OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE

2014

2 MARKS

1. DEFINE HAZARD
A hazard is a source or a situation with the potential for harm in terms of human injury
or ill-health, damage to property, damage to the environment, or a combination of
these. ... An unwanted event is a situation or condition where there is a loss of control of
the hazard that leads to harm.

2. give four pollutants in air pollution

The common air pollutants are:

 Particulate matter (PM10 and PM2. ...
 Ozone (O3)
 Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)
 Carbon monoxide (CO)
 Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
3. what is the permissible level of sound for 8-hour exposure?
OSHA sets legal limits on noise exposure in the workplace. These limits are based on a
worker's time weighted average over an 8-hour day. With noise, OSHA's permissible exposure
limit (PEL) is 90 dBA for all workers for an 8 hour day. The OSHA standard uses a 5 dBA
exchange rate
4. what is respiratory hazard
Respiratory hazards can exist in various forms at general industry worksites. They may be
gases, vapours, dusts, mists, fumes, smoke, sprays, and fog. ... Other respiratory hazards can
take years to make you sick, like asbestos which can cause lung cancer years or even decades
after you breathe it in.

5. state the effect of high temperature

Heat waves can be dangerous, causing illnesses such as heat cramps and heat stroke, or even
death. Warmer temperatures can also lead to a chain reaction of other changes around the world.
That's because increasing air temperature also affects the oceans, weather patterns, snow and ice,
and plants and animals.

6.What is ergonomics?
Ergonomics is about designing for people.

Defined as the science of fitting a workplace to the user's needs, ergonomics aims to increase

efficiency and productivity and reduce discomfort. Think about the angle of your computer
monitor, or the height of your desk.

7. list out the common hazards in an industry.

Top 5 safety hazards in the manufacturing industry

 Falls. Slips, trips, and falls have been the leading cause for injury and death
among American workers in the private sector. ...
 Machine guarding. Many potential hazards come from the type of equipment
required in the manufacturing industry. ...
 Powered Industrial Trucks. ...
 Electrical
8. Define TLV.
Threshold limit value (TLV) – time-weighted average (TWA) represents the time-weighted average
concentration of a toxic substance over a normal 8-h workday and 40-h workweek, to which nearly
all workers may be repeatedly exposed, every day, without adverse health effects.
9.Define occupational health?
Occupational health is a field of health care made up of multiple disciplines dedicated to the
well-being and safety of employees in the workplace. ... Occupational health services include
employee wellness, pre-placement testing, ergonomics, occupational therapy, occupational
medicine, and more.
10. what type of hazard is presenting in ionizing radiation?
Ionising radiations can cause dermatitis, burns, cell damage, cataracts and changes to blood.
Microwaves and radio frequencies can cause heating of any exposed part of the body, infra-red
rays can cause skin burns and cataracts and UV light can cause skin burns, skin cancer,
conjunctivitis and arc eye.

16 marks
1. brief the control of noise pollution
Some of the ways to control noise pollution are as follows: (1) Control at Receiver’s End (2)
Suppression of Noise at Source (3) Acoustic Zoning (4) Sound Insulation at Construction Stages
(5) Planting of Trees (6) Legislative Measures.

From the above discussion, it is evident that noise is not merely a nuisance but is a serious
environmental problem and a health hazard.

Like all other pollutions, noise pollution needs to be controlled by measures which will maintain the
acceptable levels of noise pollution for human beings and buildings as indicated.

Noise pollution can be effectively controlled by taking the following

measures:
(1) Control at Receiver’s End:
For people working in noisy installations, ear-protection aids like ear-plugs, ear-muffs, noise
helmets, headphones etc. must be provided to reduce occupational exposure.

(2) Suppression of Noise at Source:

This is possible if working methods are improved by:
(a) Designing, fabricating and using quieter machines to replace the noisy ones.

(b) Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines.

(c) Installing noisy machines in sound proof chambers.

(d) Covering noise-producing machine parts with sound-absorbing materials to check noise
production.

(e) Reducing the noise produced from a vibrating machine by vibration damping i.e. making a
layer of damping material (rubber, neoprene, cork or plastic) beneath the machine.

(f) Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc. and convey systems
with ends opening into the atmosphere.

(g) Using glass wool or mineral wool covered with a sheet of perforated metal for the purpose of
mechanical protection.
(3) Acoustic Zoning:
Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy industrial areas, bus terminals
and railway stations, aerodromes etc. away from the residential areas would go a long way in
minimising noise pollution. There should be silence zones near the residential areas, educational
institutions and above all, near hospitals.

(4) Sound Insulation at Construction Stages:

(a) Sound travels through the cracks that get left between the door and the wall. For reducing
noise, this space (jamb frame gap) should be packed with sound absorbing material.

(b) Sound insulation can be done by constructing windows with double or triple panes of glass and
filling the gaps with sound absorbing materials.

(c) Acoustical tiles, hair felt, perforated plywood etc. can be fixed on walls, ceilings, floors etc. to
reduce noise (especially for sound proof recording rooms etc.)

(5) Planting of Trees:
Planting green trees and shrubs along roads, hospitals, educational institutions etc. help in noise
reduction to a considerable extent.

(6) Legislative Measures:
Strict legislative measures need to be enforced to curb the menace of noise pol-
lution. Some of these measures could be:
(a) Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers especially near silence zones.

(b) Banning pressure horns in automobiles.

(c) Framing a separate Noise Pollution Act.

2. Explain the ionizing radiation.

What is radiation?
Radiation is a very general term, used to describe any process that transmits energy through
space or a material away from a source. Light, sound, and radio waves are all examples of
radiation. When most people think of radiation, however, they are thinking of ionizing radiation--
radiation that can disrupt the atoms and molecules within the body. While scientists think of these
emissions in highly mathematical terms, they can be visualized either as subatomic particles or as
rays. Radiation's effects on humans can best be understood by first examining the effect of
radiation on atoms, the basic building blocks of matter.

What is ionization?
Atoms consist of comparatively large particles (protons and neutrons) sitting in a central nucleus,
orbited by smaller particles (electrons): a miniature solar system. Normally, the number of protons
in the centre of the atom equals the number of electrons in orbit. An ion is any atom or molecule
that does not have the normal number of electrons. Ionizing radiation  is any form of radiation that
has enough energy to knock electrons out of atoms or molecules, creating ions.

How is ionizing radiation measured?

Measurement lies at the heart of modern science, but a number by itself conveys no information.
Useful measurement requires both an instrument for measurement (such as a stick to mark off
length) and an agreement on the units to be used (such as inches, meters, or miles). The units
chosen will vary with the purpose of the measurement. For example, a cook will measure butter in
terms of tablespoons to ensure the meal tastes good, while a nutritionist may be more concerned
with measuring calories, to determine the effect on the diner's health.

The variety of units used to measure radiation and radioactivity at times confuses even scientists,
if they do not use them every day. It may be helpful to keep in mind the purpose of various units.
There are two basic reasons to measure radiation: the study of physics and the study of the
biological effects of radiation. What creates the complexity is that our instruments
measure physical effects, while what is of interest to some are biological effects. A further
complication is that units, as with words in any language, may fade from use and be replaced by
new units.

Radiation is not a series of distinct events, like radioactive decays, which can be counted
individually. Measuring radiation in bulk is like measuring the movement of sand in an hourglass;
it is more useful to think of it as a continuous flow, rather than a series of separate events.
The intensity of a beam of ionizing radiation is measured by counting up how many ions (how
much electrical charge) it creates in air. The roentgen (named after Wilhelm Roentgen, the
discoverer of x rays) is the unit that measures the ability of x rays to ionize air; it is a unit of
exposure that can be measured directly. Shortly after World War II, a common unit of
measurement was the roentgen equivalent physical (rep), which denoted an ability of other forms
of radiation to create as many ions in air as a roentgen of x rays. It is no longer used, but appears
in many of the documents examined by the Advisory Committee.

What are the basic types of ionizing radiation?

There are many types of ionizing radiation, but the most familiar are alpha, beta, and gamma/x-
ray radiation. Neutrons, when expelled from atomic nuclei and traveling as a form of radiation, can
also be a significant health concern.

Alpha particles are clusters of two neutrons and two protons each. They are identical to the nuclei
of atoms of helium, the second lightest and second most common element in the universe, after
hydrogen. Compared with other forms of radiation, though, these are very heavy particles--about
7,300 times the mass of an electron. As they travel along, these large and heavy particles
frequently interact with the electrons of atoms, rapidly losing their energy. They cannot even
penetrate a piece of paper or the layer of dead cells at the surface of our skin. But if released
within the body from a radioactive atom inside or near a cell, alpha particles can do great damage
as they ionize atoms, disrupting living cells. Radium and plutonium are two examples of alpha
emitters.

Beta particles are electrons traveling at very high energies. If alpha particles can be thought of as
large and slow bowling balls, beta particles can be visualized as golf balls on the driving range.
They travel farther than alpha particles and, depending on their energy, may do as much damage.
For example, beta particles in fallout can cause severe burns to the skin, known as beta burns.
Radiosotopes that emit beta particles are present in fission products produced in nuclear reactors
and nuclear explosions. Some beta-emitting radioisotopes, such as iodine 131, are administered
internally to patients to diagnose and treat disease.

Gamma and x-ray radiation consists of packets of energy known as photons. Photons have no

mass or charge, and they travel in straight lines. The visible light seen by our eyes is also made up
of photons, but at lower energies. The energy of a gamma ray is typically greater than 100
kiloelectron volts (keV--"k" is the abbreviation for kilo, a prefix that multiplies a basic unit by
1,000) per photon, more than 200,000 times the energy of visible light (0.5 eV). If alpha particles
are visualized as bowling balls and beta particles as golf balls, photons of gamma and x-radiation
are like weightless bullets moving at the speed of light. Photons are classified according to their
origin. Gamma rays originate from events within an atomic nucleus; their energy and rate of
production depend on the radioactive decay process of the radionuclide that is their source. X rays
are photons that usually originate from energy transitions of the electrons of an atom. These can
be artificially generated by bombarding appropriate atoms with high-energy electrons, as in the
classic x-ray tube. Because x rays are produced artificially by a stream of electrons, their rate of
output and energy can be controlled by adjusting the energy and amount of the electrons
themselves. Both x rays and gamma rays can penetrate deeply into the human body. How deeply
they penetrate depends on their energy; higher energy results in deeper penetration into the
body. A 1 MeV ("M" is the abbreviation for mega, a prefix that multiplies a basic unit by
1,000,000) gamma ray, with an energy 2,000,000 times that of visible light, can pass completely
through the body, creating tens of thousands of ions as it does.

A final form of radiation of concern is neutron radiation. Neutrons, along with protons, are one of
the components of the atomic nucleus. Like protons, they have a large mass; unlike protons, they
have no electric charge, allowing them to slip more easily between atoms. Like a Stealth fighter,
high-energy neutrons can travel farther into the body, past the protective outer layer of the skin,
before delivering their energy and causing ionization.

Several other types of high-energy particles are also ionizing radiation. Cosmic radiation that
penetrates the Earth's atmosphere from space consists mainly of protons, alpha particles, and
heavier atomic nuclei. Positrons, mesons, pions, and other exotic particles can also be ionizing
radiation.

3.Explain dust,fumes,mist,vapour,fog and gas.

Dust is made of fine particles of solid matter. On Earth, it generally consists of particles
in the atmosphere that come from various sources such as soil lifted by wind (an aeolian
process), volcanic eruptions, and pollution. Dust in homes is composed of about 50%
dead skin cells.

1a : a smoke, vapor, or gas especially when irritating or offensive engine

exhaust fumes. b : an often noxious suspension of particles in a gas (such as air) 2 :
something (such as an emotion) that impairs one's reasoning sometimes his head gets a
little hot with the fumes of patriotism

Mist is a very dense water vapor, almost as thick as fog. ... As a verb, mist means "to
cover with mist," so you might mist your dry plants or watch your windows mist up in
the rain. Mist can also refer to a general dimness or cloudiness: "She watched through
the mist of her tears."

Vapour refers to a gas phase at a temperature where the same substance can also exist
in the liquid or solid state, below the critical temperature of the substance. (For example,
water has a critical temperature of 374 °C (647 K), which is the highest temperature at
which liquid water can exist.)

Fog is a cloud that touches the ground. ... Fog shows up when water vapour, or water
in its gaseous form, condenses. During condensation, molecules of water vapour
combine to make tiny liquid water droplets that hang in the air. You can see fog because
of these tiny water droplets.

 a fluid (such as air) that has neither independent shape nor volume but tends to expand
indefinitely. 2a : a combustible gas or gaseous mixture for fuel or lighting especially :
natural gas.

4. Explain the details about the air sampling techniques

Types of Air Sampling
All industrial hygiene measurements define potential exposures. There are a variety of
industrial hygiene measurements that can be employed and each vary with the types of
equipment used for detection, the nature of the sampling, and the amount of time
sampled within a work shift. The variety of air sampling techniques provide a
professional with a different result applicable to the goal of the air sampling. Let us detail
this concept and the different types of samples below.

Grab Sampling
"Grab" sampling is just that...a short "grab" of air that is analyzed for particular contaminants of
interest. This type of sampling provides limited results on "exposure" and is typically incorporated
into a qualatative evaluation to establish "presence" or "absence" of a particular contaminant.  It is
commonly employed in indoor air quality evaluations, post-accident clearance sampling, and
presence/absence testing to determine if a contaminant is present during a short process.
Equipment used to complete this sampling often includes tedlar bags (to pull air into for laboratory
evaluation), drager tubes (drawing air through a detector tube for detection of known
contaminants), and direct-reading instruments (to test for presence/absence of contaminants or
oxygen content).

Short-term Exposure Sampling

Short term sampling is typically conducted over a 15-minute to 30-minute interval within a shift.
This sampling is used to define peaks of exposure during a process. The results can be compared
to exposure limits that are defined on a short term exposure sample (i.e., short-term exposure
limits (STELs) or excursion limits usually 10 - 30 minutes in length). These samples can be
completed consecutively (2 or 3 in a row) to see which portion of a particular tasks represents the
peak exposure.  Equipment used to complete this type of sampling is usually integrated air
sampling equipment, direct-reading (with logging and averaging ability), and passive dosimetry.

Full-shift Exposure Sampling

Full-shift sampling is typically conducted over an 8-hour shift or the highest anticipated 8-hour
exposure period of longer shifts (i.e., 10 and 12 hour shifts).  This sampling is used to define the
average concentration of the contaminant over the shift and is paramount to personal exposure
sampling. These samples can be completed with multilple media with the total sampling time
adding up to 8-hours. Equipment used to complete this type of sampling is usually integrated air
sampling equipment, direct reading (data logging with averaging ability), and passive dosimetry.

5. classify and explain the bio hazardous agents.

A biological hazard, or biohazard, is a biological substance that poses a threat to the
health of living organisms, primarily humans. This could include a sample of
a microorganism, virus or toxin that can adversely affect human health. A biohazard
could also be a substance harmful to other animals.[A]
The term and its associated symbol are generally used as a warning, so that those
potentially exposed to the substances will know to take precautions. The biohazard
symbol was developed in 1966 by Charles Baldwin, an environmental-health engineer
working for the Dow Chemical Company on the containment products.[1]
It is used in the labeling of biological materials that carry a significant health risk,
including viral samples and used hypodermic needles.

Classification[edit]
Bio hazardous agents are classified for transportation by UN number:[2]

 Category A, UN 2814 – Infectious substance, affecting humans: An infectious

substance in a form capable of causing permanent disability or life-threatening or
fatal disease in otherwise healthy humans or animals when exposure to it occurs.
 Category A, UN 2900 – Infectious substance, affecting animals (only): An
infectious substance that is not in a form generally capable of causing permanent
disability or life-threatening or fatal disease in otherwise healthy humans and
animals when exposure to themselves occurs.
 Category B, UN 3373 – Biological substance transported for diagnostic or
investigative purposes.
 Regulated Medical Waste, UN 3291 – Waste or reusable material derived from
medical treatment of an animal or human, or from biomedical research, which
includes the production and testing.
5. write short notes on

1.back pain

2.Musculoskeletal disorder
Musculoskeletal disorders (MSDs) are injuries or pain in the human musculoskeletal
system, including the joints, ligaments, muscles, nerves, tendons, and structures that
support limbs, neck and back.[1] MSDs can arise from a sudden exertion (e.g., lifting a
heavy object),[2] or they can arise from making the same motions repeatedly repetitive
strain, or from repeated exposure to force, vibration, or awkward posture.[3] Injuries and
pain in the musculoskeletal system caused by acute traumatic events like a car accident
or fall are not considered musculoskeletal disorders.[4] MSDs can affect many different
parts of the body including upper and lower back, neck, shoulders and extremities
(arms, legs, feet, and hands).[5] Examples of MSDs include carpal tunnel
syndrome, epicondylitis, tendinitis, back pain, tension neck syndrome, and hand-arm
vibration syndrome

Causes
MSDs can arise from the interaction of physical factors with ergonomic, psychological,
social, and occupational factors.[6]

Biomechanical
MSDs are caused by biomechanical load which is the force that must be applied to do
tasks, the duration of the force applied, and the frequency with which tasks are
performed.[7] Activities involving heavy loads can result in acute injury, but most
occupation-related MSDs are from motions that are repetitive, or from maintaining a
static position.[8] Even activities that do not require a lot of force can result in muscle
damage if the activity is repeated often enough at short intervals.[8] MSD risk factors
involve doing tasks with heavy force, repetition, or maintaining a nonneutral posture.
[8]
 Of particular concern is the combination of heavy load with repetition.[8] Although poor
posture is often blamed for lower back pain, a systematic review of the literature failed
to find a consistent connection.[9]

Individual differences
People vary in their tendency to get MSDs. Gender is a factor, with women having a
higher incidence of MSDs than men.[8] Obesity is also a factor, with overweight
individuals having a higher risk of some MSDs, specifically of the lower back.[10]

Psychosocial
There is a growing consensus that psychosocial factors are another cause of some MSDs.
[11]
 Some theories for this causal relationship found by many researchers include
increased muscle tension, increased blood and fluid pressure, reduction of growth
functions, pain sensitivity reduction, pupil dilation, body remaining at heightened state of
sensitivity. Although there is no consensus at this time,[12] some of the workplace
stressors found to be associated with MSDs in the workplace include high job demands,
low social support, and overall job strain.[11][13][14] Researchers have consistently identified
causal relationships between job dissatisfaction and MSDs. For example, improving job
satisfaction can reduce 17-69 per cent of work-related back disorders and improving job
control can reduce 37-84 per cent of work-related wrist disorders.[15]

Occupational
Because workers maintain the same posture over long work days and often several
years, even natural postures like standing can lead to MSDs like low back pain. Postures
which are less natural, such as twisting of or tension in the upper body, are typically
contributors to the development of MSDs due to the unnatural biomechanical load of
these postures.[3][16] There is evidence that posture contributes to MSDs of the neck,
shoulder, and back.[3] Repeated motion is another risk factor for MSDs of occupational
origin because workers can perform the same movements repeatedly over long periods
of time (e.g. typing leading to carpal tunnel syndrome, lifting heavy objects leading to
 herniated discs/slipped discs), which can wear on the joints and muscles involved in the
motion in question.[3] [17] Workers doing repetitive motions at a high pace of work with
little recovery time and workers with little to no control over the timing of motions (e.g.
workers on assembly lines) are also prone to MSDs due to the motion of their work.
[16]
 Force needed to perform actions on the job can also be associated with higher MSD
risk in workers, because movements which require more force can fatigue muscles
quicker which can lead to injury and/or pain.[3] Additionally, exposure to vibration
(experienced by truck drivers or construction workers, for example) and extreme hot or
cold temperatures can affect a worker's ability to judge force and strength, which can
lead to development of MSDs.[16] Vibration exposure is also associated with hand-arm
vibration syndrome, which has symptoms of lack of blood circulation to the fingers,
nerve compression, tingling, and/or numbness.[18]
Back pain
Back pain, also known as backache, is pain felt in the back. The back is divided into neck
pain (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or coccydynia (tailbone or
sacral pain) based on the segment affected.[1] The lumbar area is the most common area affected.
[2]
 Episodes of back pain may be acute, sub-acute, or chronic depending on the duration. The pain
may be characterized as a dull ache, shooting or piercing pain, or a burning sensation. Discomfort
can radiate into the arms and hands as well as the legs or feet,[3] and may include numbness,[1] or
weakness in the legs and arms.
The majority of back pain is nonspecific with no identifiable causes.[4][5] Common underlying
mechanisms include degenerative or traumatic changes to the discs and facets joints, which can
then cause secondary pain in the muscles, and nerves, and referred pain to the bones, joints and
extremities.[3] Diseases and inflammation of the gallbladder, pancreas, aorta, and kidneys may also
cause referred pain in the back.[3] Tumors of the vertebrae, neural tissues and adjacent structures
can also manifest as back pain.

6.Explain occupational related diseases.

An occupational disease is any chronic ailment that occurs as a result of work or occupational
activity. It is an aspect of occupational safety and health. An occupational disease is typically
identified when it is shown that it is more prevalent in a given body of workers than in the general
population, or in other worker populations. The first such disease to be recognised, squamous-cell
carcinoma of the scrotum, was identified in chimney sweep boys by Sir Percival Pott in 1775[citation
needed]
. Occupational hazards that are of a traumatic nature (such as falls by roofers) are not
considered to be occupational diseases.
Under the law of workers' compensation in many jurisdictions, there is a presumption that specific
disease are caused by the worker being in the work environment and the burden is on the
employer or insurer to show that the disease came about from another cause. Diseases
compensated by national workers compensation authorities are often termed occupational
diseases. However, many countries do not offer compensations for certain diseases like
musculoskeletal disorders caused by work (e.g. in Norway). Therefore, the term work-related
diseases is utilized to describe diseases of occupational origin. This term however would then
include both compensable and non-compensable diseases that have occupational origins.

Contents

 1Types
o 1.1Lung diseases
o 1.2Skin diseases
o 1.3Other diseases of concern
o 1.4Historical
 2Prevention
 3See also
 4References
 5External links
Types[edit]
Some well-known occupational diseases include:

Lung diseases[edit]
Main article:  Occupational lung disease

Occupational lung diseases include asbestosis among asbestos miners and those who work with

friable asbestos insulation, as well as black lung (coalworker's pneumoconiosis) among coal
miners, silicosis among miners and quarrying and tunnel operators and byssinosis among workers
in parts of the cotton textile industry.
Occupational asthma has a vast number of occupations at risk.
Bad indoor air quality may predispose for diseases in the lungs as well as in other parts of the
body.

Skin diseases[edit]
Main article:  Occupational skin diseases

Occupational skin diseases are ranked among the top five occupational diseases in many countries.
[2]

Occupational skin diseases and conditions are generally caused by chemicals and having wet
hands for long periods while at work. Eczema is by far the most common,
but urticaria, sunburn and skin cancer are also of concern.[3]
Contact dermatitis due to irritation is inflammation of the skin which results from a contact with an
irritant.[4] It has been observed that this type of dermatitis does not require prior sensitization of
the immune system. There have been studies to support that past or present atopic dermatitis is a
risk factor for this type of dermatitis.[5] Common irritants include detergents, acids, alkalies, oils,
organic solvents and reducing agents.[6]
The acute form of this dermatitis develops on exposure of the skin to a strong irritant or caustic
chemical. This exposure can occur as a result of accident at a workplace. The irritant reaction
starts to increase in its intensity within minutes to hours of exposure to the irritant and reaches its
peak quickly. After the reaction has reached its peak level, it starts to heal. This process is known
as decrescendo phenomenon.[7] The most frequent potent irritants leading to this type of dermatitis
are acids and alkaline solutions.[8] The symptoms include redness and swelling of the skin along
with the formation of blisters.
The chronic form occurs as a result of repeated exposure of the skin to weak irritants over long
periods of time.[9]
Clinical manifestations of the contact dermatitis are also modified by external factors such as
environmental factors (mechanical pressure, temperature, and humidity) and predisposing
characteristics of the individual (age, sex, ethnic origin, preexisting skin disease, atopic skin
diathesis, and anatomic region exposed.[10]
Another occupational skin disease is Glove related hand urticaria. It has been reported as an
occupational problem among the health care workers. This type of hand urticaria is believed to be
caused by repeated wearing and removal of the gloves. The reaction is caused by the latex or the
nitrile present in the gloves.[11]
High-risk occupations include:[3]

 Hairdressing
 Catering
 Healthcare
 Printing
 Metal machining
 Motor vehicle repair
 Construction
Other diseases of concern[edit]

 Overuse syndrome among persons who perform repetitive or forceful movements in

constrictive postures
 Carpal tunnel syndrome among persons who work in the poultry industry and information
technology
 Computer vision syndrome among persons using information technology for hours
 Lead poisoning affecting workers in many industries that processed or employed lead or
lead compounds
Historical[edit]
Donald Hunter in his classic history of occupational diseases discusses many example of
occupational diseases.[12] They include:

 Phossy jaw among the London matchgirls

 Radiation sickness among some persons who had been working in the nuclear industry
 Radium jaw among the Radium Girls
 Squamous cell carcinoma of the skin of the scrotum among chimney sweeps (see Chimney
sweeps' carcinoma)

Prevention[edit]
Prevention measures include avoidance of the irritant through its removal from the workplace or
through technical shielding by the use of potent irritants in closed systems or automation, irritant
replacement or removal [13] and personal protection of the workers.
In order to better prevent and control occupational disease, most countries revise and update their
related laws, most of them greatly increasing the penalties in case of breaches of the occupational
disease laws. Occupational disease prevention, in general legally regulated, is part of good supply
chain management and enables companies to design and ensure supply chain social compliance
schemes as well as monitor their implementation to identify and prevent occupational disease
hazards.

7.Write about CPR

Definition
Cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) is a procedure to support and maintain breathing
and circulation for an infant, child, or adolescent who has stopped breathing (respiratory
arrest) and/or whose heart has stopped (cardiac arrest).

Purpose
CPR is performed to restore and maintain breathing and circulation and to provide
oxygen and blood flow to the heart, brain, and other vital organs. CPR can be performed
by trained laypeople or healthcare professionals on infants, children, adolescents, and
adults. CPR should be performed if an infant, child, or adolescent is unconscious and not
breathing. Respiratory and cardiac arrest can be caused by allergic reactions, an
ineffective heartbeat, asphyxiation, breathing passages that are blocked, choking ,
drowning, drug reactions or overdoses, electric shock, exposure to cold, severe shock, or
trauma. In newborns, the most common cause of cardiopulmonary arrest is respiratory
failure caused by sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), airway obstruction (usually
from inhalation of a foreign body), sepsis, neurologic disease, or drowning. Cardiac
 arrest in children over one year of age is most commonly caused by shock and/or
respiratory failure resulting from an accident or injury.

Description
CPR is part of the emergency cardiac care system designed to save lives. Many deaths
can be prevented by prompt recognition of cardiopulmonary arrest and notification of the
emergency medical system (EMS), followed by early CPR, defibrillation (which delivers a
brief electric shock to the heart in attempt to get the heart to beat normally), and
advanced cardiac life support measures. When performed by a layperson, CPR is
designed to support and maintain breathing and circulation until emergency medical
personnel arrive and take over. When performed by healthcare personnel, it is used in
conjunction with other basic and advanced life support measures.
CPR must be performed within four to six minutes after cessation of breathing to prevent
brain damage or death. CPR consists of rescue breathing, which delivers oxygen to the
victim's lungs, and external chest compressions, which help circulate blood through the
heart to vital organs.
CPR technique differs for infants, children, and adolescents. The American Heart
Association and the American Red Cross, the two organizations that provide CPR training
and guidelines, distinguish infants, children, and adolescents for the purposes of CPR as
follows:

 "Infant" includes neonates (those in the first 28 days of life) and extends to the age of one
year.
 "Child" includes toddlers aged one year to children aged eight years.
 "Adult" includes children aged eight years and older.

Because infants and children under the age of eight have smaller upper and lower
airways and faster heart rates than adults, CPR techniques are different for them than
for older children and adults. Children and adolescents aged eight years and older have
reached a body size that can be handled using adult CPR techniques and are thus
classified as adults for delivery of CPR and life support. CPR is always begun after
assessing the victim and contacting EMS.

INDUSTRAIAL AUDIOMATRY
Audiometry
An audiometry exam tests your ability to hear sounds. Sounds vary, based on their loudness
(intensity) and the speed of sound wave vibrations (tone).

Hearing occurs when sound waves stimulate the nerves of the inner ear. The sound then travels
along nerve pathways to the brain.

Sound waves can travel to the inner ear through the ear canal, eardrum, and bones of the middle
ear (air conduction). They can also pass through the bones around and behind the ear (bone
conduction).

The INTENSITY of sound is measured in decibels (dB):

 A whisper is about 20 dB.

 Loud music (some concerts) is around 80 to 120 dB.

 A jet engine is about 140 to 180 dB.

Sounds greater than 85 dB can cause hearing loss after a few hours. Louder sounds can cause
immediate pain, and hearing loss can develop in a very short time.

The TONE of sound is measured in cycles per second (cps) or Hertz:

 Low bass tones range around 50 to 60 Hz.

 Shrill, high-pitched tones range around 10,000 Hz or higher.

The normal range of human hearing is about 20 to 20,000 Hz. Some animals can hear
up to 50,000 Hz. Human speech is usually 500 to 3,000 Hz.

How the Test is Performed?

Your health care provider may test your hearing with simple tests that can be done in
the office. These may include completing a questionnaire and listening to whispered
voices, tuning forks, or tones from an ear examination scope.

A specialized tuning fork test can help determine the type of hearing loss. The tuning
fork is tapped and held in the air on each side of the head to test the ability to hear by
air conduction. It is tapped and placed against the bone behind each ear (mastoid bone)
to test bone conduction.

A formal hearing testing can give a more exact measure of hearing. Several tests may
be done:

 Pure tone testing (audiogram) -- For this test, you wear earphones attached to
the audiometer. Pure tones of a specific frequency and volume are delivered to one ear
at a time. You are asked to signal when you hear a sound. The minimum volume
required to hear each tone is graphed. A device called a bone oscillator is placed against
the mastoid bone to test bone conduction.

 Speech audiometry -- This tests your ability to detect and repeat spoken words at
different volumes heard through a head set.

 Immittance audiometry -- This test measures the function of the ear drum and
the flow of sound through the middle ear. A probe is inserted into the ear and air is
pumped through it to change the pressure within the ear as tones are produced. A
microphone monitors how well sound is conducted within the ear under different
pressures.

8.Explain stress and fatigue:

Stress and your health

Stress is a feeling of emotional or physical tension. It can come from any event or thought that
makes you feel frustrated, angry, or nervous.
 Stress is your body's reaction to a challenge or demand. In short bursts, stress can be positive,
such as when it helps you avoid danger or meet a deadline. But when stress lasts for a long time,
it may harm your health.

Considerations
Stress is a normal feeling. There are two main types of stress:

 Acute stress. This is short-term stress that goes away quickly. You feel it when you slam
on the brakes, have a fight with your partner, or ski down a steep slope. It helps you manage
dangerous situations. It also occurs when you do something new or exciting. All people have acute
stress at one time or another.
 Chronic stress. This is stress that lasts for a longer period of time. You may have chronic
stress if you have money problems, an unhappy marriage, or trouble at work. Any type of stress
that goes on for weeks or months is chronic stress. You can become so used to chronic stress that
you don't realize it is a problem. If you don't find ways to manage stress, it may lead to health
problems.
STRESS AND YOUR BODY

Your body reacts to stress by releasing hormones. These hormones make your brain more alert,
cause your muscles to tense, and increase your pulse. In the short term, these reactions are good
because they can help you handle the situation causing stress. This is your body's way of
protecting itself.

When you have chronic stress, your body stays alert, even though there is no danger. Over time,
this puts you at risk for health problems, including:

 High blood pressure

 Heart disease
 Diabetes
 Obesity
 Depression or anxiety
 Skin problems, such as acne or eczema
 Menstrual problems

If you already have a health condition, chronic stress can make it worse.

SIGNS OF TOO MUCH STRESS

Stress can cause many types of physical and emotional symptoms. Sometimes, you may not
realize these symptoms are caused by stress. Here are some signs that stress may be affecting
you:

 Diarrhea or constipation

 Forgetfulness

 Frequent aches and pains

 Headaches

 Lack of energy or focus

 Sexual problems

 Stiff jaw or neck

 Tiredness

 Trouble sleeping or sleeping too much

 Upset stomach

 Use of alcohol or drugs to relax

 Weight loss or gain

Fatigue:
Fatigue is a feeling of constant tiredness or weakness and can be physical, mental or a
combination of both. It can affect anyone, and most adults will experience fatigue at
some point in their life.

Each year, around 1.5 million Australians see their doctor about fatigue. Fatigue is a
symptom, not a condition. For many people, fatigue is caused by a combination of
lifestyle, social, psychological and general wellbeing issues rather than an underlying
medical condition.

Although fatigue is sometimes described as tiredness, it is different to just feeling tired

or sleepy. Everyone feels tired at some point, but this is usually resolved with a nap or a
few nights of good sleep. Someone who is sleepy may also feel temporarily refreshed
after exercising.

If you are getting enough sleep, good nutrition and exercising regularly but still find it
hard to perform everyday activities, concentrate or be motivated at your normal levels,
you may be experiencing fatigue that needs further investigation.

Symptoms of fatigue

Fatigue can cause a vast range of other physical, mental and emotional symptoms including:

 chronic tiredness or sleepiness

 headache
 dizziness
 sore or aching muscles
 muscle weakness
 slowed reflexes and responses
 impaired decision-making and judgement
 moodiness, such as irritability
 impaired hand-to-eye coordination
 appetite loss
 reduced immune system function
 blurry vision
 short-term memory problems
 poor concentration
 hallucinations
 reduced ability to pay attention to the situation at hand
 low motivation.
 Causes of fatigue

The wide range of causes that can trigger fatigue include:

 Medical causes – unrelenting exhaustion may be a sign of an underlying illness, such as

a thyroid disorder, heart disease or diabetes.
 Lifestyle-related causes – alcohol or drugs or lack of regular exercise can lead to
feelings of fatigue.
 Workplace-related causes – workplace stress can lead to feelings of fatigue
 Emotional concerns and stress – fatigue is a common symptom of mental health
problems, such as depression and grief, and may be accompanied by other signs and symptoms,
including irritability and lack of motivation.

Workplace-related causes of fatigue

Common workplace issues that can cause fatigue include:

 Shift work – the human body is designed to sleep during the night. This pattern is set by
a small part of the brain known as the circadian clock. A shift worker confuses their circadian clock
by working when their body is programmed to be asleep.
 Poor workplace practices – can add to a person’s level of fatigue. These may include
long work hours, hard physical labour, irregular working hours (such as rotating shifts), a stressful
work environment (such as excessive noise or temperature extremes), boredom, working alone
with little or no interaction with others, or fixed concentration on a repetitive task.
 Workplace stress – can be caused by a wide range of factors including job
dissatisfaction, heavy workload, conflicts with bosses or colleagues, bullying, constant change, or
threats to job security.
 Burnout – can be described as striving too hard in one area of life while neglecting
everything else. ‘Workaholics’, for example, put all their energies into their career, which puts their
family life, social life and personal interests out of balance.
 Unemployment – financial pressures, feelings of failure or guilt, and the emotional
exhaustion of prolonged job hunting can lead to stress, anxiety, depression and fatigue.

Psychological causes of fatigue

Studies suggest that psychological factors are present in at least 50 per cent of fatigue cases.
These may include:

 Depression – this illness is characterised by severe and prolonged feelings of sadness,

dejection and hopelessness. People who are depressed commonly experience chronic fatigue.
 Anxiety and stress – a person who is chronically anxious or stressed keeps their body in
overdrive. The constant flooding of adrenaline exhausts the body, and fatigue sets in.
 Grief – losing a loved one causes a wide range of emotions including shock, guilt,
depression, despair and loneliness.

9. Explain aerobic and anaerobic work

.
Aerobic exercise is any type of cardiovascular conditioning. It can include activities like
brisk walking, swimming, running, or cycling. You probably know it as “cardio.”

By definition, aerobic exercise means “with oxygen.” Your breathing and heart rate will
increase during aerobic activities. Aerobic exercise helps keep your heart, lungs, and
circulatory system healthy.

Aerobic exercise differs from anaerobic exercise. Anaerobic exercises, such as

weightlifting or sprinting, involve quick bursts of energy. They’re performed at maximum
effort for a short time. This is unlike aerobic exercises. You perform aerobic exercises for
a sustained period of time.

Read on to learn more about aerobic exercises you can try at home and at the gym. And
remember, always talk to your doctor before beginning a new aerobic exercise routine.

At-home aerobic exercise

Cardiovascular exercises can be done at home. There are many you can do with little to
no equipment, too. Always warm up for 5 to 10 minutes before starting any exercise.

Jump rope

Equipment: gym shoes (sneakers), jump rope

Benefits: Jumping rope helps develop better body awareness, hand-foot coordination,

and agility.

Safety: Your jump rope should be adjusted for your height. Stand with both feet on the
middle of the rope and extend the handles to your armpits. That’s the height you’re
going for. If it’s too long, cut or tie it to avoid tripping on the rope.

Duration and frequency: 15 to 25 minutes, 3 to 5 times per week

Following a jump rope circuit is a great indoor or outdoor activity, though you’ll want to
make sure you have plenty of space. Your circuit routine should take 15 to 25 minutes to
complete.

Anaerobic work

The difference between aerobic and anaerobic exercise

Aerobic exercise produces energy using a continuous supply of oxygen to sustain the
current level of activity without needing additional energy from another source. But
anaerobic exercise prompts your body to demand more energy than your aerobic system
can produce.

To produce more energy, your body uses its anaerobic system, which relies on energy
sources stored in your muscles.

Slower-paced exercises like jogging or endurance cycling are examples of aerobic

exercise. Fast-paced workouts like sprinting, high-intensity interval training (HIIT),
jumping rope, and interval training take the more intense approach of anaerobic
exercise.

One easy way to remember the difference between the two is the term “aerobic” means
“with oxygen,” while “anaerobic” means “without oxygen.”

The science behind anaerobic

Oxygen is required for the body to be able to use fat for fuel. Since aerobic exercise uses
oxygen to produce energy, it can use both fat and glucose for fuel. Anaerobic exercise,
on the other hand, can only use glucose for fuel.

Glucose is available in the muscles for quick and short bursts of movement, and can be
used when the aerobic system is maxed out for a short period of time.

When you begin to exercise vigorously, there is a temporary shortage of oxygen getting
delivered to your working muscles. That means anaerobic exercise must be fueled using
glucose through a process called glycolysis.

Glycolysis occurs in muscle cells during high-intensity training without oxygen, producing
energy quickly. This process also produces lactic acid, which is the reason why your
muscles get so tired after the energy burst.

By engaging in anaerobic exercise regularly, your body will be able to tolerate and
eliminate lactic acid more effectively. That means you’ll get tired less quickly.

The benefits

If anaerobic exercise sounds like a lot of work, that’s because it is. But the benefits that
come with the intense fitness regime are enough to make you want to power through
your next workout.