate is more
important than low friction. Ceramic/cermet coatings can be used at high-temperature ranges of
around 1000 degrees Celsius. A 0.5mm thick coating of ceramic/cermet material offers a low-cost way
of utilizing its wear resistance. The coating can be sprayed using a detonation gun, plasma spraying,
or electrolytic deposition using an electrolyte that contains ceramic particles.
Semi-Solid Lubricants/Grease
Grease is considered to be one of the most versatile forms of lubricants. It can be used in a wide range
of environments across various temperatures, load conditions, or speeds. Be it a dry or wet
environment, dusty or clean environment, or even corrosive environment, grease finds use in all sorts
of applications.
Grease is a type of pseudo-plastic fluid. One of the most significant properties of grease is consistency.
Consistency is nothing but the relative hardness or softness of any material. Grease consists of
lubricating oils which have low viscosity and are thickened by finely dispersed solids known as
thickeners. Grease is made up of the following:
Base Oil
Petroleum and synthetic base oils are used in the manufacturing of grease. The properties of the base
oil are very important, as they affect the properties of the grease that gets produced from the oil. A
low viscosity and light base oil is used to produce grease that works at low temperatures. A heavier
and high viscosity base oil is used to produce high-temperature grease.
Additives
Certain chemical additives are added to the grease in order to improve its properties. The choice of
additives depends completely on the end use or application of the grease. Factors like performance
parameters, environmental impact, sustainability parameters, compatibility, cost, and color all play a
role in the choice of additives.
Thickeners
Thickeners are added to the base oil in order to thicken the material and produce grease. There are
two types of thickeners, organic thickeners and inorganic thickeners. Inorganic thickeners are non-
soap based while organic thickeners can be soap-based or non-soap based.
Some of the advantages of using grease as a lubricating material are its water resistance, its binding
strength to the surface where applied, lower frequency of application, its ability to reduce noise and
vibration, its ability to seal against contaminants, and its usability with vertical/inclined shafts.
Some of the disadvantages of using grease as a lubricant are its poor heat dissipation, its vulnerability
to being contaminated by dust, and the inability to filter out contaminants from the grease.
Lubricants may also be used in a paste form in heavy load applications, in sliding applications, and with
slow running bearings. The paste form of lubricant may also be used as assembly paste or as a high-
temperature paste.
Liquid Lubricants
Liquid lubricants are used extensively in applications that are high in terms of speed and load size.
Liquid lubricants are the most dominant type of lubricant in the market. Liquid lubricants are
comprised of base oil and some additives. The various types of liquid lubricants are as follows:
Mineral Oil
Mineral-based lubricants are extracted from crude oil. Mineral oil lubricants are of four types. The first
type is paraffinic oil. It has good resistance to oxidation. It exhibits good thermal stability, is less
volatile, and has a high flash point.
The second type of mineral oil lubricant is naphthenic oil. This type of lubricant is good for low-
temperature applications. It has a lower flash point than paraffinic oil lubricant. When naphthenic oil
lubricant is burnt, soft deposits are formed which in turn lowers the abrasive wear.
The third type of mineral oil lubricant is multigrade oil. It is made by adding polymers in mineral oils,
thus enhancing the viscosity index of the lubricant. These lubricants have different grade levels
whereby a specific grade of lubricant oil can offer optimal performance in low temperatures or in high
temperatures.
Lastly, synthetic oil is another type of mineral oil lubricant. This type of lubricant was created to
withstand harsh operating conditions. Jet engines use synthetic lubricants. These lubricants are
expensive but they can withstand high levels of heat and stress. Some commonly used synthetic oils
are esters, silicon, polyglycols, perfluoropolyalkylether, and perfluoropolyethers.
Vegetable Oil
Oil-based lubricant made from rapeseed and castor is known as vegetable oil lubricant. Vegetable oil
contains more natural boundary lubricant than what is observed in mineral oil. However, vegetable
oil lubricant is less stable than mineral oil lubricant at high-temperature ranges.
Animal Oil
Fats extracted from fish and animals are the sources of animal oil. Animal oil is sometimes also known
as fixed oil. It is added to mineral oil in order to improve the film forming ability of the mineral oil.
Animal oil does not volatilize. The main drawback with animal oil is its availability.
Gaseous Lubricants
Gases like nitrogen and helium are used as lubricants in applications where film thickness between
tribo-pair is ultra-small. The advantages of using gas lubricants are large temperature range, no sealing
required for lubrication, very low friction due to low viscosity, no vaporization, no solidification, and
no decomposition.
The downsides of using gas lubricants are low load capacity, lower tolerance for any errors in load
estimation, and the need for a specialist designer in creating smooth surfaces with low clearance.
Selection of the right lubricant
You may know the different types of lubricants as well as the pros and cons of each type. However,
you ultimately have to be able to pick the right kind of lubricant for the job at hand. The major factors
that one needs to look at when selecting lubricants are load level, speed, sealing requirements, and
environmental parameters.
One also needs to look at the coefficient of friction, the operating temperature, the area of contact,
and the thermal conductivity. Once you have studied these metrics and have a good idea of the
environment in which the lubricant is to be used, you will be able to select the right kind of lubricant.
Generally speaking, for lower loads and speeds, solid lubricants are a good bet. Then as you move
towards higher loads and higher speeds, grease becomes a better bet. Grease is then followed by high
viscosity oils, low viscosity oils, and finally gas lubricants. For the highest speed applications, gas
lubricants are used.
Proper selection of a lubricant depends on understanding the lubricating regime (i.e., film, mixed,
boundary), established conventions of classifications, and an ability to interpret and apply the
producer’s product data specifications to the equipment. Without this background, it is impossible to
make an informed selection or substitution.
Lubricant Classification Professional societies and organizations have established classifications for
oil and grease. The most widely encountered systems are those of the following organizations:
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)
API (American Petroleum Institute)
AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association),
ISO (International Standards Organization)
NLGI (National Lubricating Grease Institute).
Oil classification.
Oil is normally classified by viscosity grade, additives, use, or by the producer's brand name. Some
oils are classified as nonspecialized industrial oils.
(1) Classification by viscosity grade.
Classification according to viscosity is the most prevalent method of describing oils, and the most
common classification systems are those of the SAE, AGMA, and ISO. Each organization uses a
different kinematic viscosity range numbering system.
(2) Classification by additives.
Oil may be further classified according to the additives included in the oil to enhance its performance
properties as follows:
Inhibited or RO (rust and oxidation inhibited)
AW (antiwear)
EP (extreme pressure)
Compounded
Residual.
(3) Classification according to use.
This system of classification arises because refining additives and type of petroleum (paraffinic or
naphthenic) may be varied to provide desirable qualities for a given application. Some of the more
common uses are:
Compressor oils (air, refrigerant).
Engine oils (automotive, aircraft, marine, commercial).
Quench oils (used in metal working).
Cutting oils (coolants for metal cutting).
Turbine oils.
Gear oils.
Insulating oils (transformers and circuit breakers).
Way oils.
Wire rope lubricants.
Chain lubricants.
Hydraulic oils.
(4) Nonspecialized industrial oil.
This classification includes oils that are not formulated for a specific application and are frequently
referred to as “general purpose oil” in the manufacturer’s product literature. These oils are generally
divided into two categories: general purpose and EP gear oils.
(a) General purpose oils. General purpose oils contain R&O additives, AW agents, antifoamants, and
demulsifiers. They may be used in mechanical applications where a specialized oil is not required.
Their ISO viscosity ranges from about 32 to around 460. These oils are often referred to as R&O oils or
hydraulic oils although they may contain other additives and are not intended exclusively for hydraulic
use.
Some of these oils are more highly refined and provide longer life and better performance than others.
These are usually referred to as “turbine oils” or premium grades. Although used in turbines, the name
“turbine oil” does not mean their use is restricted to turbines, but refers to the quality of the oil.
(b) EP gear oils. These oils generally have a higher viscosity range, from about ISO grade 68 to around
1500, and may be regarded as general purpose oils with EP additives. Although commonly used in gear
systems, these oils can be used in any application where their viscosity range and additives are
required. Gear oils should not be confused with SAE gear oils that are specially formulated for
automotive applications; automotive oils are not discussed in this manual.
(5) Producer brand names.
Oil producers often identify their products by names that may or may not be connected with standard
classifications. For example, a name such as Jo-Lube 1525, a product of Jonell Oil, tells nothing of its
class. However, Conoco's Dectol R&O Oil 32 indicates that it is an R&O oil with an ISO viscosity of 32.
Regardless of how much information may be implied by the brand name, it is insufficient to select a
lubricant. A user must refer to the producer’s information brochures to determine the intended use,
additives, and specifications.
(6) Oil producer’s product data and specifications
(a) Product data. Oil producers publish product information in brochures, pamphlets, handbooks, or
on the product container or packaging. Although the amount of information varies, it generally
includes the intended use, the additives (AW, EP, R&O, etc.), oil type (i.e., paraffinic, naphthenic,
synthetic, compounded, etc.), and the specifications. Some producers may identify the product by its
usage classification such as those noted above, or they may simply note the machinery class where
the product can be used. Often, both methods of identification are used. Intended use designations
can be misleading. For example, fact sheets for three different oils by the same producer indicate that
the oils can be used for electric motors and general-purpose applications. However, all three are not
suitable for every application of this equipment. One oil contains no oxidation inhibitors and is
intended for use where the oil is frequently replaced. The second is an R&O oil with the usual
antifoaming and demulsifying agents. AW agents are also included. The third is a turbine oil similar to
the second except that the refining method and additive package provide greater protection. One
turbine viscosity grade, ISO 32, is treated to resist the effects of hydrogen used as a coolant in
generators. Failure to notice these differences when evaluating the data can lead to incorrect
application of these lubricants. Producers do not usually list additives. Instead, they indicate
characteristics such as good antiwear qualities, good water resistance, or good oxidation resistance.
These qualities are not inherent in oil or contained in sufficient quantities to provide the degree of
protection necessary. Therefore, the user is safe in assuming that the appropriate agent has been
added to obtain the given quality. Product literature also gives the oil type (i.e., paraffinic, naphthenic,
residual compounded, or synthetic).
(b) Producer specifications. Producer specifications amount to a certification that the product meets
or exceeds listed physical characteristics in terms of specific test values. The magnitude of chemical
impurities may also be given. Producers vary somewhat in the amount of information in their
specifications. However, kinematic viscosity (centistokes) at 40 and 100 EC (104 and 212 EF ), SUS
(saybolt viscosity) at 37 and 98 EC (100 and 210 EF ), API gravity, pour point, and flash point are
generally listed. Other physical and chemical measurements may also be given if they are considered
to influence the intended use.
b. Grease classifications.
(1) Characteristics. Grease is classified by penetration number and by type of soap or other thickener.
Penetration classifications have been established by NLGI and are given in Chapter 5. ASTM D 217 and
D 1403 are the standards for performing penetration tests. A penetration number indicates how easily
a grease can be fed to lubricated surfaces (i.e., pumpability) or how well it remains in place. Although
no method exists to classify soap thickeners, the producer indicates which soap is in the product. The
type of soap thickener indicates probable water resistance and maximum operating temperature and
gives some indication of pumpability. Although these are important factors, they are not the only ones
of interest. These simple classifications should be regarded as starting requirements to identify a
group of appropriate grease types. The final selection must be made on the basis of other information
provided in the producer's specifications. Viscosity of the oil included in a grease must also be
considered.
(2) Producer’s product data for grease. Producers also provide information and specifications for
grease in brochures, pamphlets, handbooks, or on the product container or packaging. Grease
specifications normally include soap thickener, penetration, included oil viscosity, and dropping point.
The producer may also include ASTM test information on wear, loading, lubrication life, water
washout, corrosion, oil separation, and leakage. Grease additives are not usually stated except for
solid additives such as molybdenum disulfide or graphite, or that an EP additive is included. If EP or
solid additives are used, the producer will often state this emphatically and the product name may
indicate the additive.
Principles of Selection
Manufacturer recommendations.
(1) The prime considerations are film thickness and wear. Although film thickness can be calculated,
the wear properties associated with different lubricants are more difficult to assess. Lubricants are
normally tested by subjecting them to various types of physical stress. However, these tests do not
completely indicate how a lubricant will perform in service. Experience has probably played a larger
role than any other single criterion. Through a combination of testing and experience, machine
manufacturers have learned which classes of lubricants will perform well in their products.
(2) Professional societies have established specifications and classifications for lubricants to be used
in a given mechanical application. For example, AGMA has established standard specifications for
enclosed and open-gear systems. These specifications have been developed from the experience of
the association’s membership for a wide range of applications. Thus, any manufacturer has access to
the collective knowledge of many contributors.
(3) It should be noted that the equipment manufacturer's recommendation should not necessarily be
considered the best selection. Individual manufacturers may have different opinions based on their
experience and equipment design. The concept of “best” lubricant is ambiguous because it is based
on opinion. Despite this ambiguity, the manufacturer is probably in the best position to recommend a
lubricant. This recommendation should be followed unless the lubricant fails to perform satisfactorily.
When poor performance is evident, the manufacturer should be consulted for additional
recommendations. This is especially critical if the equipment is still under warranty.
(4) Although some manufacturers may recommend a specific brand name, they can usually provide a
list of alternative lubricants that also meet the operating requirements for their equipment. One of
the recommended lubricants should be used to avoid compromising the equipment warranty if it is
still in effect. Physical qualities (such as viscosity or penetration number), chemical qualities (such as
paraffinic or naphthenic oils), and applicable test standards are usually specified.
Lubricant producer recommendations.
(1) When manufacturers recommend lubricants for their products in terms of specifications or
required qualities rather than particular brand names, the user must identify brands that meet the
requirements. Following the suggestions given in this chapter may help the user identify appropriate
products. When a user is uncertain, lubricant producers should be consulted to obtain advice on
products that comply with the required specifications.
(2) Many lubricant producers employ product engineers to assist users in selecting lubricants and to
answer technical questions. Given a manufacturer's product description, operating characteristics,
unusual operating requirements, and lubricant specification, product engineers can identify lubricants
that meet the manufacturer's specifications. Viscosity should be the equipment manufacturer’s
recommended grade. If a recommendation seems unreasonable, the user should ask for verification
or consult a different lubricant producer for a recommendation. These products will probably vary in
quality and cost. The application should dictate lubricant selection. This will help prevent the
unnecessary purchase of high-priced premium quality lubricants when they are not required.
User selection.
(1) The user should ensure that applicable criteria are met regardless of who makes the lubricant
selection. Selection should be in the class recommended by the machinery manufacturer (R&O, EP,
AW, etc.) and be in the same base stock category (paraffinic, naphthenic, or synthetic). Furthermore,
physical and chemical properties should be equal to or exceed those specified by the manufacturer.
Generally, the user should follow the manufacturer's specification.
(2) If the manufacturer’s specifications are not available, determine what lubricant is currently in use.
If it is performing satisfactorily, continue to use the same brand. If the brand is not available, select a
brand with specifications equal to or exceeding the brand previously used. If the lubricant is
performing poorly, obtain the recommendation of a product engineer. If the application is critical, get
several recommendations.
(3) Generally, the user will make a selection in either of two possible situations:
Substitute a new brand for one previously in use.
Select a brand that meets an equipment manufacturer's specifications. This will be accomplished by
comparing producer's specifications with those of the manufacturer.
Standard Grades of Lubricants
SAE Classification
Kinematic viscosity measured at 100°C defines SAE degrees from 20 to 60 for rising levels of viscosity.
Dynamic viscosity at low temperatures defines the SAE "W" degrees, from the initial "winter", from
0W to 25W on the basis of viscosity levels measured at temperatures from -35° to -5°C. The
temperature represents the lowest possible temperature at which the engine can be started when
lubricated with an oil of the corresponding SAE degree (e.g. a 15W oil makes it possible to start the
engine at up to -20°C). The minimum pumping temperature is the minimum temperature at which oil,
in addition to allowing start up, can flow freely and lubricate the critical parts of the engine.
Viscosity is notated with the common "XW-XX." The number preceding the "W" rates the oil's flow at
0 degrees Fahrenheit (-17.8 degrees Celsius). The "W" stands for winter, not weight as many people
think. The lower the number here, the less it thickens in the cold. So 5W-30 viscosity engine oil
thickens less in the cold than a 10W-30, but more than a 0W-30. An engine in a colder climate, where
motor oil tends to thicken because of lower temperatures, would benefit from 0W or 5W viscosity. A
car in Death Valley would need a higher number to keep the oil from thinning out too much.
The second number after the "W" indicates the oil's viscosity measured at 212 degrees Fahrenheit
(100 degrees Celsius). This number represents the oil's resistance to thinning at high temperatures.
For example, 10W-30 oil will thin out at higher temperatures faster than 10W-40 will.
Monograde oils such as SAE 30, 40 or 50 are no longer used in latest automotive engines, but may be
required for use in some vintage and antique engines. Straight SAE 30 oil is often specified for small
air-cooled engines in lawnmowers, garden tractors, portable generators and gas-powered chain saws.
• SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) ratings classify lubricating oils according to their
viscosity. The method assigns a number to an oil whose viscosity at a given temperature falls
in a certain range.
• In order to assign the numbers two temperatures are used as reference: one is -18°C (0°F) and
99°C (210°F).
• Oils defined in terms of viscosity at -18°C, such as SAE 5W, 10W and 20W grades, provide
starting in cold climates easy.
• Oils defined in terms of viscosity at 99°C, such as SAE 20, 30, 40 and 50 grades, work
satisfactorily in normal and hot climates.
• These numbers merely classify the oils and are not indicators of the oil quality.
• Some oils, called multi-grade oils, are developed to exhibit more than one viscosity at different
temperatures. Eg. SAE 20W/50 oil has viscosity equal to SAE 20W at -18°C and viscosity equal
to SAE 50W at 99°C.
API Classification
API stands for American Petroleum Institute. In 1970 along with the SAE and ASTM (American Society
for Testing and Materials), they established the API Service Classification System to define the
performance level of a given oil, unrelated in the main, to oil viscosity. The API requirements “S” for
Spark Ignition (petrol) and “C” for Compression Ignition (diesel) can be briefly described as follows.
For automotive gasoline engines, the latest engine oil service category includes the performance
properties of each earlier category. If an automotive owner’s manual calls for API SJ or SL oil, API SM
oil will provide full protection. For diesel engines, the latest category usually – but not always –
includes the performance properties of an earlier category.
What is lubrication system?
Lubrication system is used to introduce oil and other lubricants to give a flow to the clean oil at the
accurate temperature, with an appropriate pressure to moving machine parts.
Types of lubrication systems.
There are three different types of lubrication: boundary, mixed and full film. Each type is different, but
they all rely on a lubricant and the additives within the oils to protect against wear.
Full-film lubrication can be broken down into two forms: hydrodynamic and elastohydrodynamic.
Hydrodynamic lubrication occurs when two surfaces in sliding motion (relative to each other) are fully
separated by a film of fluid.
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is similar but occurs when the surfaces are in a rolling motion (relative
to each other). The film layer in elastohydrodynamic conditions is much thinner than that of
hydrodynamic lubrication, and the pressure on the film is greater. It is called elastohydrodynamic
because the film elastically deforms the rolling surface to lubricate it.
Even on the most polished and smooth surfaces, irregularities are present. They stick out of the
surface forming peaks and valleys at a microscopic level. These peaks are called asperities. In order
for full-film conditions to be met, the lubricating film must be thicker than the length of the asperities.
This type of lubrication protects surfaces the most effectively and is the most desired.
Boundary lubrication is found where there are frequent starts and stops, and where shock-loading
conditions are present. Some oils have extreme-pressure (EP) or anti-wear (AW) additives to help
protect surfaces in the event that full films cannot be achieved due to speed, load or other factors.
These additives cling to metal surfaces and form a sacrificial layer that protects the metal from wear.
Boundary lubrication occurs when the two surfaces are contacting in such a way that only the EP or
AW layer is all that is protecting them. This is not ideal, as it causes high friction, heat and other
undesirable effects.
Mixed lubrication is a cross between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication. While the bulk of the
surfaces are separated by a lubricating layer, the asperities still make contact with each other. This is
where the additives again come into play.
With a better understanding of this process, it should be easier to define what lubrication actually is.
It is a process of either separating surfaces or protecting them in a manner to reduce friction, heat,
wear and energy consumption. This can be accomplished by using oils, greases, gases or other fluids.
Principles of Viscosity Measurements
Although numerous methods are available for the measurement of viscosity at room temperature,
their successful application becomes progressively restricted as the temperature is increased. This is
due to the limitations of availability of a suitable refractory construction material, requisite inertness
of the material to chemical attack, fabricability of the material to the exact and reproducible
dimensions, etc. In addition, the increasing difficulty in the maintenance of a large, uniform
temperature, hot zone at the higher temperatures makes the methods of measurement most difficult
and tedious. There are three fundamental types of viscometers in use for the measurement of
viscosity. They are
[i] Capillary type viscometers based on Poiseulle’s law.
[ii] Falling ball type viscometers and Restrained sphere viscometers, based on Stoke’s Law and
[iii] Rotational (concentric cylinder) type viscometers and Oscillating type viscometers, based on
Newton’s Law.
Viscosity Measurement Methods
The viscous properties of a liquid or amorphous solid are primarily determined by inter-particle forces
within the solution, including friction and attraction between molecules in the macrostructure. These
Van der Waals forces are critical facets of a sample’s resistance to deformation, or flow, which defines
the material’s viscosity.
Shear viscosity is expressed under two distinct forms:
Dynamic viscosity; which is a measure of the shear stress per unit area required before a sample begins
to deform. This characteristic is typically expressed in millipascal seconds (mPa-s).
Kinematic viscosity; which refers to the resistive flow of a fluid under the influence of gravity. This
property is density-dependent and is measured in square meters per second (m2/s).
Capillary Viscometers
Measuring viscosity via a capillary tube is one of the oldest methods of determining the kinematic
viscosity of a sample, requiring prior knowledge of the density and volume of the sample of interest.
This fluid is passed through a vertical U-tube of known dimensions and very small diameter. The time
taken for the sample to travel through the capillary correlates to its kinematic viscosity.
Rotational Rheometry
A rotational viscometer applies relatively weak levels of torque to a liquid sample to encourage
mechanical deformation. The amount of torque required to cause rotation across a horizontal plane
in the sample is measured and is relative to sample viscosity. Using a rotational rheometer allows
analysts to plot a full flow curve of the material’s flow characteristics in response to varying levels of
shear force and determine more advanced material parameters. Alternative viscometers only allow
for single point measurement and provide only shear viscosity measures.
Falling Sphere Viscometer-
In this method, a sphere of known density is dropped into the fluid sample and the time it takes for
the sphere to fall to a specified point is recorded.
Vibrating Viscometers
Viscosity can also be measured by applying oscillating vibrations to the sample and monitoring the
damping effects of the fluid. These can be assessed by monitoring power input, the decay time of
oscillations, or changes in the resonated frequency.
Zahn Cup
Zahn Cup is a small container with a handle and a small hole in the bottom. The time it takes to empty
the cup through the hole is correlated to viscosity.
Microfluidic Rheometers
Microfluidic rheometry is an innovative method for determining the dynamic viscosity of fluids in small
sample volumes by forcing a liquid sample through a microfluidic channel in a laminar flow. At
Formulaction, Fluidicam Rheo uses this principle to flow the fluid side by side with a reference
material. Dynamic viscosity is measured by comparing the differential flow rates, the viscosity of the
reference material, and the position of the interface between the two fluids within the microfluidic
channel.
Non-Contact Rheology
Passive micro-rheology is a more complex measurement of a sample’s rheological characteristics. It

measures similar properties to rotational rheometry but is adapted to more complicated and fragile
structures such as gels, weak pastes, and viscoelastic materials that could break under extremely low
shear. Unlike traditional rotational rheometers, non-contact rheology enables a quantitative
assessment of the rheological properties of a sample at rest without mechanical stress
Viscometers
Couette – Hatschek Viscometer (Primary viscometer)
Couette Hatschek viscometer

This apparatus consists of two cylinders (I) and (2). The outer cylinder (I) is fixed to a table
which can be rotated about its vertical axis at a constant speed. The inner cylinder is
suspended, by the torsion wire. The tested fluid fills the space between the two cylinders.
When the outer cylinder rotates the motion in the liquid between the two cylinders are
similar to the condition of flow of a liquid between two parallel planes as shown in above
figure. When the torque T is applied on the outer cylinder, it rotates and tends to rotate
the inner cylinder. Due to this, wire is twisted
A mirror is connected to this wire. The angular displacement of the inner cylinder is
measured by the deflection of a beam of right reflected from the mirror. The wire is
calibrated such that the deflection of wire gives a measure of viscosity. This instruments
usually used for determining viscosity of liquid having higher viscosity.
2. Flowers viscometer (Secondary viscometer)
Flowers viscometer
This instrument belongs to the category of secondary viscometer. The absolute Viscosity
of the liquid cannot be obtained directly by using a secondary viscometer. To Use this
instrument for measuring the viscosity, it must be calibrated first by using liquids of known
viscosity.
It consists of it glass tube with a small ball, whose diameter is smaller than the Inner
diameter of the tube. The tube is filled with the liquid whose viscosity is to be measured.
After placing the tube in an inclined position to the horizontal, the ball at the left end of
the tube is released. The ball starts to roll down the tube and electric device is used to
indicate the instant. when the ball reaches the lower end of the tube’ the time taken by
the ball to travel from left end to right end of the tube is measure of viscosity of the liquid.
3. Michel viscometer.
Michel viscometer
It consists of a stainless steel ball of one inch diameter and a special cup with hollow
groove, Three small projections are provided on the cup 120 degree apart' these
projections maintains a minimum clearance of about 0.01mm between ball and cup
surface The hollow handle of non-conducting material is connected to the cup
thermometer is inserted into the handle to the measuring temperature of the cup.
To determine the viscosity of an oil a small sample of oil is placed in the Cup while the
instrument is held with the cup upwards-Then the ball is placed in the Cup and pressed so
that excess oil enters the circumferential groove In the cup ,only a layer of oil of about
0.01 mm thick fills the space between ball and the cup' Then the whole instrument is
inverted and held vertically with the ball at the lower end as shown in fig In this position
the ball is suspended for some period of time by the negative pressure in the film between
the ball and the cup' Due to the
negative pressure in the oil film, oil is sucked from the groove gradually into the ,space
between the ball and the cup. When the thickness of the oil becomes so high that it can
no longer maintain negative pressure, the ball falls down. The time required for this
pressure is proportional to absolute viscosity of the oil.
4. Ostwald Viscometer.
Ostwald viscometer
The arrangement for Ostwald viscometer is as shown in fig. kinematic Viscosity is
determined by measuring the time required for the liquid level to drop from mark a to b.
this instrument is usually made of glass. And during the test it is immersed in a
temperature-controlled water bath.
By using known viscosity and density such as distilled water the required for a known
volume V to flow through the capillary is determined. This constant is established for the
particular instrument. After calibration, the kinematic viscosity and dynamic viscosity of
any fluid can be measured.
5. Say bolt viscometer.
Say bolt viscometer
The standard method of measuring the viscosity of lubricating oil is by using Say bolt
universal viscometer as shown in fig.
To measure the viscosity of oil, the oil to be tested is heated approximately to the
Required temperature in the vessel and poured into cup (A) until it reaches the rim of the
cup and just begins to overflow into the gallery (B). Now the water path (C) Is heated to
the oil temperature by means of an electric heater. ‘the flow of oil through the jet starts
when cork (E) is removed. The time required in seconds. fill the receiving flask up to 60
cm3 graduation mark is a measure of viscosity of the oil and is designated as say bolt
universal viscosity
6. Redwood Viscometer.
Redwood viscometer determines the viscosity in terms of seconds, a time taken by oil to
pass through a standard orifice and collection of the same oil in 50 cc flask.
Originally Redwood Viscometer was developed for measurement of viscosity of petroleum
and their by-products. Redwood Viscometer is used depending on time of oil flow through
orifice at desired temperature is greater or less than 2000 seconds. Normally viscosity of
highly viscous fluids is determined by use of Redwood Viscometer
Redwood Viscometer
Fill the oil cup with oil to the required oil level indicated by marker point. Heat the water
at uniform temperature. When required temperature of oil is attained, lift the ball above
the orifice hole. Allow the oil to pass through it (start the stop watch) and collect 50 CC of
oil in the volumetric flask. The measured seconds is in terms of viscosity of oil measured.
7.Falling Ball Viscometer
Falling sphere Viscometer
Falling Ball Viscometer uses the simple — but precise — Höppler principle to measure the
viscosity of Newtonian liquids by measuring the time required for a ball to fall under
gravity through a sample-filled tube.
The principle of the viscometer is to determine the falling time of a ball of known diameter
and density through a close to vertical glass tube of known diameter and length, filled
with the fluid to be tested.
The viscosity of the sample liquid is related to the time it takes for the ball to pass a
distance between two specified lines on the cylindrical tube.
Turning the measurement tube results in returning of the ball and it is possible to re-
measure the time over the same distance. The result is dynamic viscosity with the
standard dimension.
Velocity of a ball which is falling through a liquid in a tube is dependent on the viscosity
of the liquid. When the ball moves through the liquid, it is affected by the gravity,
buoyancy and frictional forces: Gravity as downward force, buoyancy and friction as the
upward forces.
For more information and clarification please do contact

Dr. SRINIVASA C.V. B.E., M.Tech.(Design. Engg.), Ph.D. (Solid Mechanics)
Professor & Dean IPR
Department of Mechanical Engineering
GM I.T., Davangere, Karnataka, INDIA-577 006
Moile: +91 94485 88792/+91 9480363630
Office: +918192 233377 Extn: 174
Mail: srinivasacv@gmit.ac.in / drchikkol@gmail.com

Module I Introduction To Tribology

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Module I Introduction To Tribology

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1 Module-I: Introduction to Tribology

Contents: Introduction; Historical background; Practical Importance; Application of Tribology; Lubricants;

Philosophical change is in progress in manufacturing. Today, engineers look for means of

Therefore, in an industrial world, frictional measurements are an essential matter. Since

What are lubricants?

Some of the main functions of lubricants are:

Keep parts moving smoothly

Transfer heat to prevent overheating

Reduce friction and increase efficiency

Anti-stick coating on surfaces that tend to stick to one another

Carry away debris to prevent clogging

Transporting foreign particles

Transmit power from one equipment to another

Protect against wear and lengthen the life of the equipment

Seal for gas to prevent it from escaping or losing pressure

Besides industrial applications, lubricants have some interesting domestic applications as

1. Viscosity: A measure of a lubricant’s resistant to flow.

Effect of temperature and pressure on viscosity

• On Gas particles - viscosity is caused by molecular collision in gases. When

Carbon and graphite

Ceramic and cermet

Selection of the right lubricant

SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers)

API (American Petroleum Institute)

AGMA (American Gear Manufacturers Association),

ISO (International Standards Organization)

NLGI (National Lubricating Grease Institute).

(1) Classification by viscosity grade.

(2) Classification by additives.

Inhibited or RO (rust and oxidation inhibited)

(3) Classification according to use.

Cutting oils (coolants for metal cutting).

Insulating oils (transformers and circuit breakers).

Wire rope lubricants.

(4) Nonspecialized industrial oil.

(5) Producer brand names.

(6) Oil producer’s product data and specifications

Lubricant producer recommendations.

Substitute a new brand for one previously in use.

Standard Grades of Lubricants

What is lubrication system?

Types of lubrication systems.

Principles of Viscosity Measurements

[i] Capillary type viscometers based on Poiseulle’s law.

Viscosity Measurement Methods

Shear viscosity is expressed under two distinct forms:

Falling Sphere Viscometer-

Passive micro-rheology is a more complex measurement of a sample’s rheological characteristics. It

Couette Hatschek viscometer

2. Flowers viscometer (Secondary viscometer)

5. Say bolt viscometer.

Say bolt viscometer

7.Falling Ball Viscometer

Falling sphere Viscometer

For more information and clarification please do contact

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