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Thesis Final 10.11.2010
Thesis Final 10.11.2010
INTRODUCTION
PART – I
directly or indirectly influence the life and development of the organism and its
with the environment and other chain of organisms various physico chemical and
climatic conditions.
Water is important natural resource for the survival of living beings. Water
reservoirs, lakes, dams, ponds, rivers serve as natural habitat and help to maintain
water bodies various organism act together and allows continuous recycling of
each chemical element available in the system. When this stops for some
reason, pollution results and pollution pushes the environment out of balance and
the scheme of nature is that it will react to reestablish the balance Dugan (1974)
In biological literature, this nine letter dirty word pollution has several
nutrients from bottom sediments. Interaction between sediments and over water
mass usually govern the productivity potential of water body. Human beings by
their anthropogenic activity are making fresh water as dumping grounds for
receiving solid and liquid waste from nearby human settlement. Eighty percent of
water supply of cities find its way to drainage system as domestic and industrial
waste. Most of the precipitation take place during rainy season which contributes
substantially to the surface flow. During this period of time a heavy inflow of water
results in to the natural aquatic systems and result in to exposing benthic substrata
in to main chain.
Lakes are locked up systems and basin soil plays a predominant role in
govern ecology of lakes. Usually there is a quick recycling and rapid turnover of
drifting habit and short turnover period, constitute the major link in the trophic
structure and events in the reservoir ecosystem. A rich plankton community with
When this stops for some reasons, pollution results, which pushes the
environment out of balance, and the scheme of nature is that it will react of
Microbes, though they are intricate in their detail offer examples of changes
number while the other native tolerant species become even move dominant thus
widening the range of individual per species (Cairns and Lanza, 1972). It is then
influence. And, eutrophic water have one of the most important problems in the
Lanza (1972).
planktonic algae and microbes at the surface of lakes and reservoirs. Although
the constituent algae and microbes are themselves microscopic in size, the
intensity of scums and rapidity with which they develop are such as to impress the
most casual observer; blooms can form and disperse again within a matter of
aque Whipple (1899); Pea soup Nemerow (1974); ‘Tsvetenie Vody’ the Russian
equivalent; Topachevski (1968). In temperate regions, blooms may develop most
frequently during calm weather in summer and autumn; in tropics they can form
bloomsat almost any time of the year, Reynolds and Walsby (1975). In some
blooms mainly Spirulina SP are also consumed directly by man in Chad, Pirie
(1969).
supplies where the algae present problems of filtration, and many species taint
water with unpleasant taste and adours. Blooms also spoil fishing and water
sports in recreational lakes. Some bloom forming algae are toxic and have
been implicated in many instances of fish kills, Gorham (1964); Chaeko and
Ganapati (1949) ; Venkatraman et al., (1957) ; Boyd et al., (1975) ; Barica (1975)
factors which has prompted a great deal of research in to biology of algae and
microbes. The tropholytic zone has a steady supply of free carbon dioxide, which
Similarly, due to the increase in the hydrogen ions, the pH drops rapidly.
Thus the increase in total alkalinity, specific conductivity and CO2 decrease in pH
value occur towards the bottom layers and these Laxers acts as useful indicators
of productivity. Blue-green algae from the main stay of plankton community in
vast majority of the manmade lakes are studied. The overwhelming presence of
of the Gangetic plains, Deccan Plateau, South Tamil Nadu and Orrisa invariably
curve and an extensive Eatchment area, draining calcium high from forested or
cultivated lands. The species are almost omnipresent in the southern peninsula,
except in the reservoir of Karnataka and Kerala which tend to be oligotrophic and
have poor plankton count with desmids and other green algae as the main
rate favour macrophytes and despite being productive they do not harbour blooms
plankton community. Most of the reservoirs have three plankton pulse coinciding
with the post – monsoon (Sep to Nov.), winter (Dec to Feb) and summer (March to
May) seasons. The monsoon (Jun, August) flushing disturbs and often dislodges
the standing crop of plankton. When using obiotic measures alone, a pulse after
a storm for instance, may not be detected. This is because storm pulse is
relatively quick a phenomenon and an observer may not be present to witness the
reflected in the biotic community and therefore detectable at a later date through
use of an appropriate biomonitoring programme. When studying the ebb and flow
of life of life in lakes, it is natural to know what kinds of organism are present, how
the importance of each organism fluctuate in relation to that of others and how
much living matter is produced in a given time, while other pertinent questions
which follow regarding abundance of some organism and not others ‘ what
controls the succession of dominant species ‘ what determines the fertility of lakes.
Some of the more recent observational studies centered round the sequence of
events leading up to bloom, formation, and there has been much speculation on
gives the exact status of the aquatic ecosystem. Lund (1967) established the fact
that year round seasonal studies of water body is an important parameter for
understanding any lake. The best way to understand life in water is to consider
the forms that occur in them studies separately and such a consideration will give
Major factors that influence the aquatic life could be light, temperature, and
relevant and a convenient point of focus for research into the mechanism of
ecosystem.
The term “Plankton” refers to those minute aquatic forms which are non
PHYSICO-CHEMICAL FACTORS
Reservoir, lakes and ponds are aquatic ecosystem, their biotope reveals
that they have certain characteristic feature of its own Chemical characteristic of
the water of a reservoir vary with its age, Jhingran (1977) and lakes distributed
even with in a small geographic area remain limnologically different, Gulati (1976) ;
Barica (1978). Different lakes show several pattern and shift in eutrophic levels
factors like lights depth, O2, C2, PH, alkalinity and mineral concentration are
important major parameters of study which influence, the life in water, Micheal and
Sharma (1988).
Basin also play an important role in determining the chemical water quality
sources often determine the water quality, nutrient regime and basic production
potential.
and Nitrates. Phosphates usually range from 0.1 mg/L in reservoirs. 4 to 13 mg/l
phosphate was found in Manasarovar in Madhya Pradesh Low Nitrate Nitrogen in
Indian lake do not usually control productivity. In Kankaria and Naroda lakes in
Ahmedabad, phosphate was present either very low or absent, though both the
Rapid turn over of nutrients and quick recycling of various nutrients in water
lakes place. Hedge and Philips (1958) showed that 90 % of the phosphorous was
over of nutrients in lakes. Phosphates and Nitrates form the part of total dissolved
solid and reflects chemical condition of the reservoirs Khan and Zutschi (1978)
(1978); Philipose (1960), recorded blue green algal dominance with the rise of
existed between temperature and low light intensity from photosynthesis of natural
(1978). Physico Chemical data of more than 100 reservoirs in the country
concluded that morphometric, edaphic and water quality parameters can not be
reservoir ecology is determined by a variety of factors and may define the tropical
status of the lake. Bacterial decomposition of organic matter may reflect rate and
photosynthesis through out the water column. Almost all productive reservoirs of
curve.
In lake there is a system of vertical stratification of oxygen along with other
chemical substances and PH. Parameters like pH, CO2, alkalinity and specific
reactions together with specific conductivity and CO2 decrease pH values in the
planktons because of their drifting habit and short life span proliferate to such an
extent that every suitable environment niche is utilized this Indian reservoirs and
catchments drain enrich earth metals like Ca, mg from forest and cultivated land
Any loss of organic matter from healthy organism before they are
consumed is a loss from food chain. It seems unlikely that the organization of the
each of any organism can be such as to prevent entirely the escape of organism
substances formed within them into the surrounding medium. The terms
various organism is now well established. It is also clear that such substance
form further contribution along the food chain and contribute appreciable amount
to the non-living organic pool in water. Through degradation organic matter from
these sources probably eventually becomes part of the “dissolved” organic matter,
(Sharp 1975), which are readily utilized by bacteria, Wright, (1970). The release
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
and eutrophic water have one of the most important problems in progressive
1972). When for fiscal or logistic reasons, excess nutrients can not be eliminated
from freshwater lakes, certain species of phytoplankton grow to excess. The term
algae at the surface of lakes and reservoirs. Although the constituent algae are
themselves microscopic in size, the intensity of scums and rapidity with which they
develop are such as to impress the most causal observer. Blooms can form and
present problems of filtration and many species taint the water with unpleasant
taste and odours. Blooms also spoil fishing and water sports in recreational
lakes.
When studying the ebb and flow of life in lakes, it is natural to know what
kinds of organisms are present, how the importance of each organism fluctuates in
relation to that of others and how much living matter is produced in a given time,
organisms and not others, what controls the succession of dominant species ;
what determines the fertility of lakes. Some of the more recent observational
studies centered round the sequence of events leading upto bloom formation and
there has been much speculation on the factors promoting the growth of bloom
documented ; the general spring bloom of diatoms, the early summer growth of
green algae and blue green algal blooms in lake summer (Hutchison, 1967). Some
attempts in literature have also been made to give more general comments on
ecology of individual genera and species. While some species remain planktonic
thought out the winter others, may be largely or entirely restricted to the bottom of
a lake.
The various genera may differ also in their behaviors and the time of
and most significant diatom being centric diatom. Among many features of
variety of changes in the environment may tend to favour the growth of planktonic
forms.
Fresh water resources are the integral parts of mans’ life. These resources
have received mans’ attraction and attention for various activities like fisheries,
for his work on Swiss lake and published three volumes entitled. “Le Lemnase”,
characteristics of lake. In 1901 his first book on limnology was published under
extensively worked on fresh water fauna, Hamilton (1822); Day (1973) and Braun
In Asia sewage ponds have been known from centuries but data on their
performance is available for last fifty years now. In rural areas waste stabilization
ponds are made first of its kinds was a pond for Madras University Campus,
Uturney, Prasad, Bhutia, Arora, Bond, Anderson et al. Brehm, Tewell, Hauer,
Kiefer and Donner described the fresh water species in the Indian Sub Continent
(cf.Michael 1980). Prasad studied the seasonal variation of pond organisms and
therefore was perhaps the first limnologival work in India, Nasar et al., (1982) ;
Patil (1476) Ganpati and Sreenivasan (1968, 1976) worked on almost all
reservoirs in South India for fishery and waste water treatment. Ganpati (1959)
and various aspects of limnology and biological productivity on man made and
carried out by Jakhar et al., (1990) and Hazarika (1994) studied water bodies of
Assam. Michal (1969) has worked on various aspects of limnology of a natural fish
ecology of tropical water. Uttarwar (1980) surveyed two lakes Kankaria and
Naroda lakes in Ahmedabad to define of the trophic status of the lakes. Important
contribution of India freshwater was made by Zafar (1967, 1968 a.b) ; Verma
(1967, 1969); Vashisht (1968) ; Vashisht and Dhir (1970) ; Kaul (1977) ; Vass
(1970) ; Munawar (1970) ; Sreenivasan (1970, 1976) ; Unni (1983, 1985) ; Adoni
(1985 ) ; Seenaya and Zafar (1979) ; Awtramani (1980) ; Sehgal (1983) ; Jayadevi
carried out studies on physico chemical and biological characteristics of river and
dam. Trivedi and Goel (1986) ; Saxena (1990); Patil and Sanbag (1993) ; Shaikh
and Yeragi (2004) ; Kodarkar (1994) ; Kulkarni and Rao et al., (2002) ; Jakher and
Rawat (2003) ; Jain and Seethapati (1996) ; Reddy et al.,(1994) are few to
authors Das and Srivastva (1956, 1959); Chakraborthy and Singh (1959) ; George
(1966) ; Gulati (1964) ; Khan and Siddiqui (1966, 1971); Kant and Kachroo
(1971) ; Tandon and Singh (1972) ; Bayade and Verma (1985); Singh and
Mahajan (1987) ; Malik and Bose (1987) ; Gosh and George (1989). Notable work
Vollenweider (1968) ; Palmer (1969) ; Morgan (1972) ; Zutshi et al., (1973) ; Kaul
(1977) ; Madhusudan et all., (1984) ; Goel et al., (1985) ; Davis (1986) ; Trivedi
(1988) ; Parshbey (2003) ; Sharma et al ., (2009); Kumawat and Javale (2003) ;
Kumar Hegde (2005) ; Yeole and Patil (2005) ; Chavhan et al., (2006).
(1970); Chandrashekhar and Kondarkar (1994) ; Roy and Singh Rajni (1999) ;
Singh (2002); Lande (2004) ; and Malik et al., (2004); Zafar (1964) ; Aboo and
Mancel (1967) ; Kunt and Kachroo (1975) ; Shashikant and Kachroo (1977) ;
Himagauri et al., (1987) ; Zafar (1991) ; Pandey et al., (1992) ; Kadam (2000) ;
Rao and Shrivastava (2002) ; Jakher and Rawat (2003) ; Patil and Talmale
(2004) ; Pande and Varma (2004) Lal (1996) carried out studies on effect of mass
bathing on water quality in Pushkar lake. Jana and Sarkar (1982) ; and Islam
(1990) reported effect of high alkalinity and greater productivity in lakes, they also
reported effect of high alkalinity and greater productivity in lakes, they reported
species depend upon individual cell size and was reported by Tsimul Skaya and
Wood and Gibson (1973) concluded Lough Neagh as world’s most eutrophic basin
where P remained as critical nutrient. Parr and Smith (1976) on Lough Neagh
recognized both P and N being important for prolonged algal growth. Bishwas
and Cadler (1955) recognized importance of bottom zone as vital for inhibiting
active decomposers.
In Gujarat, Ganpati and Pathak (1972) reported results on Sayaji Sarovar
and Ajwa reservoir, Baroda;Pandey and Kaul (1976) on Lalpari lake, Rajkot;
Rao (1953), reported higher DO record lower growth of blue green algae in
summer months. With high temperature in summer months blue green are
favored, Zafar (1967). Singh (1960) attributed CO2 in water as responsible for
production of blue greens. They reported favoring blue greens with higher O 2 and
higher scale in domestically polluted water. Ganpati (1943) recorded still higher
Flagellates
between organism and water bodies. Lakes in general have lower CO 2 and large
lakes recorded higher values of flagellates and CO2 during summer months. DO
higher O2 and higher blooms. Zafar (1958) reported the importance of Carbon and
This is a ubiquitous group found in water with various specific factors like
pH temperature, O2, CO2, Nitrate, Phosphate, Organic matter control the growth
plays a deciding role in the formation of blooms. When nitrates and phosphate
calcium as important factor for the growth of algae. However, there are other
reports of presence of higher calcium and lower Myxophycean algae. Blue green
are observed more in number in small ponds alongwith presence of Spirulina and
Phormidium.
regularly appears in a soluble form in the medium (Fogg and Wastlake, 1952).
Even extracellular products form only a small part of the total material synthesized
excreted and the rates of excretion are far more useful parameters. A significant
fraction of the carbon and nitrogen fixed by blue – green algae is subsequently
excreted into the environment. Saunders (1972) showed that phytophankton
generally release higher molecular weight organic substances rather than simple
sugars, amino acids, and other simple substances. Growth hormones and vitamins
have been reported as constituents of cell exudated of many algae, but the reports
are limited. Bentley 1958, reported auxin like substances in Oscillatoria and other
algae. He also detected water soluble ether insoluble auxins or auxin precursors.
Zutshi and Vass (1978) reported Dal lake water as alkaline, slightly buffered
and remained at a higher trophic status. Such marked alkalinity is brought about
by planktonic algae is also documented by Talling (1976) and alkalinity and high
of Pulicat lake was studied by Chako et al., 1953) and Chilka lake was studied by
studies of two narrow deep reservoirs which hold poor nutrient conditions.
Results of Suraj Kund, U.P. was reported by Sarkar and Rai (1964) and that of
and dissolved oxygen in two Jodhpur (Rajasthan) reservoirs. Bhargawa and Alum
and alkalinity in Sambhar lake (Rajasthan). Sreenivasan (1969) found nitrate and
Phytoplankton
Phytoplankton taxa was observed during sometime of the year or the other.
separate table. However the present work was not centered on algae studies,
therefore a small list in enclosed. Summer blue green algae dominance was noted
in this lake water, during winter desmids were recorded. A probable list of algae
CHAPTER III
longitude. This area witnesses as nearly as 52 rainy days with nearly 100 mm
rainfall. This place is nearly 35 M.S.L. and climate is dry and hot. The lake is
Population of village is around 5500. Every year temple organized fain in the
month of November of Kartik Shudha full moon also this temple is visited by
pilgrims on every full moon day. Nearly 1,50,000 people visit the site and
celebrate the fair for 5 days. On every full moon days thousand of people visit
the lake village. This lake has no attested history. There is no inlet and out let
end water in mainly from rainy source. People wash their cloths regularly on the
banks of lake and animal always wade through water. Thus there is a big load of
pollution as pollutants reach the water. There are aquatic weeds present in the
water. This water always gives poltray coloured appearance. Regular sampling
station were decided from four corner of the lake. Study is restricted to following
sports were fixed and sample were drawn at 4 week interval from fixed stations
from June 2007 to December 2007. A year was chosen as a basic unit for study.
Different study spots were fixed on preliminary studies. After investigation and
after intensive study few sampling station study sport were dropped as it was
found less important. Methods described below was strictly followed from
All Chemical and reagents and glasses used during this piece of
No.
1. Turbidity Turbidity Tube Method 10
(Water
Transparency
)
2. Water Temperature Sensitive 400
temperature Probe
3. pH Electrometric Method 5.5 to 9.0
water)
7. Total Alkalinity Titrimetric Method 200
Hardness
9. Nitrates Spectrophotometric Method 45-100
(Inland Water)
All values are expressed in mg.l -1 except for Turbidity, Temperature and pH.
Temperature:
water. Rise in water temperature speed up chemical reaction in water and reduce
the solubility of gases and impart unpleasant odour to water. Water temperature
temperature with less dissolved gases water becomes tasteless and do not
they require more and more Oxygen, however, with rise in temperature Oxygen
(1994) reported that the disease resistance decrease in fishes with rise in
temperature.
samples with the help of Ruttners water sampler. Temperature was recorded
Transparency:
For noting transperancy in the lake Secchi disc was used. With the help of
shaded disc and graduated rope secchi disc values were recorded at the lake on
the spot usually in the morning hours and are expressed in centimeters.
organisms. Particle size more than 10 micro meter caused turbidity and it is an
Present in water, NEERI (1987). The light is essential for carrying out
iron, like substances. In potable water dissolved solids should not cross 100
mg/L.-1
pH :
scale where 7 remains neutral. This value usually depend on the concentration
activities in water remains always crucial, NEERI (1987) the statue of water
bodies. DO test form the basis for noting biological oxygen Demand (BOD) and
BOD remains a benchmark for defining pollution and measuring biological waste
present in water.
In the present analysis water analysis kit was used to note concentration of
Total Alkalinity:
measure of amount of strong acid needed to lower the pH of sample to 8.3, which
gives free alkalinity (Phenolphthalein alkalinity) and at pH 4.5 gives total alkalinity.
Requirements:
titration assembly.
Proceedure:
phenolphthalein indicator.
2) Slight pink colour appears, titrate the sample with sulphuric acid to the
colorless end point and note the reading as ‘P (ml of titrant used for
phenolphthalein alkalinity)
3) Add two drops of methyl orange in the same flask and continue to titrate
further till the colour changes from yellow to orange Note this reading as
Calculations:
ml of sample
ml of sample
Hardness:
Ca, Mg, cations impart hardness to water. Total hardness of water show
the sum total of alkaline metal cations present in it. Hardness caused by
be classified as follows.
Soft - 0 to 60 ml/L
Requirements:
Hydrochloride)
Procedure:
pinch of inhibitor.
appears.
Calculation:
ml of sample
Salinity:
excretes record high quantities of sodium chlorides and they serve as indicator of
pollution.
Chloride level as high as 250 mg/l is safe for human consumption, a level
Requirements:
2. Titrate with standard silver nitrate solution until brick red end point is
obtained.
Calculations:
Salinity (mg/l) =
Nitrate (NO3-N):
and cattle mortality. Nitrites are present as intermediate for during nitrification
Producer:
3. Add 5 ml of distilled water and 1.5 ml of KOH solution. Stirr it, till yellow
colour develops.
water bank.
5. Find out the value of Nitrates with the help of standard curve.
Nitrite (NO2-N):
Under acid i.e condition (pH 2 to 2.5) nitrite ions (NO2-N) as nitrous acid
react with sulphonilic acid forming diazonium salt that combines with
sample.
Requirements:
Spectrophotometer, EDTA. Sulphanilic acid and naphthylamine
hydrochloride.
Procedure:
aerated water and dilute sewage, APHA (1998) and is expressed in mgl -1
Biological Study:
Plants and animals usually swimming or suspended non motile or motile or
They are microscopic or small in size when found in water bodies. Phytoplankton
ecosystem.
quantity. Plankton nets are usually used in algal research. However for
phytoplanktons.
A liter of water sample was collected every month separately for is the
data was also obtained. Result illustrated and represented and described in this
chapter.
Physical appearance
Turbidity Temperature
Odour
pH
Carbonate
Bicarbonate
Dissolved oxygen
Chlorides/Salinity
Nitrate –N
Nitrate – N
Transparency
BOD
Temperature:
Physical appearance
Turbidity:
Water remains turbid to slightly turbid throughout the year during study period.
Odour:
Lake recorded dirty smell and in summer it imported dirty to highly dirty smell.
pH:
Alkalinity:
summer.
Dissolved Oxygen:
values were less DO was noted higher in March. Summer recorded well
Salinity:
also during the month of May / June chlorides recorded higher values.
Nitrate – N:
This was towards higher side during winter. However, lower nitrate values
recorded in summer.
Water Transparency:
Transparency results recorded that water remained clear with more photic
zone during summer, however water transparency was lower than in summer are
lake throughout the year. BOD scale was towards lower side during early
months of summer, however no specific seasonal trend was noted for this
parameter.
Total Hardness
The water was hard during winter and lake hardness values were erratic
Phytoplankton
were observed. Microcystis recorded its absence in July and August. It showed it
was seen in July and also recorded in summer Chrococcas showed its presence.
Blue green algae Merismopedia, Nostoc was also recorded few in number.
List of species found during study period is given. Various tax recorded
some time or the other during study period is represented in the table. Efforts are
made to identify these taxa to it’s taxonomic status, however the study was not
Expressed in mg/L.
consisting of algae with representative from all major taxonomic kinds. The
Bacillariophyceae hold unique ability to fix inorganic carbon to build organic matter
The quality and quantity of phytoplankton and their seasonal successional patterns
have been successfully utilized to assess the quality of water and its capacity to
Among the several methods known for the collection of plankton the use of
plankton net is most common even for algal work which however should be
through the pores of the net resulting in under estimations of the population
Chemical Alkalinity:
Alkalinity measurements were carried out at the lake sites following pheno
phthelein for carbonates and methyl orange indicator and result expressed as CO 3
or HCO3 in mg 1 –1.
Physical appearance :
Odour:
Odour is noted at the lake site and odour and colour noted.
From the predetermined stations along the lakes the samples were
manners. The sampling was always done during early hours of morning at all
a tag (appendix) for sampling data and station. All sample were collected in
triplicate and a survey was carried for 12 months. Always subsurface sample
were collected.
samples assembly. DO was fixed on the spot, adding alkali-azide iodide with
One liter of sample was collected for phytoplankton analysis and it was
preserved at the lake site with Lugols Solution following 1958, but Lugols with
After bringing the fixed sample the sample were allowed to sediment for 5
selected for assessment. The village has population of 5500 residents, but
certain at regular intervals the lake is under stress when pilgrims visit to site and
camp at several days at several time beside this, the visitor wash cloths and cattle
feed on lake sides addition of domestic waste and visitor activity is an common
assessment. Study of plankton of lake and study of forest flora from surrounding
environment can define status of lake. The research was carried out in following
lines.
1. The study is novel to its kind because this lake is not attempted by any
researcher earlier.
4. Data collected is presented and assessed, will the help of available with
scientific literature.
Hardness
Dissolved Wrinker Azide titration APHA 1998 Titration
Oxygen; BOD
Nitrite – N Following APHA 1998 Spectro colour
Nitrote – N meter at 520 nm
DISCUSSION
these freshwater systems are over utilized in rural India, as against water
conservation carried out in advanced countries. India fall in tropical area where
legislations, but these are never taken care of for creating balanced ecosystem
reported. In India major algal forms which grow to excesses are Microcystis,
fresh water is an overt expression of multiple interacting factors and bloom formed
period of the year, the whole gamut of factors so harmoniously synchronise their
be divided into two classes ; course adjusters and fine adjusters, light intensity and
macronutrients are those among course adjusters and temperature and release of
certain micronutrients from bottom mud and bacterial activities, oxygen status of
the water are those among fine adjusters which trigger the bloom formation.
Some workers like Keating (1977) has included extra cellular matabolites also
species, then the results obtained from the vitro studies of the lake microbes will
be discussed. These discussion may lead to some concluding remarks for
control of native tolerant species with the help of microorganisms is totally novel of
its kind for this area. Present attempt will serve a useful tool for the researches to
LIGHT PENETRATION
remains in active mode for blue green algae and various forms of life.
Transparency factor depends upon the turbidity and organic compounds present in
water. In the present study summer recorded higher euphoric zone and it was
almost double than it was in winter. High wind induced turbidity or inflow usually
govern like penetration in water. A combination of factors like light intensity and
day length in summer, water temperature, reduced circulation may cause plankton
at a quicker rate (Golterman, 1975). Similarly, spelling and Blum (1974), reported
unicellular algae being favored over filamentous ones during winter and low light
intensity.
Summer usually record high crowding of microorganisms in euphotic zone
in this lake
TEMPERATURE
dissolve and metabolic processes also increase. Zutsi and Khan (1978) ;
Konokpa and Brooke (1978) reported a direct bearing of water and production of
plankton oxidation of organic matter goes higher during summer. In the presnt
recorded winter minima and summer maxima. Biological system usually hold a
good tolerance for temperature range. Reynolds (1971) reported higher water
blooms only at onset of summer, during winter algal range of the water recorded
various forms of algae, particularly green algae was found during winter. Thus it
is noted from the results that the lake supported typical tropical summer flora and
the growth of the biota remained increasing. With the temperature rise number of
species decreased during summer therefore this lake is defined eutrophic. In the
combination of factors that allows one species of algae to hold dominance over
others, light could be one among them. Plants need light for their photosynthetic
many algae. Similar results were reported by Round, 1964; sreenivasan 1964;
of free CO2 is important Reynolds and Walsby (1975), In the present study pH
remained higher and lake water was within a well buffered situation. Thus the
results obtained for this parameter were well within the range for Indian lake water.
Hutchinson (1957);
Presence of higher carbonate during rainy season and also during winter,
may be due to result of higher run off and higher biological activity in lakes. King
(1970) reported that low alkalinity and high pH microorganisms remain carbon
limited.
under atypical highly fertile condition carbon rarely limits total algal biomass. It
would appear that carbon limitation of algal growth remains distance possibility in
a productive lake Lange (1973) unless there are adequate reserves provided by
the bicarbonate buffering system. Lakes which are well buffered by high
blue-green algae) (Reynolds and walshy (1975). Results obtained during present
soil dependent.
Under different pH, alkalinity conditions few species may be favored and
few may be eliminated, however then there is surplus growth and eutrophication.
Salinity
Besides soil water and related characters there are two other factors which
are known to effect ionic composition of natural waters in semi arid and arid
regions. Some effect of net water loss from lakes due to evaporation, climatic
factors including air temperature and wind velocity precipitation and role of surface
run off effect the relative water loss, which results in gain of total dissolved solids.
It was expected that small lakes would be more saline and more eutrophic
than large ones as is the case in larger areas which provide homogeneous
lakes. It is relevant to quote here Jhingran (1977) and Gulati (1976) who believed
that chemical characteristic of the water of a reservoir change with its age. chloride
values for this lake was erratic with higher records for may and June. Jhingran
(1977) reported that chemical characteristics of water of a reservoir vary with its
age and lakes distributed with in a small geographical area remain limnologically
different.
Rhode (1949) Barica (1978) considered most of the inland waters to be
cancel the normal tendency of fresh water to develop into a bicarbonate – Ca type.
However, no such peculiarity was seen in the lakes under study. In the present
investigation the range of salinity obtained was in confirmity with chloride value
reported for Jaipur lakes Sharma (1978) Higher values of chlorides are due in no
small measure to the nature of soil in this part. This lake supported various
seasonal phytoplankton.
lower. This record metabolically active situation in the lake. pH and minerals
and nutrients remained quite available in the lake in dissolved form and
January is in a conformity with several Indian authors like Banarkar et. at., (2005)
on Chandrawati tank. Khatawakar et. al., (2002). Sakhare and Joshi (2003),
growth.
BOD
BOD represents biological activity, available DO, bacteria and organic
matter composition. BOD usually follow two cycles, where carbonaceous phase
decompose to produce CO2 and H2O and nitrification phase which follow nitrate
nitrate path way the action of nitrozo-monas and nitro-bactar. A steady phase
unchangel phase of BOD was recorded from the study from Khateshwar lake
water explain constant decomposition and supply throughout the season during
study period
Nitrogen Nitrate
The forms of nitrogen that are generally available for aquatic plant growth
are nitrate and ammonia. Normally algae require ten times as much nitrogen for
available nitrogen over phosphorus Lee et al, (1978). Blue greens frequently
become dominant in lakes at about the same time that concentration of the
nutrients reach their seasonal minima Lund (1965) Hutchinson, (1967). Nicholls
(1976) has observed abundant growth of blue green in water where inorganic
The present lake recorded higher nitrates during winter and lower nitrites
during the same period of time. This represents that nitrite to nitrate was active
during winter and nitrate degradation was seen in summer. Nitrate reflect
decomposition is defined during onset of hot season in the present lake, which is
relationship there is no simple formula. Some bacteria may benefit from algae
and vice versa. They may also adversely affect one another by secretions of
of water have been studied in depth by a number of workers since the emergence
of the concept of “Biological indicators pollution”. In the present instance the lake
Oscillatoria were recorded. The lake was also represented by desmids and
diatoms.
bacteria appear ubiquitous in aquatic ecosystems and are often more pronaunced
bacteria and algal members, which may have nothing to do with bacteria algae
support that healthy algae were not subject to degradation by bacteria or fungi –
algal bloom in lakes and ponds especially when growth is not limited by the supply
been a reason among others that Microcystic which grows in lake understudy. The
indicaters how the algae might benefit, but may of the mechanics of nutrients and
PART – II
INTRODUCTION
the changes are not beyond limits, Genetically determined potentiality for the
experiments in the laboratory For the biocontrol of it. In the present experiment
fungi was isolated from lake Khateshwar and biological control with the help of
Bacillus was observed against plant pathogenic fungal including Penicillium sp.,
Rizopus sp ; Candida sp., Fusarium sp., on the potato dextrose agar by Agar Well
Biotechnology , Swami Ramanand Tirth University, Nanded (MS) and strains were
routinely used to provide disease control. However, as these chemicals are often
toxic and potentially harmful to man and the environment, alternative methods for
potency has been progressing slowly Gupic et al., (2002). One reasion for the
slow progress compared to antibacterial is that, like mammalian cells, fungi are
eukaryotes and therefore agents that inhibit protein. RNA or DNA biosynthesis in
fungi have greater potential for toxicity to the host as well (Georgo – Papadacou
and Ticazz, (1994). The other reason is that until recently, the incidence of life
threatening fungal infections was perceived as being too low to warrant aggressive
1996).
2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
% sheep blood agar, nutrient agar, trypticase soy agar and muller- Hington agar,
B. pumius (MSH). The active compound inhibited mucor and Aspergillus spore
lesion. Antifungal activity was stable in agar for a minimum of 8 days, resistant to
5.6. its molecular mass was determined by diffusion through dialysis membrane to
500 – 3000 da. Attempts at further isolation of the compound have proven
unsuccessful to date. Alternaria disease are among the most common diseases of
many plant in the world Rocoa (2001). They affect primarily the leaves, stems,
The over use of chemical pesticides has caused soil pollution and harmful
effects of human beings. Accordingly biological control of soil borne disease has
been attracting attention. Many reports or reviews in this area have already
appeared Bernal (2001). Biological controlled agent are potential alternatives for
the chemical fungicides presently used in the agriculture to fight plant diseases.
Bacillus spp., strains are an example of a promising safe fungal biological control
agents. This work, describes that IB. subtilis B2, B. licheniformis B40, B. subtilis
showed in vitro antibiotic activity against Cornea et al., (2003) were subjected to
pot test to investigated their ability to protect plant against fungal disease.
cotton. Biochemical, physiological and loss DNA sequence analysis proved that
it should belong to Bacillus subtilis. The Py-1 strain showed strong ability against
many common plant fungal pathogens in vitro. The antibiotics produced by this
strain were stable in neutral and basic conditions, and not sensitive to high
temperature from the culture broth of Py-1 strain. Five antifungal compounds
were isolated by acidic precipitation, methanol extraction, gel filtration and reverse
were proved to be the isomers of iturin A : A2, A3, A4, A6 and A7. In fast atom
dissociation spectra, fragmentation ion from two prior linear acylium ions were
reported.
(Inouel et al., (2002). The pathogen, Fusarium oxysporum, infects plants through
the roots by direct penetration or wounds, colonized the vascular tissue and
causes plant death Simons et al., (1998). Chemical soil fumigation is the main
bromide, can be used to fumigate the soil, but they cause serious environmental
(Han et al., 2005). A Bacillus strain with ineffective ability against the Fusarium
wilt pathogen was isolated from the vascular tissue of a cotton Fusarium wilt
Collection of samples
Soil from deferent region of Khateshwar lake was collected for isolation.
Enrichment
The isolates obtained from starch agar plates were enriched in pure form
into starch broth tubes and the tubes were subjected to growth at 400 C for 24-48
hrs. Serial subcultures and transfers were made to maintain the cultures of
Isolation
tube. Inoculate 0.1 ml from mixture in to the sterile starch agar plate and sterile
Starch agar medium was prepared as follows starch 20g, Peptone 5 g, Beef
extract 3 g, Agar agar 15 g, Distilled water 1000 ml. Medium was autoclaved at
1210 C for 15-20 min. pH of the medium was adjusted with 0.1 N Na OH or 0.1 N
HCl.
Medium was autoclaved at 1210 C for 15-20 min. pH of the medium was
Inoculated plates and tubes of starch agar and starch broth respectively
were incubated at 400 C for 24-48 hours. After incubation period different species
of Bacillus were obtained and their activity was checked on starch agar plates.
Identification
Isolation of fungi
The four species of fungi were also isolated as Penicillium sp., Rhizopus
Extraction
by taking the appropriate amount of the sample in each sterile Eppendorf tube of
the centrifuge. These tube were centrifuged for 10000 rpm of 20 min.
The supernatant was collected into three sterile screw cap tube. This
supernatant were used for determining antifungal activity against plant pathogenic
Bacterial culture
LB2 and LB3, respectively, which was also used for determining antifungal activity
The sterile potato dextrose agar (PDA) was distributed in sterile petriplates.
spread with the help of spreader on medium then petridish was kept at room
temperature for 30 min after that a well was prepared with the help of borer. The
wells were separately filled with either bacterial cultures or cell extracts as
mentioned. Plates were incubates at room temperature for 2-3 days and
observed zone of inhibition. The results were recorded and expressed in terms of
considered standard.
in lettuce.
Per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2, and LB3 were calculated by
compound in 1 ml of ethanol. This solution (0.1 ml) was added in the agar wells
Table 4.1 Morphological and colony characteristics of LB1, LB2 and LB3.
Character
Size 1 mm 1 mm 1mm
Shape Circular Circular Circular
Colour White Dirty White Pale Yellow
Elevation Convex Convex Convex
Margin Entire Entire Entire
Opacity Opaque Opaque Opaque
Consistency Sticky Sticky Sticky
Surface Smooth Smooth Smooth
Gram’s nature Gram Positive Gram Positive Gram Positive
Morphology Short rods Short rods Short rods
The date in Table 4.2 shows that antifungal activity of resiofulvin against I
relative activity.
Data in the Table revealed that different species of Bacillus show the
antifungal activity against plant pathogenic fungi at its respective pH. It was seen
that as indicated in the Table 4.3 crude extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed
significant result of zone of inhibitant against Candida sp. And Rhizopus species
pH 8.
sp
LB1 7 8.5 8.5 7
LB2 5.5 7 8 6
LB3 7 7 5.5 5.5
(*This activity was performed by using agar well diffusion technique.)
against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. given in table 4.4.
and Fig. 4.5. it reveals that per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2 and LB3 was
Table 4.4. per cent relative activity of centrifuged extract of the isolated at pH
8.
sp
LB1 36.66 42.44 42.44 36.38
LB2 32.22 336.38 42.44 32.33
LB3 36.44 36.44 32.22 32.22
(* Per cent relative activity of the Bacillus at pH 8 calculated by using the standard
From the Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 and Fig. 4.5 it is revealed that the crude
LB1, LB2, and LB3 showed in Table 4.4 that strain LB1, LB2 and LB3 shows
higher than crude extract the antifungal activity against Penicillium sp. and
Rhizopus sp. but all the LB1, LB2 and LB 3 shows moderate antifungal activity
sp
LB1 5 4 5 4
LB2 4 5 5 3
LB3 3 5 3 4
against Alternaria Solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. it is calculated as
shown in the Tables showed that per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2 and LB3 is
Table 4.9 crude extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed significant result
against the plant pathogenic fungi but it is more effective against candida sp. and
against Alternaria Soloni per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. it is was shown
in Tables and reveled that per cent relative activity of LB1, LB2 and LB3 is
moderate against or significant against the Rhizopus sp and then Fusarium sp.
at pH 10.
(centrifuged extract) at pH 10
From Table it was seen that the LB2 and LB3 was showing maximum zone
of inhibition and maximum per cent relative activity, it shows that LB2 and LB3
Results show that the centrifuged extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3 show
increased level of antifungal activity than that crude extract at pH 10 it reveals that
the LB1, LB2 and LB3 show the increased level of antifungal activity against the
against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. is calculated as
shows in Table 4. 13
From above table per cent relative activity of bacteria against given fungal
species can be calculated, it showed that the per cent relative activity and zone of
inhibition increased with the Rhizopus sp. and than Fusarium sp. at pH 10 as
It was observed that as indicated in the Tables that is crude extract of the
LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed significant zone of inhibition against all the plant
pathogenic fungi but the antifungal activity against the Candida and Fusarium
against Alternaria solani per cent relative activity of Bacillus sp. is calculated and
recorded in Table 4. 16
From above it revealed that the inhibition zone in per cent relative activity, it
showed that Candida sp. and Fusarium sp. shows maximum inhibition zone and
Above results showed that the centrifuged extract of LB1, LB2 and LB3
show the antifungal activity at pH 12 revealed that the LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed
antifungal activity. But the activity is less as compared with other pH activities.
Rhizopus sp.
(centrifuged extract) at pH 12
Above results show antifungal activity of LB1, LB2, and LB3. Activity is
5 CONCLUSON
that strains LB1, LB2, LB3 showed maximum antifungal activity against Penicillium
sp. Rhizopus sp., Candida sp. and Fusarium sp. at pH 10. Accordingly, results
of strains LB1, LB2 and LB3 showed less activity against Penicillium sp.,
routinely applied to provide disease control. However, these chemicals are often
toxic and potentially harmful to man and the environment. Thus the use of
control pathogen.
CONCLUDING REMARKS.
interspecefic and intraspecfic communities integrade one another both in time and
space and often exhibit no distinct boundaries between them. This is specially
true of aquatic systems and in instances of algal bloom formation and symbiotic
The present remarks concern largely with those aspects of planktonic blue-
green algae where generalizations are possible in the light of present findings.
at four week interval and data was collected from Jun- 2005 to May 2006.
small bodies of water can have intense intermix can provide more or less similar
biota. Pollutional algae may exist even at, temperature at 190 c to 300 C, higher
Pollutional algal forms can thrive in the water well at higher buffering action
The present water study recorded well buffered situation because of higher
run off or higher biological activities and supported pollutional forms. Carbonates
The lake flora under study showed the dominance of eutrophic algae.
Higher chloride values of the lake in summer are in conformity with other
phytoplankton.
Higher nitrates of lake during winter and lower nitrite during same period of
time reflect on the nitrite to nitrate during winter and nitrate degradation during
In the present instance the lake was represented by several groups of algae
Microsystic recorded higher during July and August; when Microsystis was absent
antifungal activity against Penicillium sp., Rhizopus sp., Candiada sp., and
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List of graphs
List of photographs
List of tables