SENSORS AND

TRANSDUCERS

Unit 1(2 part)

INTRODUCTION
Transducer
–a device that converts a primary form of energy into a corresponding
signal with a different energy form
•Primary Energy Forms: mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, optical,
chemical, etc.
–take form of a sensor or an actuator
Sensor (e.g., thermometer)
–a device that detects/measures a signal or stimulus
–acquires information from the “real world”
INTRODUCTION

Actuator (e.g., heater)

–a device that generates a signal or stimulus
Sensor
A Device that receives and respond to a signal or
stimulus
Performance Terminology
The following terms are associated with the performance
of transducers and/or measurement system as a whole.
Range of a transducer is the limits with in which the
input can vary. Thus a load cell having lower limit of 0
KN and higher limit of 50 KN has arrange of 0 to 50 KN.
Span is the maximum value of the input minus the
minimum value. For the above load cell the span is 50 KN.
Performance Terminology
Error is the difference between the result of the
measurement and the true value of the
quantity.
Error = Measured value - True value
e.g. if measurement system gives a temperature
reading of 25ºC when actual is 24ºC, then the error
is +1ºC. If actual temperature had been 26ºC then
Performance Terminology
Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated
by a measurement system might be wrong.
e.g. A temperature measuring instrument might be specified as
having an accuracy of ±2 ºC. This would mean that the
reading given by the instrument can be expected to lie with in
+ or -2ºC of the true value.
Performance Terminology
Sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much
output we will get per unit input i.e. output/input. e.g. A
resistance thermometer may have a Sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/ºC.

Hysteresis Error Transducers can give different outputs from

the same value of quantity being measured according to
whether that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing change.
Performance Terminology

Hysteresis error curve

Performance Terminology
Non-Linearity Error: For many transducers a linear relationship
between the input and output is assumed over the working range. But
only few of transducers have a truly linear relationship and hence
errors occur as a result of the assumption of linearity. The error is the
maximum difference from straight line.
Performance Terminology
Repeatability/Reproducibility
This term is used to describe the ability of a
transducer to give the same output for repeated
applications of the same input value.
Repeatability = (Max. – Min. Values given)/(Full Range) * 100
Performance Terminology
Stability
❖ The stability is the ability of a transducer to give the
same output when used to measure a constant input
over a period of time.
❖ The term drift is often used to describe the change
in output that occurs over time
Performance Terminology
Dead band/time
❖ The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of
input values for which there is no output.
❖ The dead time is the length of time from the application of
an input until the output begins to respond and change.
Resolution
❖ The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that
will produce an observable change in the output.
Performance Terminology
Output impedance
The output impedance Z is important to know to better
out

interface a sensor with the electronic circuit

❖ For a current generating sensor should have an output
impedance as high as possible and the circuit’s input
impedance should be low
❖ For the voltage connection, a sensor is preferable with lower Z
out

and the circuit should have Z as high as practical

in
Static and Dynamic Characteristics
❖ The Static characteristics are the values given when
steady-state conditions occur,
i.e. the values given when the transducer has settled
down after having received some input.
❖ The Dynamic characteristics refer to the behaviour
between the time that the input value changes and the
time that the value given by the transducer settles down to
the steady-state value
Static and Dynamic Characteristics
1.Response Time
This is the time which elapses after a constant input is
applied to the transducer up to the point at which the
transducer gives an output corresponding to some specified
percentage.
e.g. if a mercury in glass thermometer is put in hot liquid there
can be an appreciable time lapse, before the thermometer
indicates the actual temperature of the liquid
Static and Dynamic Characteristics
2.Rise Time
This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady state output.
Often the rise time refers to the time taken for the output to
rise from 10% of the steady-state value to 90 or 95% of the
steady-state value.
3.Settling Time
This is the time taken for the output to settle to with in
some percentage, e.g. 2% of the steady- state value.
Displacement, Position and Proximity
Displacement sensors are concerned with the measurement
of the amount by which some object has been moved.
Position sensors are concerned with the determination of the
position of some object with reference to some reference
point.
Proximity sensors are a form of position sensor and are used to
determine when an object has moved to within some particular
critical distance of the sensor
Displacement, Position and Proximity
Following points should be considered in mind while
selecting a displacement, position or proximity sensor.
❏ Size of Displacement.
❏ Type of Displacement (linear/angular).
❏ Required Resolution.
❏ Accuracy Required.
❏ Material of the measured object.
❏ The Cost.
Displacement, Position and Proximity
● Displacement and Position sensors are divided
into two basic types;
● Contact sensors in which the measured object
comes into mechanical contact with the sensor.
● Non-Contacting sensor in which there is no
physical contact between the measured object and
the sensor.
Potentiometer Sensor
❖ A Potentiometer consists of a resistance element
with a sliding contact which can be moved over
the length of the element.
❖ Such element can be used for linear or rotary
displacements, the displacement being converted
into potential difference.
❖ The rotary potentiometer consists of a circular wire
wound track or a film of conductive plastic over
which a rotatable sliding contact can be rotated.
Potentiometer Sensor
Potentiometer Sensor
❖ With the constant input voltage Vs, between terminal 1
and 3, the output voltage Vo between terminal 2 and 3
is a fraction of the input voltage.
❖ This fraction depends upon the ratio of the resistance
R23 between terminal 2 and 3 compared with the
total resistance R13 between terminal 1 and 3. i.e.
❖ Vo/Vs = R23/R13
Strain-gauged Element
❖ The electrical resistance strain gauge is a metal wire, metal
foil strip, or a strip of semiconductor material which is wafer
like and can be struck in to surfaces like a postage stamp.
❖ When it is subjected to strain, its resistance R changes,
the fractional change in resistance
➢ ΔR/R = Gε
❖ where G, is the constant of proportionality and it is termed as
gauge factor.
Strain-gauged Element
Wheatstone’s bridge

Wheatstone’s bridge
Strain-gauged Element
❖ Since strain is the ratio (change is length/ original length) then
the resistance change of the strain gauge is a measurement of
the change in length of the element to which the strain gauge is
attached.
❖ A problem with all strain gauges is that their resistance not only
changes with strain but also with temperature. So to get an
accurate result various ways of temperature elimination are
used.
Capacitive Element
The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is
given by;
C = (εr.εo. A)/d
where, εr is the relative permittivity of the dielectric
between the plates, εo is the permittivity of free space,
A the area of overlap between the two plates and d the
plate separation. Capacitive sensors used to measure
linear displacements are shown in next slide.
Capacitive Element
Capacitive Element
● For the displacement changing the plate
separation, if the separation d is increased by
displacement x then the capacitance becomes;
C- ΔC = (εr.εo. A)/(d+x)
Change in capacitance as a fraction of the initial
capacitance is given by;
ΔC/C = - (x/d)/[1+(x/d)]
Differential Transformers
The Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
consists of three coils symmetrically spaced along an
insulated tube.
The central coil is the primary coil and the other two are
identical secondary coils which are connected in series in
such away that their outputs oppose each other.
A magnetic core is moved through the central tube as a
result of the displacement being monitored.
Differential Transformers
When there is an alternating
voltage input to the primary oil,
alternating e.m.fs are induced in the
secondary coil.
● With the magnetic core central, the amount of magnetic material in
each of the secondary coils is the same.
● But when the core is displaced from the central position there is a
greater amount of magnetic core in one coil than the other, e.g.
more in secondary coil2 than coil 1.
Differential Transformers
Differential Transformers
❖ The result is that a greater e.m.f is induced in one coil
than the other. There is then a net output from the two
coils.
❖ Since a greater displacement means even more core
in one coil than the other, the output, the difference
between the two e.m.fs increases the greater the
displacement being monitored.
Differential Transformers
❖ LVDTs have operating ranges from about ±2mm to ±400mm
with non-linearity errors of about ±0.25%.
❖ LVDTs are very widely used as primary transducers for
monitoring displacements. The free end of the core may be
spring loaded for contact with the surface being monitored, or
threaded for mechanical connection.
❖ They are also used as secondary transducers in the
measurement of force, weight and pressure; these variables
are transformed in todisplacements which can be monitored
by LVDT’s
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
❖ If a coil is supplied with an alternating current, an
alternating magnetic field is produced. If there is a
metal object in close proximity to this alternating
magnetic field, then eddy currents are induced in it.
❖ The eddy currents themselves produce a
magnetic field. This distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their production.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
❖ As a result, the impedance of the coil changes and so
the amplitude of the alternating current. At some
preset level, this change can be used to trigger a
switch.
❖ This type of sensor is used for detection of
non-magnetic but conductive materials.
❖ They are inexpensive, small in size, highly reliable
and are very sensitive to small displacements.
Eddy Current Proximity Sensor
Inductive proximity Switch
● This consists of a coil wound round a core.
When the end of the coil is close to a metal
object its inductance changes. This change can
be used to trigger a switch.
● It is used for detection of metal objects
and is best with ferrous metals.
Inductive proximity Switch
Pneumatic Sensors
Pneumatic Sensors
❖ Pneumatic sensors involve the use of compressed
air, displacement or the proximity of an object
being transformed in to a change in air pressure.
❖ Low pressure air is allowed to escape through
a port in the front of the sensor. This escaping
air in the absence of any close by object,
escapes and in doing so also reduces the
pressure in the nearby sensor output port.
Pneumatic Sensors
❖ But if there is a close by object, the air cannot so readily escape and
the result is that the pressure increases in the sensor output port. The
output pressure from the sensor thus depends on the proximity of
objects.
❖ Typically 3-12mm displacements can be measured by this sensor.
Proximity Switches
❖ There are many forms of switches which are activated by the
presence of an object, to give an output to sensor which is either on
or off.
❖ Microswitch is a small electrical switch which requires physical
contact and a small operating force to close the contacts.
❖ On a conveyor belt presence of an item is determined by the
weight on the belt.
❖ Lever operated, Roller Operated and Cam Operated
Proximity Switches
❖ Reed Switch consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed
in a glass tube.
❖ When a magnet is brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds
are attracted to each other and close the switch contacts.
❖ Photosensitive devices can be used to detect the presence of an
opaque object by it breaking a beam of light, or infrared radiation,
falling on such a device or by detecting the light reflected back by
the object.
Proximity Switches

Reed Switch
LED based proximity sensors
Hall Effect Sensors
❖ A Hall effect sensor is a transducer that varies its output voltage
in response to a magnetic field. Hall effect sensors are used for
proximity switching, positioning, speed detection, and current
sensing applications.

❖ The typical application of Hall effect sensor is the measurement

of fluid level in a container. The container comprises of a float
with a permanent magnet attached at its top.
Principle working of HALL EFFECT Sensor
Fluid Level Detector
Velocity and Motion
❖ These sensors are used to monitor linear and
angular velocities and detect motion.
❖ The following are the main types of these sensors;

1 Incremental Encoders
2 Tachogenerator
3 Pyroelectric Sensors.
Incremental Encoders
The incremental encoders are used to determine angular velocity by
measuring number of pulses produced per second.
❖ A beam of light passes through slots in a disc and is detected by a suitable
light sensor.
❖ When the disc is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by the sensor with
the number of pulses being proportional to the angle through which the
disc rotates.
❖ Hence rotation of disc can be obtained by number of pulses
produced.
Incremental Encoders
Tachogenerator
❏ A Tachogenerator is used to measure angular
velocity. Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator is
most commonly used form of tachogenerator.
❏ It consists of a toothed wheel of
ferromagnetic material which is
attached to the rotating shaft.
❏ A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet.
Tachogenerator

Construction and working of AC generator

Principle of working of Techogenerator
Tachogenerator
❖ As the wheel rotates, so the teeth move past the coil
and the air gap between the coil and ferromagnetic
material changes.
❖ Thus we have a magnetic circuit with an air gap which
periodically changes.
❖ As a result flux linked by a pick-up coil changes
which in turn produces an alternating e.m.f. in the
coil.
Tachogenerator
❖ If wheel contains ‘n’ teeth and rotates with an
angular velocity ω, then the flux change with time for
the coil is given as;
❖ Ф= Ф̥ + Фa cos nωt
❖ where Ф̥ is the mean value of flux and Фa the
amplitude of the flux variation. The induced e.m.f.
e in the N turns of the pick-up coil is thus:
Tachogenerator
e= -N d(Ф)/dt
=-N d/dt (Ф̥ + Ф cos nωt)
a

= N Ф n ω sin nωt We
a

can write;
e= Emax sin ωt
where the maximum value of the induced e.m.f. Emax is
NФ nω and so it is the measure of the angular velocity.
a
Pyroelectric Sensor
Pyroelectric Materials are crystalline materials which
produce charge in response to heat flow.
● When such a material is heated to a temperature just
below the Curie temperature in an electric field and
material cooled while remaining in the field, electric
dipoles with in the material line up and it becomes
polarised.
Pyroelectric Sensor

The effect of temperature on the

Principle of pyroelectricity amount of polarisation
Pyroelectric Sensor

Construction and working a Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric Sensor
● When the field is removed the material retains its
polarisation.
● When the pyroelectric material is exposed to infrared
radiation, its temperature rises and this reduces the
amount of polarisation in the material.
● Hence the dipoles being shaken up more and losing their
alignment.
Pyroelectric Sensor
● Pyroelectric sensor consists of a polarised
pyroelectric crystal with thin metal film
electrodes on opposite faces.
● Because the crystal is polarised with charged
surfaces, ions are drawn from the surrounding air
and electrons from any measurement circuit
connected to the sensor to balance the surface
charge.
Pyroelectric Sensor
● If than infrared radiation is incident on the crystal
and changes its temperature, the polarisation in the
crystal is reduced thus results in charge reduction
on the crystal surface.
● The excess charge leaks away through
measurement circuit until the charge on the
crystal once again is balanced by the charge on
the electrodes.
Pyroelectric Sensor
● The pyroelectric sensor thus behaves as a
charge generator which generates charge when
there is a change in its temperature. The
relationship between change in charge Δq is
proportional to the change in temperature Δt;
● Δq = kp Δt (Kp = sensitivity constant)
Force
● A spring balance is an example of force
sensor in which a force, a weight, is
applied to the scale pan.
● This causes a displacement, i.e. the
spring stretches. This displacement is
then a measure of the force.
Strain Gauge Load Cell
❖ The most widely used form of force- measuring
transducer is based on the use of electrical resistance
strain gauges.
❖ These are used to monitor the strain produced in some
member when stretched, compressed or bent by the
application of the force.
❖ This arrangement is generally known as Load
Cell.
Strain Gauge Load Cell

Strain gauge based Load cell

Strain Gauge Load Cell
❖ This is a cylindrical tube to which strain gauges have
been attached.
❖ When forces are applied to the cylinder to compress it,
then strain gauges give a resistance change.
❖ This resistance is the measure of the strain and hence
applied forces can be determined from it.
❖ A signal conditioning circuit is used to eliminate the effect
of temperature because temperature has an effect on
resistance.
Fluid Pressure
❖ Fluid pressure in industrial applications can be
measured by monitoring the elastic deformation
of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes.
❖ The type of pressure measurements that can be
required are, Absolute Pressure (where pressure is
measured relative to zero-pressure), Differential
Pressure (where a pressure difference is
measured) and Gauge Pressure (where the pressure
is measured relative to barometric pressure).
Fluid Pressure
● In a diaphragm, when there is a difference in
pressure than the centre of diaphragm becomes
displaced/bends.
● This form of movement can be monitored by some
form of displacement sensors e.g. strain gauge.
● Corrugation in diaphragm results in greater
sensitivity.
Fluid Pressure

A diaphragm
Bellow with a LVDT
Schematic of Capsule and Bellow
(A) Helical Coil Bourdon
tubes
(B) Flat Diaphragm
(C) Convoluted Diaphragm
(D) Convoluted Diaphragm
(E) Capsule
(F) Set of bellows
Fluid Pressure
❖ Capsules can be considered to be just two corrugated
diaphragms combined and give greater sensitivity.
❖ Bellow is a stake of capsules and even more sensitive.
❖ A bellow can be combined with a LVDT to give a
pressure sensor with an electrical output.
❖ Capsules and Bellows are made of materials such as
Stainless Steel, Phosphor Bronze, Nickel, with rubber
and nylon.
Fluid Pressure
■ A different form of deformation is obtained using a tube with an
elliptical cross-section.
■ Increasing the pressure in the tube causes it to tend to more
circular cross-section.
■ When such a tube is in the form of C- shaped tube it is known
as Bourdon Tube. The C opens to some extent when the
pressure in the tube increases.
■ These are made up of materials as stainless steel and phosphor
bronze.
Piezoelectrical Sensors
❖ Piezoelectric materials are those which when stretched or
compressed generate electric charges with one face of the
material becoming positively charged and the opposite face
negatively charged.
❖ As a result voltage is produced.
❖ During stretching or compressing charge distribution in
the crystal takes place so that there is a net
displacement of charge.
Piezoelectrical Sensors
❖ The net charge q on a surface is proportional to the
amount x by which the charges have been displaced,
and since the displacement is proportional to the
applied force F;
❖ q = kx = SF
❖ Where k is a constant and S a constant termed the
charge sensitivity and it depends upon the material and
orientation of its crystals.
Piezoelectrical Sensors
dipole
PIEZOELECTRIC SENSORS
Piezoelectrical Sensors
❖ Metal electrodes are deposited on opposite
faces of the piezoelectric crystal. The
capacitance C of the piezoelectric material
between the plates is;
❖ C = (εo εr A)/t
❖ where εr is the relative permittivity of the
material, A is area and t its thickness.
Tactile Sensor
❖ Tactile sensor is a particular form of pressure sensor and
used on the fingertips of robots to determine contact of
hand with object.
❖ They are also used for touch display screens where a
physical contact has to be sensed.
❖ One form of tactile sensor uses piezoelectric
polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film.
❖ Two layers of film are used and are separated by a soft
film which transmit vibrations.
Tactile Sensor
❖ The lower PVDF film has an alternating
voltage applied to it and this results in
mechanical oscillations of the film.
❖ The intermediate film transmit these
vibrations to the upper PVDF film.
Tactile Sensor
❖ These vibrations cause an alternating voltage to
be produced across the upper film.
❖ When pressure is applied to the upper PVDF film
its vibrations are effected and the output alternating
voltage is changed.
Tactile Sensor
Liquid Flow
❖ The traditional methods of measuring the flow rate of
liquids involves devices based on the measurement of
pressure drop occurring when a liquid flows through a
constriction.
❖ For a horizontal tube, where v1 is the fluid velocity,
P1the pressure and A1 the cross- sectional area of the
tube prior to the constriction.
❖ v2 the velocity, P2 the pressure and A2 the cross-section
area at the constriction, ρ the fluid density. Then
Bernoulli’s equation gives;
Liquid Flow
❖ Since mass of liquid passing per second
through the tube prior to the constriction, we
have A1v1ρ = A2v2ρ.
❖ The quantity Q of liquid passing through the
tube per second is A1v1=A2v2, hence
Liquid Flow
● Thus it is seen that quantity of fluid flowing
through the pipe per second is proportional to
√(pressure difference).
● Measurements of pressure difference can thus
be used to give a measure of the rate of flow.
Liquid Flow (Orifice Plate)
❖ The Orifice plate is simply a disc, with a central hole,
which is placed in the tube through which the fluid is
flowing.
❖ The pressure difference is measured between a point
equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and a point
equal to half the diameter downstream.
❖ It is cheap, simple with no moving parts but does not
work well with slurries.
Orifice Plate
Turbine Meter
❖ The turbine flow meter consists of a multi- bladed
rotor that is supported centrally in the pipe along
which the flow occurs.
❖ The fluid flow results in rotation of the rotor, the angular
velocity being proportional to the flow rate.
❖ The rate of revolution of the motor can be determined
by using a magnetic pickup.
Turbine Meter
● The pulses are counted and so the number of
revolutions of the rotor can be determined.
Liquid Level
❖ The level of liquid in a vessel can be measured directly
by monitoring the position of the liquid surface or
indirectly by measuring some variable related to the
height.
❖ Direct methods involve floats while indirect methods
include the monitoring of the weight of the vessel by
load cells.
Floats
❖ A direct method of monitoring the level of liquid
in a vessel is by monitoring the movement of a
float.
❖ The displacement of the float causes a level arm to
rotate and so move a slider across a potentiometer.
❖ The result is an output of a voltage related
to the height of liquid.
Floats
● Other forms of this involve the lever causing the
core in a LVDT to displace, or stretch or compress a
strain gauged element.
Differential Pressure
❖ Two basic types of instruments are used for
measurement of differential pressure.
❖ In figure 2.48 (a), the differential pressure cell determines the
pressure difference between the liquid at the base of the vessel
and atmospheric pressure. The vessel is being open to the
atmospheric pressure.
❖ In figure 2.48 (b) the differential pressure cell monitors the
difference in pressure between the base of the vessel and the
air or gas above the surface of the liquid.
Differential Pressure
Level Sensor
Temperature
● Temperature can be measured by changes it
causes in the form of expansion or contraction
of gases, liquids or solids.
● The change in electrical resistance of
conductors, semiconductors and thermoelectric
e.m.f.s.
Bimetallic Strips
❖ Bimetallic Strips consists of two different metal
strips bonded together.
❖ The metals have different coefficients of expansion
and when temperature changes the composite strip
bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient
metal on the outside of the curve.
❖ This deformation may be used as a
temperature-controlled switch, meaning that the
switch contacts close at a different temperature from
that at which they open.
Construction and working of Bimetallic strip
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
❖ The resistance of most metals increases, over
a limited temperature range, in a reasonably
linear way with temperature. The relationship
is as;
➢ Rt = R0 (1 + at)
❖ Where Rt is the resistance at temperature t °C,
R0 is resistance at temperature 0 °C and a is
temperature coefficient of resistance.
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)
▪ Resistance Temperature Detectors are simple resistive
elements in the form of coils of wire of metals as
platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys.

Behavior of RTD materials

Construction of a Resistance temperature detector (RTD
Thermistors
❖ These are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal
oxides, such as those of chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and
nickel.
❖ These metal oxides are semiconductors.
❖ The material is formed into various forms of elements such as
beads, discs and rods.
❖ The resistance of conventional metal oxide thermistors decreases in
a very non-linear way with an increase in temperature.
❖ These thermistors have negative temperature coefficients (NTC).
Thermistors
Thermistors
❖ The change in resistance per degree change in temperature
is considerably larger than that which occurs with metals.
The equation for resistance-temperature for a thermistor
can be
❖ Rt = K (e)
❖ Where Rt is resistance at temperature t, with K and β
being constants.
❖ They are small in size and hence respond very rapidly to
changes in temperature. They give very large changes in
resistance per degree change in temperature.
Thermocouples
❖ If two different metals are joined together, a
potential difference occurs across the junction.
❖ The potential difference depends upon the metals
used and the temperature of the junction.
❖ A thermocouple is a complete circuit involving
two such junctions. If both the junctions are at
same temperature than there is no net e.m.f.
Thermocouples
❖ The value of this e.m.f E depends on the two metals
concerned and the temperature t of both junctions.
❖ Usually one junction is held at 0°C and then to a
reasonable extent, the following relationship holds;
❖ E = at + b (t)²
❖ Where a and b are constants for metals concerned.
shows commonly used thermocouples with temperature ranges
and sensitivities.shows thermoelectric e.m.f – temperature
graphs of these thermocouples.
Schematic of Thermocouple circuit
 Thermocouple materials and temperature ranges

Materials Range (ºC) (μV/ºC)

Platinum 30% rhodium/platinum 6%

0 to 1800 3
rhodium

Chromel/constantan -200 to 1000 63

Iron/constantan -200 to 900 53

Chromel/alumel -200 to 1300 41

Nirosil/nisil -200 to 1300 28

Platinum/platinum 13% rhodium 0 to 1400 6

Platinum/platinum 10% rhodium 0 to 1400 6

Copper/constantan -200 to 400 43

Light Sensors
❖ Photodiodes are semiconductor junction diodes which are
connected in a circuit in reverse bias, giving a very high
resistance.
❖ So when light falls on the junction the diode resistance drops
and current in the circuit rises appreciably.
❖ A photodiode can thus be used as a variable resistance device
controlled by the light incident on it. These have a very fast
response to light.
Construction of photo diode detector
PHOTOTRANSISTOR
Light Sensors
❖ Phototransistors have a light-sensitive
collector-base p-n junction.
❖ When there is no incident light there is a very small
collector-to-emitter current.
❖ When light is incident, a base current is produced
that is directly proportional to the light intensity.
❖ This leads to the production of a collector
current which is then a measure of the
light intensity.
Light Sensors
❖ Photoresistor has a resistance which depends on
the intensity of the light falling on it, decreasing
linearly as the intensity increases.
❖ The cadmium sulphide photoresistor is most
responsive to light.
Construction of a photo resistor
Selection of sensors
Following factors needs to be considered while
selecting a sensor.
1 The nature of the measurement required.
2 The nature of the output required.
3 Then possible sensors can be identified taking into
account such factors as range, accuracy, speed of
response, reliability, availability, cost.