Tsunami

The Assignment Submitted

By
Students of Division: Food Science & Technology
Mumtahin Ul Kousar
HAAMIYAH SIDIQ
NAZRANA WANI
MIFFTHA YASEEN
UFAQ FAYAZ
MOHSIN AGA
To
Dr. JAVEED IQBAL
Course Name:
DISASTERS AND THEIR MANAGEMENT
Course Code:
PGS-506

Shalimar Campus, Srinagar, Jammu and Kashmir 190025

Introduction

A tsunami is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large

volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions and other underwater explosions (including detonations, landslides, glacier
calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances) above or below water all have the
potential to generate a tsunami. Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by
wind, or tides, which are generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun,
a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water.

Tsunami waves do not resemble normal undersea currents or sea waves because their
wavelength is far longer. Rather than appearing as a breaking wave, a tsunami may
instead initially resemble a rapidly rising tide. For this reason, it is often referred to as
a tidal wave, although this usage is not favoured by the scientific community because
it might give the false impression of a causal relationship between tides and tsunamis.
Tsunamis generally consist of a series of waves, with periods ranging from minutes to
hours, arriving in a so-called "wave train”. Wave heights of tens of meters can be
generated by large events. Although the impact of tsunamis is limited to coastal areas,
their destructive power can be enormous, and they can affect entire ocean basins. The
2004 Indian Ocean tsunami was among the deadliest natural disasters in human
history, with at least 230,000 people killed or missing in 14 countries bordering the
Indian Ocean.

The Ancient Greek historian Thucydides suggested in his 5th century BC History of
the Peloponnesian War that tsunamis were related to submarine earthquakes, but the
understanding of tsunamis remained slim until the 20th century and much remains
unknown. Major areas of current research include determining why some large
earthquakes do not generate tsunamis while other smaller ones do; accurately
forecasting the passage of tsunamis across the oceans; and forecasting how tsunami
waves interact with shorelines.

Tsunamis generally need time to reach coastal areas and cause damage there. During
thislead time, various types of information, including natural, disaster and social
information, are issued via various communication channels, and such information is
perceived and processed by coastal residents with diverse backgrounds. This diversity
in information and individual demographics leads to diverse behaviour during the lead
time. Appropriate evacuation behaviours during the lead time can largely mitigate the
loss of human life, particularly in mega-tsunamis. Thus, understanding the evacuation
behaviours in tsunamis is essential for planning non-structural countermeasures and
preparedness for future tsunami events. With this background, evacuation behaviours
in past tsunamis have been investigated from various aspects. Although each study
focuses on a specific stage or phase during the evacuation process, no comprehensive
overview of the tsunami evacuation process has been reported. Additionally, although
rich survey results and findings are available, especially in Japan, wherein many
tsunamis have been experienced, thisknowledge has not been shared internationally
due to language barriers. Organising the existing findings on evacuation behaviours in
past tsunamis into a general tsunami evacuation process should provide us with a
clear overview of tsunami evacuations and future research directions.
Unlike other geo-hazards, tsunamis can cause damage across the oceans,
asdemonstrated by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, which caused damage and death
in 14countries around the Indian Ocean. Trans-oceanic tsunamis from giant
earthquakes or volcanic eruptions have been recorded either instrumentally or in
historicaldocuments.

In studies of past tsunami deposits, the tsunami sources are sometimes considered in
far-field across the oceans. For example, prehistoric tsunami deposits in the Hawaiian
Islands are attributed to the Aleutian source(s). In order to reliably estimate the source
of prehistoric tsunami deposit, we need to understand the characteristics of trans-
oceanic tsunamis.

History

While Japan may have the longest recorded history of tsunamis, the sheer destruction
caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami event mark it as the most
devastating of its kind in modern times, killing around 230,000 people. The Sumatran
region is also accustomed to tsunamis, with earthquakes of varying magnitudes
regularly occurring off the coast of the island.
Tsunamis are an often underestimated hazard in the Mediterranean Sea and parts of
Europe. Of historical and current (with regard to risk assumptions) importance are the
1755 Lisbon earthquake and tsunami (which was caused by the Azores–Gibraltar
Transform Fault), the 1783 Calabrian earthquakes, each causing several tens of
thousands of deaths and the 1908 Messina earthquake and tsunami. The tsunami
claimed more than 123,000 lives in Sicily and Calabria and is among the most deadly
natural disasters in modern Europe. The Storegga Slide in the Norwegian Sea and
some examples of tsunamis affecting the British Isles refer to landslide and
meteotsunamis predominantly and less to earthquake-induced waves.

As early as 426 BC the Greek historian Thucydides inquired in his book History of
the Peloponnesian War about the causes of tsunami, and was the first to argue that
ocean earthquakes must be the cause.

"The cause, in my opinion, of this phenomenon must be sought in the earthquake. At

the point where its shock has been the most violent the sea is driven back, and
suddenly recoiling with redoubled force, causes the inundation. Without an
earthquake I do not see how such an accident could happen".

The Roman historian AmmianusMarcellinus described the typical sequence of a

tsunami, including an incipient earthquake, the sudden retreat of the sea and a
following gigantic wave, after the 365 AD tsunami devastated Alexandria.

Characteristics

Tsunamis cause damage by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water
travelling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining
off the land and carrying a large amount of debris with it, even with waves that do not
appear to be large.

While everyday wind waves have a wavelength (from crest to crest) of about 100
meters (330 ft.) and a height of roughly 2 meters (6.6 ft.), a tsunami in the deep ocean
has a much larger wavelength of up to 200 kilometers (120 mi). Such a wave travels
at well over 800 kilometers per hour (500 mph), but owing to the enormous
wavelength the wave oscillation at any given point takes 20 or 30 minutes to complete
a cycle and has amplitude of only about 1 meter (3.3 ft.). This makes tsunamis
difficult to detect over deep water, where ships are unable to feel their passage.

The velocity of a tsunami can be calculated by obtaining the square root of the depth
of the water in meters multiplied by the acceleration due to gravity (approximated to
10 m/s2). For example, if the Pacific Ocean is considered to have a depth of 5000
meters, the velocity of a tsunami would be the square root of √(5000 × 10) = √50000
= ~224 meters per second (735 feet per second), which equates to a speed of ~806
kilometers per hour or about 500 miles per hour. This is the formula used for
calculating the velocity of shallow-water waves. Even the deep ocean is shallow in
this sense because a tsunami wave is so long (horizontally from crest to crest) by
comparison.

The reason for the Japanese name "harbour wave" is that sometimes a village's
fishermen would sail out, and encounter no unusual waves while out at sea fishing,
and come back to land to find their village devastated by a huge wave.

As the tsunami approaches the coast and the waters become shallow, wave shoaling
compresses the wave and its speed decreases below 80 kilometers per hour (50 mph).
Its wavelength diminishes to less than 20 kilometers (12 mi) and its amplitude grows
enormously – in accord with Green's law. Since the wave still has the same very long
period, the tsunami may take minutes to reach full height. Except for the very largest
tsunamis, the approaching wave does not break, but rather appears like a fast-moving
tidal bore. Open bays and coastlines adjacent to very deep water may shape the
tsunami further into a step-like wave with a steep-breaking front.

When the tsunami's wave peak reaches the shore, the resulting temporary rise in sea
level is termed run up. Run up is measured in meters above a reference sea level.A
large tsunami may feature multiple waves arriving over a period of hours, with
significant time between the wave crests. The first wave to reach the shore may not
have the highest run-up.
About 80% of tsunamis occur in the Pacific Ocean, but they are possible wherever
there are large bodies of water, including lakes. They are caused by earthquakes,
landslides, volcanic explosions, glacier calvings, and bolides.

Tsunami heights

Several terms are used to describe the different characteristics of tsunami in terms of
their height:

1. Amplitude, Wave Height, or Tsunami Height: Amplitude of Tsunami refers to

its height relative to the normal sea level. It is usually measured at sea level,
and it is different from the crest-to-trough height which is commonly used to
measure other type of wave height.

2. Run-up Height, or Inundation Height: The height reached by a tsunami on the

ground above sea level, Maximum run-up height refers to the maximum height
reached by water above sea level, which is sometimes reported as the
maximum height reached by a tsunami.

3. Flow Depth: Refers to the height of tsunami above ground, regardless of the
height of the location or sea level.

4. (Maximum) Water Level: Maximum height above sea level as seen from trace
or water mark. Different from maximum run-up height in the sense that they
are not necessarily water marks at inundation line/limit.

Warnings and Predictions

Drawbacks can serve as a brief warning. People who observe drawback (many
survivors report an accompanying sucking sound), can survive only if they
immediately run for high ground or seek the upper floors of nearby buildings. In
2004, ten-year-old Tilly Smith of Surrey, England, was on Maikhao beach in Phuket,
Thailand with her parents and sister, and having learned about tsunamis recently in
school, told her family that a tsunami might be imminent. Her parents warned others
minutes before the wave arrived, saving dozens of lives. She credited her geography
teacher, Andrew Kearney.

In the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami drawback was not reported on the African coast or
any other east-facing coasts that it reached. This was because the initial wave moved
downwards on the eastern side of the megathrust and upwards on the western side.
The western pulse hit coastal Africa and other western areas.

A tsunami cannot be precisely predicted, even if the magnitude and location of an

earthquake is known. Geologists, oceanographers, and seismologists analyse each
earthquake and based on many factors may or may not issue a tsunami warning.
However, there are some warning signs of an impending tsunami, and automated
systems can provide warnings immediately after an earthquake in time to save lives.
One of the most successful systems uses bottom pressure sensors, attached to buoys,
which constantly monitor the pressure of the overlying water column.

Regions with a high tsunami risk typically use tsunami warning systems to warn the
population before the wave reaches land. On the west coast of the United States,
which is prone to Pacific Ocean tsunami, warning signs indicate evacuation routes. In
Japan, the community is well-educated about earthquakes and tsunamis, and along the
Japanese shorelines the tsunami warning signs are reminders of the natural hazards
together with a network of warning sirens, typically at the top of the cliff of
surroundings hills.

The Pacific Tsunami Warning System is based in Honolulu, Hawaiʻi. It monitors

Pacific Ocean seismic activity. A sufficiently large earthquake magnitude and other
information triggers a tsunami warning. While the subduction zones around the
Pacific are seismically active, not all earthquakes generate a tsunami. Computers
assist in analyzing the tsunami risk of every earthquake that occurs in the Pacific
Ocean and the adjoining land masses.
As a direct result of the Indian Ocean tsunami, a re-appraisal of the tsunami threat for
all coastal areas is being undertaken by national governments and the United Nations
Disaster Mitigation Committee. A tsunami warning system is being installed in the
Indian Ocean.

Computer models can predict tsunami arrival, usually within minutes of the arrival
time. Bottom pressure sensors can relay information in real time. Based on these
pressure readings and other seismic information and the seafloor's shape (bathymetry)
and coastal topography, the models estimate the amplitude and surge height of the
approaching tsunami. All Pacific Rim countries collaborate in the Tsunami Warning
System and most regularly practise evacuation and other procedures. In Japan, such
preparation is mandatory for government, local authorities, emergency services and
the population.

Along the United States west coast, in addition to sirens, warnings are sent on
television and radio via the National Weather Service, using the Emergency Alert
System.
Tsunamis: the effects
The effects of a tsunami on a coastline can range from unnoticeable to devastating.
The effects of a tsunami depend on the characteristics of the seismic event that
generated the tsunami, the distance from its point of origin, its size (magnitude) and,
at last, the configuration of the bathymetry (that is the depth of water in oceans) along
the coast that the tsunami is approaching.

Small tsunamis, non-destructive and undetectable without specialized equipment,

happen almost every day as a result of minor earthquakes and other events. They are
very often too far away from land or they are too small to have any effect when they
hit the shore. When a small tsunami comes to the shoreline it is often seen as a strong
and fast-moving tide.

Tsunamis have long periods and can overcome obstacles such as gulfs, bays and
islands. These tsunamis make landfall usually in the form of suddenly decreasing and
then rapidly increasing water levels (not unlike a tidal bore) a combination of several
large waves or bore-type waves. Generally tsunamis arrive, not as giant breaking
waves, but as a forceful rapid increase in water levels that result in violent flooding.
However, when tsunami waves become extremely large in height, they savagely
attack coastlines, causing devastating property damage and loss of life. A small wave
only 30 centimeters high in the deep ocean may grow into a monster wave 30m high
as it sweeps over the shore. The effectscan be further amplified where a bay,
harbour,or lagoon funnels the waves as they move inland. Large tsunamis have been
known to rise to over 100 feet!

Destruction

The amount of energy and water contained in a huge tsunami can cause extreme
destruction when it strikes land.

The initial wave of a huge tsunami is extremely tall; however, most damage is not
sustained by this wave. Most of the damage is caused by the huge mass of water
behind the initial wave front, as the height of the sea keeps rising fast and floods
powerfully into the coastal area. It is the power behind the waves, the endless rushing
water that causes devastation and loss of life. When the giant breaking waves of a
tsunami batter the shoreline, they can destroy everything in their path.

Destruction is caused by two mechanisms: the smashing force of a wall of water

traveling at high speed, and the destructive power of a large volume of water draining
off the land and carrying all with it, even if the wave did not look large.

Objects and buildings are destroyed by the sheer weight of the water, often reduced to
skeletal foundations and exposed bedrock. Large objects such as ships and boulders
can be carried several miles inland before the tsunami subsides.

Tsunami waves destroy boats, buildings, bridges, cars, trees, telephone lines, power
lines - and just about anything else in their way. Once the tsunami waves have
knocked down infrastructure on the shore they may continue to travel for several
miles inland, sweeping away more trees, buildings, cars and other man made
equipment. Small islands hit by a tsunami are left unrecognizable.

Especially along a high seismic area, known as the Ring of Fire, tsunamis may have
dramatic consequences as they hit less developed countries.

vf/withstand the impact of the tsunami. Whole areas and towns are a picture of
destruction as the tsunami leaves at trail devastation and misery behind it.
Death

One of the biggest and worst effects of a tsunami is the cost to human life because
unfortunately escaping a tsunami is nearly impossible. Hundreds and thousands of
people are killed by tsunamis. Since 1850 alone, tsunamis have been responsible for
the loss of more than 430,000 lives. There is very little warning before a tsunamis hits
land. As the water rushes toward land, it leaves very little time to map an escape plan.

People living in coastal regions, towns and villages have no time to escape. The
violent force of the tsunami results in instant death, most commonly by drowning.
Buildings collapsing, electrocution, and explosions from gas, damaged tanks and
floating debris are another cause of death. The tsunami of December 2004 that struck
South East Asia and East Africa killed over 31,000 people in Sri Lanka only, leaving
23,000 injured.

Disease

Tsunami waves and the receding water are very destructive to structures in the run-
up zone. The areas close to the coast are flooded with sea water, damaging the
infrastructure such as sewage and fresh water supplies for drinking.

Flooding and contamination of drinking water can cause disease to spread in the
tsunami hit areas. Illnesses such as malaria arise when water is stagnant and
contaminated. Under these conditions it is difficult for people to stay healthy and for
diseases to be treated, so infections and illnesses can spread very quickly, causing
more death.

Environmental impacts

Tsunamis not only destroy human life, but have a devastating effect on insects,
animals, plants, and natural resources. A tsunami changes the landscape. It uproots
trees and plants and destroys animal habitats such as nesting sites for birds. Land
animals are killed by drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if dangerous
chemicals are washed away into the sea, thus poisoning the marine life.

The impact of a tsunami on the environment relates not only to the landscape and
animal life, but also to the man-made aspects of the environment. Solid waste and
disaster debris are the most critical environmental problem faced by a tsunami-hit
country.
Recycling and disposal of this waste in an environmentally sensitive manner where
possible (crushing concrete, bricks, etc. to produce aggregate for rebuilding and road
reconstruction) are critical.

Combined with the issue of waste is that of hazardous materials and toxic substances
that can be inadvertently mixed up with ordinary debris. These include asbestos, oil
fuel, and other industrial raw materials and chemicals. Rapid clean-up of affected
areas can result in inappropriate disposal methods, including air burning and open
dumping, leading to secondary impacts on the environment.

Contamination of soil and water is the second key environmental impact of a tsunami.
Salination of water bodies such as rivers, wells, inland lakes, and groundwater
aquifers can occur in most cases. This also affects the soil fertility of agricultural
lands, due to salination and debris contamination, which will affect yields in the
medium and long term. Sewage, septic tanks and toilets are damaged contaminating
the water supply.

Last but not least, there may be radiation resulting from damage to nuclear plants, as
it happened in Japan in March 2011. Since radiation exists for a long time, it has the
capacity to inflict damage upon anything exposed to it. Radiation is most dangerous to
animals and humans causing destruction as molecules loose their electrons. The
damage caused by radiation to the DNA structure determines birth defects, cancers
even death.

Cost

Massive costs hit communities and nations when a tsunami happens. Victims and
survivors of the tsunami need immediate help from rescue teams.

Governments around the world may help with the cost of bringing aid to devastated
areas. National institutions, the United Nations, other international organizations,
community groups and NGOs , and a variety of other entities come together to
provide different kinds of aid and services. There might also be appeals and donations
from people who have seen pictures of the area in the media.

Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a huge cost problem. Infrastructure

must be replaced, unsafe buildings demolished and rubbish cleared. Loss of income in
the local economy and future losses from the destruction of infrastructure will be a
problem for some time to come.

The total financial cost of the tsunami could be millions or even billions of dollars of
damage to coastal structures and habitats. It is difficult to put an exact figure on the
monetary cost but the cost may represent an important share of a nation's GDP.

Psychological effects

Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological problems which can last for
days, years or an entire lifetime. Survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami of December
2004 were found to have PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder) when examined by the
World Health Organization (WHO): 14% to 39% of these were children, 40% of
adolescents and 20% of mothers of these adolescents were found to have PTSD 4
months after the tsunami.These people were suffering from grief and depression as
their homes, businesses and loved ones were taken from them. Many still had PTSD.
Periliya Village counts 2,000 dead and 400 families became homeless. These people
were found to still have psychological problems 2 years after the tsunami.

Causes

Tsunamis are caused by sudden movements of the earth that happens under the sea.
Often the most destructive Tsunamis are caused by earthquakes but causes can also
include volcanic eruptions, landslides or even a comet hitting the sea.

Landslides cause tsunamis when the debris falls into the water. This has the same
effect of dropping a large stone into a pool - big ripples are created. But when this
happens in the sea and it is thousands of tonnes of rock and earth falling into the sea a
very large ripple, more like a tidal wave is created. This travels across the sea until it
comes into contact with land and a tsunami is formed.

Volcanoes cause tsunamis when there is an eruption. The volcano can either be on

land or under the sea, in which case it is known as a submarine volcano. If the
volcanic eruption happens on land, the tsunami is caused by debris and lava from the
volcano flowing into the sea, which once again causes a bug ripple.

If the eruption happens under water, the enormous power of the eruption sends
shudders through the earth and disrupts the water. The water in the sea then breaks
into waves which travel across the ocean until they come into contact with a coast.
Here, a tsunami is formed.

Friction: Tectonic plates rub against each other

How Do Undersea Earthquakes Start?

The most common cause of a tsunami is fro earthquakes. This is what caused the
Boxing Day tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004 and it is also the reason behind the
2011 Japan tsunami.

To understand how earthquakes cause tsunamis we must first fully understand what
causes earthquakes. Remember, tsunamis are an after-effect of an earthquake.

The earth sits on about a dozen tectonic plates. These are large floating pieces of hard
rock that are constantly moving and fit together around the world like a jigsaw.

Undersea earthquakes happen when one of these plates is rubbing against another at a
plate boundary. The two plates may become stuck as the heavier plate tries to slide
under the lighter other. This causes a build up of pressure in a process knows
as subduction.

As the heavier plate continues to slide beneath the lighter plate, it causes the lighter
plate to bend downwards with the pressure. A point comes when the lighter plate can
no longer take the intense pressure and suddenly snaps back up to the surface where it
had been before.

The incredible force of the earth's plate shooting upwards in the water causes a
huge rise in sea level. A vast body of water moves upward - like a huge mountain of
water in the sea.

Measures that needs to be taken care of when Tsunami Occurs

 If you are in an area at risk from tsunamis
 You should find out if your home, school, workplace, or other frequently
visited locations are in tsunami hazard areas.
 Know the height of your street above sea level and the distance of your street
from the coast or other high-risk waters. (Local administration may put sign
boards). Evacuation orders may be based on these numbers. Also find out the
height above sea level and the distance from the coast of outbuildings that
house animals, as well as pastures or corrals.
 Plan evacuation routes from your home, school, workplace, or any other place
you could be where tsunamis present a risk. If possible, pick areas (30 meters)
above sea level or go as far as 3 kilometers inland, away from the coastline. If
you cannot get this high or far, go as high or far as you can. Every meter
inland or upward may make a difference. You should be able to reach your
safe location on foot within 15 minutes. After a disaster, roads may become
impassable or blocked. Be prepared to evacuate by foot if necessary.
Footpaths normally lead uphill and inland, while many roads parallel
coastlines. Follow posted tsunami evacuation routes; these will lead to safety.
Local emergency management officials can advise you on the best route to
safety and likely shelter locations.
 If your children's school is in an identified inundation zone, find out what the
school evacuation plan is. Find out if the plan requires you to pick your
children up from school or from another location. Telephone lines during a
tsunami watch or warning may be overloaded and routes to and from schools
may be jammed.
 Practice your evacuation routes. Familiarity may save your life. Be able to
follow your escape route at night and during inclement weather. Practicing
 your plan makes the appropriate response more of a reaction, requiring less
thinking during an actual emergency situation.
 Use a Weather Radio or stay tuned to a local radio or television station to keep
informed of local watches and warnings.
 Talk to your insurance agent. Homeowners' policies may not cover flooding
from a tsunami. Ask about the Flood Insurance Program.
 Discuss tsunamis with your family. Everyone should know what to do in a
tsunami situation. Discussing tsunamis ahead of time will help reduce fear and
save precious time in an emergency. Review flood safety and preparedness
measures with your family.
 If you are visiting an area at risk from tsunamis

Check with the hotel, motel, or campground operators for tsunami evacuation
information and find out what the warning system is for tsunamis. It is important to
know designated escape routes before a warning is issued.
 Protect Your Property
You should avoid building or living in buildings within 200 meters of the high tide
coastline. These areas are more likely to experience damage from tsunamis, strong
winds, or coastal storms.
 Make a list of items to bring inside in the event of a tsunami. A list will help
you remember anything that can be swept away by tsunami water.
 Elevate coastal homes. Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters. Elevating
your house will help reduce damage to your property from most tsunamis.
 Take precautions to prevent flooding.
 Have an engineer check your home and advise about ways to make it more
resistant to tsunami water. There may be ways to divert waves away from your
property. Improperly built walls could make your situation worse. Consult
with a professional for advice. Ensure that any outbuildings, pastures, or
corrals are protected in the same way as your home. When installing or
changing fence lines, consider placing them in such a way that your animals
are able to move to higher ground in the event of a tsunami.
 What to Do if You Feel a Strong Coastal Earthquake
If you feel an earthquake that lasts 20 seconds or longer when you are in a coastal
area, you should:
  Drop, cover, and hold on. You should first protect yourself from the
earthquake damages.
 When the shaking stops Gather members of your household and move quickly
to higher ground away from the coast. A tsunami may be coming within
minutes.
 Avoid downed power lines and stay away from buildings and bridges from
which Heavy objects might fall during an aftershock.
 If you are on land:
Be aware of tsunami facts. This knowledge could save your life! Share this
knowledge with your relatives and friends. It could save their lives!
 If you are in school and you hear there is a tsunami warning, you should
follow the advice of teachers and other school personnel.
 If you are at home and hear there is a tsunami warning, you should make sure
your entire family is aware of the warning. Your family should evacuate your
house if you live in a tsunami evacuation zone. Move in an orderly, calm and
safe manner to the evacuation site or to any safe place outside your evacuation
zone. Follow the advice of local emergency and law enforcement authorities.
 If you are at the beach or near the ocean and you feel the earth shake, move
immediately to higher ground, DO NOT wait for a tsunami warning to be
announced. Stay away from rivers and streams that lead to the ocean as you
would stay away from the beach and ocean if there is a tsunami. A regional
tsunami from a local earthquake could strike some areas before a tsunami
warning could be announced.
 Tsunamis generated in distant locations will generally give people enough
time to move to higher ground. For locally-generated tsunamis, where you
might feel the ground shake, you may only have a few minutes to move to
higher ground.
 High, multi-story, reinforced concrete hotels are located in many low-lying
coastal areas. The upper floors of these hotels can provide a safe place to find
refuge should there be a tsunami warning and you cannot move quickly inland
to higher ground.
  Homes and small buildings located in low-lying coastal areas are not designed
to withstand tsunami impacts. Do not stay in these structures should there be a
tsunami warning.
 Offshore reefs and shallow areas may help break the force of tsunami waves,
but large and dangerous wave can still be a threat to coastal residents in these
areas. Staying away from all low-lying areas is the safest advice when there is
a tsunami warning.
 If you are on a boat:
Since tsunami wave activity is imperceptible in the open ocean, do not return to port if
you are at sea and a tsunami warning has been issued for your area. Tsunamis can
cause rapid changes in water level and unpredictable dangerous currents in harbors
and ports. If there is time to move your boat or ship from port to deep water (after a
tsunami warning has been issued), you should weigh the following considerations:
 Most large harbors and ports are under the control of a harbor authority and/or
a vessel traffic system. These authorities direct operations during periods of
increased readiness (should a tsunami be expected), including the forced
movement of vessels if deemed necessary. Keep in contact with the authorities
should a forced movement of vessel be directed.
 Smaller ports may not be under the control of a harbor authority. If you are
aware there is a tsunami warning and you have time to move your vessel to
deep water, then you may want to do so in an orderly manner, in consideration
of other vessels.
 Owners of small boats may find it safest to leave their boat at the pier and
physically move to higher ground, particularly in the event of a locally-
generated tsunami.
 Concurrent severe weather conditions (rough seas outside of safe harbor)
could present a greater hazardous situation to small boats, so physically
moving yourself to higher ground may be the only option.
 Damaging wave activity and unpredictable currents can affect harbors for a
period of time following the initial tsunami impact on the coast. Contact the
harbor authority before returning to port making sure to verify that conditions
in the harbor are safe for navigation and berthing.
 What to Do After a Tsunami
 You should continue using a Weather Radio or staying tuned to a Coast
Guard emergency frequency station or a local radio or television station
for updated emergency information. The Tsunami may have damaged
roads, bridges, or other places that may be unsafe.
 Check yourself for injuries and get first aid if necessary before helping
injured or trapped persons.
 If someone needs to be rescued, call professionals with the right equipment
to help. Many people have been killed or injured trying to rescue others in
flooded areas.
 Help people who require special assistance— Infants, elderly people, those
without transportation, large families who may need additional help in an
emergency situation, people with disabilities, and the people who care for
them.
 Avoid disaster areas. Your presence might hamper rescue and other
emergency operations and put you at further risk from the residual effects
of floods, such as contaminated water, crumbled roads, landslides,
mudflows, and other hazards.
 Use the telephone only for emergency calls. Telephone lines are frequently
overwhelmed in disaster situations. They need to be clear for emergency
calls to get through.
 Stay out of a building if water remains around it. Tsunami water, like
floodwater, can undermine foundations, causing buildings to sink, floors to
crack, or walls to collapse.
 When re-entering buildings or homes, use extreme caution. Tsunami-
driven floodwater may have damaged buildings where you least expect it.
Carefully watch every step you take.
 Wear long pants, a long-sleeved shirt, and sturdy shoes. The most common
injury following a disaster is cut feet.
 Use battery-powered lanterns or flashlights when examining buildings.
Battery-powered lighting is the safest and easiest to use, and it does not
present a fire hazard for the user, occupants, or building. DO NOT USE
CANDLES.
 Examine walls, floors, doors, staircases, and windows to make sure that
the building is not in danger of collapsing.
 Inspect foundations for cracks or other damage. Cracks and damage to a
foundation can render a building uninhabitable.
 Look for fire hazards. Under the earthquake action there may be broken or
leaking gas lines, and under the tsunami flooded electrical circuits, or
submerged furnaces or electrical appliances. Flammable or explosive
materials may have come from upstream. Fire is the most frequent hazard
following floods.
 Check for gas leaks. If you smell gas or hear a blowing or hissing noise,
open a window and get everyone outside quickly. Turn off the gas using
the outside main valve if you can, and call the gas company from a
neighbor's home. If you turn off the gas for any reason, it must be turned
back on by a professional.
 Look for electrical system damage. If you see sparks or broken or frayed
wires, or if you smell burning insulation, turn off the electricity at the main
fuse box or circuit breaker. If you have to step in water to get to the fuse
box or circuit breaker, call an electrician first for advice. Electrical
equipment should be checked and dried before being returned to service.
 Check for damage to sewage and water lines. If you suspect sewage lines
are damaged under the quake, avoid using the toilets and call a plumber. If
water pipes are damaged, contact the water company and avoid using
water from the tap. You can obtain safe water from undamaged water
heaters or by melting ice cubes that were made before the tsunami hit.
Turn off the main water valve before draining water from these sources.
Use tap water only if local health officials advise it is safe.
 Watch out for wild animals Especially poisonous snakes that may have
come into buildings with the water. Use a stick to poke through debris.
Tsunami floodwater flushes snakes and animals out of their homes.
 Watch for loose plaster, drywall, and ceilings that could fall.
 Take pictures of the damage. Both of the building and its contents, for
insurance claims. Open the windows and doors to help dry the building.
  Shovel mud before it solidifies. • Check food supplies. Any food that has
come in contact with floodwater may be contaminated and should be
thrown out.
 Expect aftershocks If the earthquake is of large magnitude (magnitude 8 to
9+ on the Richter scale) and located nearby, some aftershocks could be as
large as magnitude 7+ and capable of generating another tsunami. The
number of aftershocks will decrease over the course of several days,
weeks, or months depending on how large the main shock was.
 Watch your animals closely. Keep all your animals under your direct
control. Hazardous materials abound in flooded areas. Your pets may be
able to escape from your home or through a broken fence. Pets may
become disoriented, particularly because flooding usually affects scent
markers that normally allow them to find their homes. The behavior of
pets may change dramatically after any disruption, becoming aggressive or
defensive, so be aware of their well-being and take measures to protect
them from hazards, including displaced wild animals, and to ensure the
safety of other people and animals.

Approach toward multi hazard safety measures in coastal areas

 General Measures
 Adopting integrated multi-hazard approach with emphasis on cyclone and
tsunami risk mitigation in coastal areas.
 Implementation of early warning system for cyclones and tsunamis.™
 Streamlining the relief distribution system in disaster affected areas
(preparation of a data base of people living in tsunami hazard prone areas).™
 Design, practice and implementation of evacuation plans with emphasis on
self reliance for sustenance with the locals (coastal community). ™
 Component on planning for reconstruction and rehabilitation should be added
in disaster management plans at all levels.™
 Emphasis on mental health and to socio-psychological issues during post
disaster period should be accorded in every plan.
 Identification and strengthening of existing academic centers in order to
improve disaster prevention, reduction and mitigation capabilities.™
 Capacity building programmes to be taken up on priority basis
 Training of all concerned including community.
 Public awareness programmes.
 Enhancing capabilities of the Institutes working in field of
disaster mitigation and management
 Specific Measures for safety from Tsunamis/Storm Surges
 Structural measures:
1. Construction of cyclone shelters.
2. Plantation of mangroves and coastal forests along the coast line
3. Development of a network of local knowledge centers (rural/urban)
along the coast lines to provide necessary training and emergency
communication during crisis time (e.g. centers developed by M.S.
Swaminathan Foundation in Pondicherry).
4. Construction of location specific sea walls and coral reefs in
consultation with experts.
5. Development of well designed break waters along the coast to provide
necessary cushion against cyclone and tsunami hazards.
6. Development of tsunami detection, forecasting and warning
dissemination centers.
7. Development of a “Bio-Shield” - a narrow strip of land along
coastline. Permanent structures, if any in this zone with strict
implementation of suggested norms. Bio-Shield can be developed as
coastal zone disaster management sanctuary, which must have thick
plantation and public spaces for public awareness, dissemination and
demonstration. 8. Identification of vulnerable structures and
appropriate retrofitting for tsunami/cyclone resistance of all such
buildings as well as appropriate planning, designing, construction of
new facilities like:
 Critical infrastructures e.g. power stations, warehouses, oil
and other storage tanks etc. located along the coastline.
 All other infrastructure facilities located in the coastal areas.
  Public buildings and private houses.
 All marine structures.
 Construction and maintenance of national and state
highways and other coastal roads
 Non-Structural Measures:
1. Strict implementation of the coastal zone regulations (within 500 m
of the high tide line with elevation of less than 10 m above mean
sea level) Table 5.1 is a proposed damage Risk Zone classification
on sea coast for consideration.
Table 5.1 Proposed Damage Risk Zone Classifications on Sea Coasts
0-1 m above High tide Level Very High Damage Risk Zone
1-3 m above High tide Level High Damage Risk Zone
3-5 m above High tide Level Moderate Damage Risk Zone
5-10 m above High tide Level Low Damage Risk Zone
10m or more above high tide No Damage Risk Zone
Level

2. Mapping the coastal area for multiple hazards, vulnerability and

risk analysis upto taluka /village level. Development of Disaster
Information Management System (DIMS) in all the coastal states.
3. Aggressive capacity building requirements for the local people and
the administration for facing the disasters in wake of tsunami and
cyclone, ‘based on cutting edge level’.
4. Developing tools and techniques for risk transfer in highly
vulnerable areas.
5. Launching a series of public awareness campaign throughout the
coastal area by various means including AIR, Doordarshan& Other
Media.
6. Training of local administration in forecasting warning
dissemination and evacuation techniques.
7. Awareness generation and training among the fishermen, coast
guards, officials from fisheries department and port authorities and
local district officials etc., in connection with evacuation and post
tsunami storm surge management activities. Regular drills should
be conducted to test the efficacy of the DM plans.
 8. Studies focusing on the tsunami risk in India may be taken under
NCRM project.
 Actions Required in Coastal Areas for Protection against Tsunami / cyclone
mitigation
To achieve the satisfactory level of disaster mitigation in coastal areas, following
activities need to be carried out.
 Revision of Coastal Zone Regulation Act in wake of tsunami storm surge
hazards and strict implementation of the same. The current Coastal
Regulations Zone (extract) is attached as Appendix A to this chapter. This
responsibility may be given to respective state disaster management
authorities. A special task force for this purpose may be constituted
comprising the representatives from various departments of the
government and other relevant organizations (e.g. Departments of
Forestry, Fisheries, Soil Conservation, Town and Country Planning
Organization, Navy, Coast Guard, IMD,ISRO/DOS etc.).
 A state of the art EOC may be established with in the authority for
monitoring purpose. ™
 Initiating disaster watch (bay watch) safety measures along important
beaches in the country, providing round the clock monitoring, warning,
lifeguard facilities & creation of website for missing personal etc.
 Organization of sensitization workshops on cyclone/tsunami risk
mitigation in various states for senior bureaucrats / politicians for these
states.
 Organizing drills on regular basis to check the viability of all plans and to
check the readiness of all concerned.
 Training of professionals, policy planners and others involved with
disaster mitigation and management programmes in the states.
 Retrofitting of important buildings
i. Fire stations / police stations/ army structures/ hospitals.
ii. VIP residences / offices/ railways, airport, etc.
iii. Schools/colleges.
iv. Hazardous industries.
 v. Other critical structures (i.e. power stations, warehouses, oil and
other storage tanks etc)
 Designing incentives: Providing legislative back up to encourage people to
adopt cyclone, tsunami resistant features in their homes e.g. tax rebate in terms
of house tax and/or income tax. ™
 Developing public –private partnerships.

Case Study-I
Great Lisbon Earthquake, 1755/ Feast of All Saints Tsunami, 1755
The 1755 Lisbon earthquake, also known as the Great Lisbon earthquake, occurred in
Portugal on the morning of Saturday, 1 November, Feast of All Saints, at around
09:40 local time which was estimated between 8.5 and 9.0 on the Richter scale with
its epicenter in the Atlantic Ocean off the coasts of Portugal and Spain which shook
the surrounding area. The temblor took its toll on Lisbon, Portugal for only a few
moments, but about 40 minutes after the shaking stopped, the tsunami hit. The double
disaster sparked the third wave of devastation setting off raging fires throughout urban
areas.
The tsunami traveled a wide swath, with waves as high as 66 feet striking the coast of
North Africa and others reaching Barbados and England. The death toll from the trio
of disasters is estimated at 40,000 to 50,000 across Portugal, Spain, and Morocco.
Eighty-five percent of Lisbon's buildings were destroyed. The contemporary study of
this quake and tsunami is credited with giving rise to the modern science of
seismology.
Seismologists today estimate the Lisbon earthquake had a magnitude of 8.4 on the
moment magnitude scale, with its epicenter in the Atlantic Ocean about 200 km (120
mi) west-southwest of Cape St. Vincent. Chronologically it was the third known large
scale earthquake to hit the city (one in 1321 and another in 1531). Estimates place the
death toll in Lisbon alone between 10,000 and 30,000 people, making it one of the
deadliest earthquakes in history.
Earthquake and tsunami
The earthquake struck on the morning of 1 November 1755, All Saints' Day.
Contemporary reports state that the earthquake lasted between three and a half and six
minutes, causing fissures 5 metres (16 ft) wide in the city center. Survivors rushed to
the open space of the docks for safety and watched as the sea receded, revealing a
plain of mud littered with lost cargo and shipwrecks. Approximately 40 minutes after
the earthquake, a tsunami engulfed the harbor and downtown area, rushing up the
Tagus River "so fast that several people riding on horseback were forced to gallop as
fast as possible to the upper grounds for fear of being carried away." It was followed
by two more waves. Candles lit in homes and churches all around the city for All
Saints' Day were knocked over, starting a fire that developed into a firestorm which
burned for hours in the city, asphyxiating people up to 30 metres (98 ft) from the
blaze.
Lisbon was not the only Portuguese city affected by the catastrophe. Throughout the
south of the country, in particular the Algarve, destruction was rampant. The tsunami
destroyed some coastal fortresses in the Algarve and, in the lower levels, it razed
several houses. Almost all the coastal towns and villages of the Algarve were heavily
damaged, except Faro, which was protected by the sandy banks of Ria Formosa. In
Lagos, the waves reached the top of the city walls. Other towns of different
Portuguese regions, such as Peniche, Cascais, and even Covilhã, which is located near
the Serra da Estrela mountain range in central inland Portugal, were affected. The
shock waves of the earthquake destroyed part of Covilhã's castle walls and its large
towers. On the island of Madeira, Funchal and many smaller settlements suffered
significant damage. Almost all of the ports in the Azores archipelago suffered most of
their destruction from the tsunami, with the sea penetrating about 150 metres (490 ft)
inland. Portuguese towns in northern Africa were also affected by the earthquake,
such as Ceuta and Mazagon, where the tsunami hit hard the coastal fortifications of
both towns, in some cases going over it, and flooding the harbor area. In Spain, the
tsunamis swept the Andalusian Atlantic Coast, nearly destroying the city of Cadiz,
killing at least 1/3 of its population.
Shocks from the earthquake were felt throughout Europe as far as Finland and North
Africa, and according to some sources even in Greenland, and the Caribbean.
Tsunamis as tall as 20 metres (66 ft) swept the coast of North Africa, and struck
Martinique and Barbados across the Atlantic. A three-metre (ten-foot) tsunami hit
Cornwall on the southern British coast. Galway, on the west coast of Ireland, was also
hit, resulting in partial destruction of the "Spanish Arch" section of the city wall. In
County Clare there was the creation of Aughinish Island when a low lying connection
to the mainland was washed away. At Kinsale, several vessels were whirled round in
the harbor, and water poured into the marketplace.
Casualties and Damage
Economic historian Álvaro Pereira estimated that of Lisbon's population at the time,
of approximately 200,000 people, some 30,000–40,000 were killed; another 10,000
may have lost their lives in Morocco. However, a 2009 study of contemporary reports
relating to the 1 November event found them vague and difficult to separate from
reports of another local series of earthquakes on 18–19 November. Pereira estimated
the total death toll in Portugal, Spain and Morocco from the earthquake and the
resulting fires and tsunami at 40,000 to 50,000 people.
Eighty-five percent of Lisbon's buildings were destroyed, including famous palaces
and libraries, as well as most examples of Portugal's distinctive 16th-century
Manueline architecture. Several buildings that had suffered little earthquake damage
were destroyed by the subsequent fire. The new Lisbon opera house (the "Ópera do
Tejo"), opened just six months before, was burned to the ground. The Royal Ribeira
Palace, which stood just beside the Tagus river in the modern square of Terreiro do
Paço, was destroyed by the earthquake and tsunami. Inside, the 70,000-volume royal
library as well as hundreds of works of art, including paintings by Titian, Rubens, and
Correggio, was lost. The royal archives disappeared together with detailed historical
records of explorations by Vasco da Gama and other early navigators. The palace of
Henrique de Meneses, 3rd Marquis of Louriçal, which housed an invaluable library of
18,000 books, was also destroyed. The earthquake damaged several major churches in
Lisbon, namely the Lisbon Cathedral, the Basilicas of São Paulo, Santa Catarina, São
Vicente de Fora, and the Misericórdia Church. The Royal Hospital of All Saints (the
largest public hospital at the time) in the Rossio Square was consumed by fire and
hundreds of patients burned to death. The tomb of national hero NunoÁlvares Pereira
was also lost. Visitors to Lisbon may still walk the ruins of the Carmo Convent, which
were preserved to remind Lisboners of the destruction.
Effect on Society and Economy
The earthquake had wide-ranging effects on the lives of the populace and
intelligentsia. The earthquake had struck on an important religious holiday and had
destroyed almost every important church in the city, causing anxiety and confusion
amongst the citizens of a staunch and devout Roman Catholic country. Theologians
and philosophers focused and speculated on the religious cause and message, seeing
the earthquake as a manifestation of divine judgment.
A 2009 study estimated that the earthquake cost between 32 and 48 percent of
Portugal's GDP. Also, "in spite of strict controls, prices and wages remained volatile
in the years after the tragedy. The recovery from the earthquake also led to a rise in
the wage premium of construction workers. More significantly, the earthquake
became an opportunity to reform the economy and to reduce the economic semi-
dependency vis-à-vis Britain."

Case Study-II
The 2004 Indian Ocean (Sumatrae-Andaman) Earthquake and (Boxing Day)
Tsunami
Generation
Tsunamis from seismic activity are much rarer in the Indian Ocean compared to those
in the Pacific Ocean. Nonetheless, the 2004 event in the Indian Ocean occurred at
00:58 UTC (08:58 local time) on 26 December, 2004. The earthquake-generating
tsunami had a moment magnitude between 9.1 and 9.3. It was the second most
powerful event since modern seismic records began in 1900 and was the largest for
the preceding 40 years. The event affected the orbit of the Earth and triggered other
earthquakes approximately 11,000 km away in Alaska. Since 1900, only two
earthquakes have been recorded with a similar magnitude; the 1960 Great Chilean
Earthquake (also called the Valdivia Earthquake, Mw 9.5) and the 1964 Great
Alaskan Earthquake (also called the Good Friday Earthquake, Mw 9.2) both of which
generated significant tsunamis.
The epicenter of the Sumatrae Andaman mega thrust event was 30 km under sea
around 250 km NW of Sumatra along the Indo-Australian plate boundary. It is
estimated that this section of the plate had not moved for >200 years, which during
that time, accumulated a lot of energy. At the time of impact, the earthquake set a new
record for the longest duration at between 8 and 10 min (Walton, 2005). The
earthquake ruptured the Sumatra and Sunda sub-duction zones over a length of 1,300
km, which generated a massive tsunami consisting of two or three main waves and
numerous smaller ones. Based upon seabed surveys, it is estimated that there was at
least 10 and 4-5 m of lateral and vertical movement, respectively, along the fault line.
The main earthquake was followed by a series of aftershocks that were recorded in the
Andaman Islands archipelago in the Bay of Bengal between India and Myanmar. The
largest aftershock registered a magnitude of 8.7 off the coast of Sumatra, which
prompted a debate among seismologists on whether to classify the event as an
aftershock or a “triggered earthquake.” Indeed, one of these aftershocks is classified
here as separate event (Indian Ocean Aftershock 2006, Mw 7.7) because it generated
a tsunami that resulted in substantial loss of life.
Size and Extent
The tsunami took between 15 min (Sumatra) and 7 h (Somalia) to reach various
locations along the Indian Ocean coastline. Locations closest to the epicenter in the
northern regions of the Indonesian island of Sumatra were hit very quickly, whereas
Sri Lanka and the east coast of India were hit roughly 2 h later, for example. Thailand
was also struck about 2 h later, despite being closer to the epicenter, because the
tsunami traveled more slowly in the shallow Andaman Sea. The tsunami was recorded
by tide gauges on Australia’s west coast within 5h of the event. The tsunami impacted
the Pacific Ocean where it produced small but measurable waves (<0.50 m) along the
western coast of North and South America. The main tsunami wave was recorded on
tide gauges along the Chilean and Peruvian coastlines 27 and 28 h later, respectively.
Numerical models, such as ones produced by NOAA and based on quality-controlled
source data (e.g., tide gauges), were used to replicate the generation and propagation
of the Indian Ocean tsunami and to illustrate how the waves propagated around the
world’s ocean basins.The height of the tsunami varied greatly and depended on its
distance and direction from the epicenter and other factors such as the local
bathymetry and coastal topography. The height ranged from 2 to 3 m at the African
coast (Kenya) and up to 10e15 m at Sumatra, the region closest to the earthquake
epicenter. The maximum height of the main tsunami wave was between 24 and 30 m
and the second main wave was between 10 and 15 m high.
Impacts
This event caused the largest loss of life of any known tsunami with 230, 00-280,000
estimated fatalities. Based on fatalities, this event outranks almost every natural
disaster. This and the 2010 Haiti earthquake that killed between 100,000 and 316,000
are the deadliest natural disasters of the twenty-first century. The impact of the
Boxing Day tsunami was exacerbated by the scale of seabed displacement, its
proximity to the coastline of Banda Aceh Province in Indonesia where most fatalities
and damage occurred, and the lack of an Indian Ocean Tsunami Detection and
Warning System. Even with a functioning warning system in place, the people of
Banda Aceh would have had less than 15 min to evacuate. Ultimately approximately
170,000 of the fatalities occurred in this area. One of the great tragedies of this event
is that with a warning system in place, it is believed that all 60,000 + lives lost in Sri
Lanka, Thailand, India, Maldives, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Myanmar, and in several
countries in East Africa could have been avoided. This estimate includes around 9,000
tourists, mainly from Europe, vacationing in Thailand; for example, Sweden lost >500
citizens. In addition to the extensive fatalities, approximately 1.69 million people
were displaced. Indonesia and Sri Lanka were the worst impacted with over half
million people displaced in each country. Many survivors lost their livelihoods due to
the destruction of their fishing boats and coastal farms. In the case of Thailand, the
tourism sector was impacted; even areas that were not affected by the tsunami
experienced a substantial drop in bookings. The scale of destruction and damage was
enormous, but in most places, it was limited to within 1 or 2 km of the coastline.
Large expanses of the coastal zone were cleared of every building, all vegetation, and
soil. The total cost of damage was estimated at around $15 billion, which is rather low
given the scale of the devastation because most of the areas affected were in
developing countries where standards are low compared to the global average.
Indonesia was the worst affected with an estimated damage of at least $4.5 billion,
followed by Sri Lanka with an estimated $3.5 billion, and India and Thailand with an
estimated damage of >$1.5 billion each.
Relief Efforts
No doubt exists that outside of wartime, the relief effort associated with this tsunami
was the most extensive the world had ever seen. Direct involvement occurred by
almost every nation around the world. Significant public donations were raised, and
many governments contributed to the relief effort. In sum, governments, aid agencies,
and individual donations totaled >US$14 billion. Nations that lost their citizens
supported the relief effort, possibly more than they would had their country not been
affected. Disaster relief teams arrived from all over the world, along with some
military assistance. The initial purpose of the relief teams was to rescue individuals
trapped in buildings and to help treat the injured. Unfortunately, many still died
unnecessarily due to lack of medical supplies, clean water, and the essentials required
to live. The UN designated former US President Bill Clinton as a United Nations
(UN) Special Tsunami Envoy. His main objective was to ensure that countries follow
through on their commitments for disaster relief. Clinton was also involved in
mediating the two preexisting conflicts that existed in the region, the Tamil-Sri
Lankan issue (separatist activity since 1983-65,000+ victims) and the Acehe
Indonesian issue (separatist activity since 1976-10,000+ victims). Most residents in
the Aceh Province are Muslim and did not want foreign military present, especially
those from the United States. The Indian government did not want assistance on some
of the remote Andaman and Nicobar Islands where there are strategic Indian military
bases and indigenous tribes. On the Indian mainland thousands of homeless and
starving “untouchables” were denied access to clean water and food in relief camps
for fear of spiritual contamination. A substantial concern existed that large portions of
the aid were stolen by corrupt individuals and government officials. In cases where
this was confirmed, harsh sentences were distributed.
Aftermath
In the aftermath of the tsunami, the UN Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission (IOC), comprising UN Educational, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization and other partners, began coordinating efforts to create an Indian Ocean
early warning system and administering evacuation plans. At a 2005 UN Meeting in
Kobe, Japan, it was agreed to establish a warning system that would become
operational in June, 2006. The warning system consists of 25 seismographic stations
reporting to 26 national tsunami information centers and six DART (Deep-Ocean
Assessment and Reporting of Tsunami) buoys. In 2012, Thailand successfully
launched their national warning system, which was eight years after the Andaman
coast was destroyed and 5,395 people were killed, many of whom were tourists. The
Thai National Disaster Warning Center established 136 warning towers and three
tsunami-detection buoysin the Andaman Sea that are connected to the United States
Geological Survey, the World Meteorological Organization, and other authorized
disaster-monitoring agencies. The efficacy of Indonesia’s early warning system was
tested in April 2012 when an 8.6 Mw earthquake occurred 400 km southwest of
Banda Aceh. Despite the initial (and likely justifiable) panic by people in many at-risk
coastal locations, according to ThorkildAarup, Head of the Tsunami Unit of the UN
IOC, “The three early warning systems (and evacuation drills) functioned as they
should have across the board. The Indonesian early warning was issued at 8.43 UTC-
five minutes after the quake happened. The Australian warning was issued 10min
after, while India’s was issued eight minutes after the earthquake. The region has
certainly become much better equipped in the eight years following the devastating
2004 Boxing Day tsunami. However, it is essential that governments continue to train
people to respond to warning systems and prepare the coastal inhabitants for tsunami
disasters.
Case Study-III
Japan earthquake and tsunami of 2011
Japan earthquake also called Great Sendai Earthquake or Great Tōhoku Earthquake,
severe natural disaster that occurred in northeastern Japan on March 11, 2011. The
event began with a powerful earthquake off the northeastern coast of Honshu, Japan’s
main island, which caused widespread damage on land and initiated a series of large
tsunami waves that devastated many coastal areas of the country, most notably in the
Tōhoku region (northeastern Honshu). The tsunami also instigated a major nuclear
accident at a power station along the coast. The magnitude-9.0 earthquake struck at
2:46 PM.The epicentre was located some 80 miles (130 km) east of the city of Sendai,
Miyagi prefecture, and the focus occurred at a depth of 18.6 miles (about 30 km)
below the floor of the western Pacific Ocean. The earthquake was caused by the
rupture of a stretch of the subduction zone associated with the Japan Trench, which
separates the Eurasian Plate from the subducting Pacific Plate. The March 11 temblor
was felt as far away as Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky, Russia; Kao-hsiung, Taiwan; and
Beijing, China. It was preceded by several foreshocks, including a magnitude-7.2
event centered approximately 25 miles (40 km) away from the epicenter of the main
quake. Hundreds of aftershocks, dozens of magnitude 6.0 or greater and two of
magnitude 7.0 or greater, followed in the days and weeks after the main quake.
(Nearly two years later, on December 7, 2012, a magnitude-7.3 tremor originated
from the same plate boundary region. The quake caused no injuries and little
damage.) The March 11, 2011, earthquake was the strongest to strike the region since
the beginning of record keeping in the late 19th century, and it is considered one of
the most powerful earthquakes ever recorded. It was later reported that a satellite
orbiting at the outer edge of Earth’s atmosphere that day had detected infrasonics
(very low-frequency sound waves) from the quake. The sudden horizontal and vertical
thrusting of the Pacific Plate, which has been slowly advancing under the Eurasian
Plate near Japan, displaced the water above and spawned a series of highly destructive
tsunami waves. A wave measuring some 33 feet high inundated the coast and flooded
parts of the city of Sendai, including its airport and the surrounding countryside.
According to some reports, one wave penetrated some 6 miles (10 km) inland after
causing the Natori River, which separates Sendai from the city of Natori to the south,
to overflow. Damaging tsunami waves struck the coasts of Iwate prefecture, just north
of Miyagi prefecture, and Fukushima, Ibaraki, and Chiba, the prefectures extending
along the Pacific coast south of Miyagi. In addition to Sendai, other communities
hard-hit by the tsunami included Kamaishi and Miyako in Iwate; Ishinomaki,
Kesennuma, and Shiogama in Miyagi; and Kitaibaraki and Hitachinaka in Ibaraki. As
the floodwaters retreated back to the sea, they carried with them enormous quantities
of debris, as well as thousands of victims caught in the deluge. Large stretches of land
were left submerged under seawater, particularly in lower-lying areas. The earthquake
triggered tsunami warnings throughout the Pacific basin. The tsunami raced outward
from the epicentre at speeds that approached about 500 miles (800 km) per hour. It
generated waves 11 to 12 feet (3.3 to 3.6 metres) high along the coasts of Kauai and
Hawaii in the Hawaiian Islands chain and 5-foot (1.5-metre) waves along the island of
Shemya in the Aleutian Islands chain. Several hours later 9-foot (2.7-metre) tsunami
waves struck the coasts of California and Oregon in North America. Finally, some 18
hours after the quake, waves roughly 1 foot (0.3 metre) high reached the coast of
Antarctica and caused a portion of the Sulzberger Ice Shelf to break off its outer edge.
Aftermath of the Disaster.
 20000 deaths (official)
 360 billion USD loss.

Fukushima nuclear disaster

inundation by the tsunami waves damaged the backup generators the Fukushima
Daiichi (“Number One”) plant, situated along the Pacific coast in northeastern
Fukushima prefecture about 60 miles (100 km) south of Sendai. With power gone, the
cooling systems failed in three reactors within the first few days of the disaster, and
their cores subsequently overheated, leading to partial meltdowns of the fuel rods.
(Some plant workers, however, attributed at least one partial meltdown to coolant-
pipe bursts caused by the earthquake’s ground vibrations.) Melted material fell to the
bottom of the containment vessels in reactors 1 and 2 and burned sizable holes
through the floor of each vessel, which partially exposed the nuclear material in the
cores. Explosions resulting from the buildup of pressurized hydrogen gas in the outer
containment buildings enclosing reactors 1, 2, and 3, along with a fire touched off by
rising temperatures in spent fuel rods stored in reactor 4, led to the release of
significant levels of radiation from the facility in the days and weeks following the
earthquake. Workers sought to cool and stabilize the damaged reactors by pumping
seawater and boric acid into them.

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