Brill’s Encyclopedia of Buddhism

Volume II:
Lives

Editor-in-chief
Jonathan A. Silk

Editors
Richard Bowring
Vincent Eltschinger
Michael Radich

Editorial Advisory Board

Lucia Dolce
Berthe Jansen
John Jorgensen
Christian Lammerts
Francesco Sferra

LEIDEN | BOSTON

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 Contents

Prelims
Contributors ............................................................................................................................................................. xi
Editors and Editorial Board .................................................................................................................................. xxxiii
Primary Sources Abbreviations........................................................................................................................... xxxv
Books Series and Journals Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... xxxvii
General Abbreviations .......................................................................................................................................... xlii
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. xliv

Section One:
Śākyamuni: South Asia .......................................................................................................................................... 3
Barlaam and Josaphat ............................................................................................................................................ 39

Section Two:

South & Southeast Asia:

Ajātaśatru .................................................................................................................................................................. 51
Āryadeva.................................................................................................................................................................... 60
Āryaśūra..................................................................................................................................................................... 70
Asaṅga/Maitreya(nātha)....................................................................................................................................... 73
Bhāviveka .................................................................................................................................................................. 81
Brahmā, Śakra, and Māra ...................................................................................................................................... 85
Buddhaghoṣa............................................................................................................................................................ 92
Buddhas of the Past: South Asia ......................................................................................................................... 95
Buddhas of the Past and of the Future: Southeast Asia ............................................................................... 109
Candragomin ........................................................................................................................................................... 121
Candrakīrti................................................................................................................................................................ 125
Ḍākinī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 132
Devadatta .................................................................................................................................................................. 141
Dharmakīrti .............................................................................................................................................................. 156
Dharmapāla .............................................................................................................................................................. 168
Dharmottara............................................................................................................................................................. 173
Dignāga ...................................................................................................................................................................... 179
Early Sarvāstivāda Masters ................................................................................................................................... 186
Gavampati in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................................................... 191
Gopadatta ................................................................................................................................................................. 196
Guṇaprabha.............................................................................................................................................................. 198
Haribhadra................................................................................................................................................................ 204
Haribhaṭṭa ................................................................................................................................................................. 209
Harivarman............................................................................................................................................................... 211
Harṣa .......................................................................................................................................................................... 214
Hayagrīva................................................................................................................................................................... 218
Indian Tantric Authors: Overview ...................................................................................................................... 228
Jñānagarbha ............................................................................................................................................................. 261
Jñānapāda ................................................................................................................................................................. 264

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vi Contents

Jñānaśrīmitra ........................................................................................................................................................... 269

Kamalaśīla ................................................................................................................................................................ 272
Karuṇāmaya ............................................................................................................................................................. 279
Kṣemendra ................................................................................................................................................................ 286
Kumāralāta ............................................................................................................................................................... 293
Mahādeva.................................................................................................................................................................. 298
Maitreya..................................................................................................................................................................... 302
Mārīcī ......................................................................................................................................................................... 325
Mātṛceṭa .................................................................................................................................................................... 332
Nāgārjuna .................................................................................................................................................................. 335
Paccekabuddhas/Pratyekabuddhas in Indic Sources ................................................................................... 348
Phra Malai in Thailand and Southeast Asia..................................................................................................... 357
Prajñākaragupta ...................................................................................................................................................... 363
Ratnākaraśānti......................................................................................................................................................... 366
Ratnakīrti .................................................................................................................................................................. 371
Saṅghabhadra .......................................................................................................................................................... 374
Śaṅkaranandana ..................................................................................................................................................... 378
Śaṅkarasvāmin ........................................................................................................................................................ 382
Śāntarakṣita .............................................................................................................................................................. 383
Śāntideva ................................................................................................................................................................... 391
Sarasvatī/Benzaiten................................................................................................................................................ 398
Śāriputra .................................................................................................................................................................... 409
Scholars of Premodern Pali Buddhism ............................................................................................................. 420
Seers (ṛṣi/isi) and Brāhmaṇas in Southeast Asia ............................................................................................ 437
Siddhas....................................................................................................................................................................... 443
Śrīlāta ......................................................................................................................................................................... 452
Sthiramati ................................................................................................................................................................. 456
Śubhagupta............................................................................................................................................................... 458
Tantric Buddhist Deities in Southeast Asia ..................................................................................................... 463
Thera/Therī in Pali and Southeast Asian Buddhism ..................................................................................... 474
Udbhaṭasiddhasvāmin .......................................................................................................................................... 479
Upagupta ................................................................................................................................................................... 481
Vāgīśvarakīrti ........................................................................................................................................................... 490
Vasubandhu .............................................................................................................................................................. 492
Vināyaka .................................................................................................................................................................... 507
Yama and Hell Beings in Indian Buddhism ..................................................................................................... 513

East Asia:
Ākāśagarbha in East Asia ...................................................................................................................................... 521
Arhats in East Asian Buddhism .......................................................................................................................... 529
Aśvaghoṣa (East Asian Aspects) ......................................................................................................................... 540
Avalokiteśvara in East Asia................................................................................................................................... 546
Dizang/Jizō ............................................................................................................................................................... 562
Jianzhen (Ganjin) ................................................................................................................................................... 571
Mahākāla in East Asia............................................................................................................................................ 576
Mahākāśyapa in Chan-inspired Traditions...................................................................................................... 586
Mañjuśrī in East Asia ............................................................................................................................................. 591
Maudgalyāyana (Mulian)...................................................................................................................................... 600
Musang (Wuxiang) ................................................................................................................................................. 608
Tejaprabhā ................................................................................................................................................................ 612
Yinyuan Longqi (Ingen) ........................................................................................................................................ 616

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 Contents vii

China:
Amoghavajra ............................................................................................................................................................ 623
An Shigao .................................................................................................................................................................. 630
Chengguan ................................................................................................................................................................ 642
Daoxuan .................................................................................................................................................................... 648
Falin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 653
Faxian ......................................................................................................................................................................... 657
Fazun .......................................................................................................................................................................... 662
Hanshan Deqing ..................................................................................................................................................... 668
Hongzhi Zhengjue .................................................................................................................................................. 673
Huihong (see Juefan Huihong)
Huineng (see Shenxiu)
Huiyuan (see Lushan Huiyuan)
Jigong.......................................................................................................................................................................... 679
Juefan Huihong ....................................................................................................................................................... 684
Liang Wudi................................................................................................................................................................ 689
Lokakṣema ................................................................................................................................................................ 700
Luo Qing .................................................................................................................................................................... 707
Lushan Huiyuan ...................................................................................................................................................... 711
Mazu Daoyi............................................................................................................................................................... 722
Mingben (see Zhongfeng Mingben)
Nāgārjuna in China ................................................................................................................................................ 727
Nenghai...................................................................................................................................................................... 735
Ouyang Jingwu ........................................................................................................................................................ 741
Ouyi Zhixu ................................................................................................................................................................ 748
Paramārtha ............................................................................................................................................................... 752
Qian Qianyi............................................................................................................................................................... 759
Qisong ........................................................................................................................................................................ 764
Shenhui (see Shenxiu)
Shenxiu, Huineng, and Shenhui ......................................................................................................................... 768
Śubhākarasiṃha...................................................................................................................................................... 777
Wumen ...................................................................................................................................................................... 782
Wuxiang (see East Asia: Musang)
Wuzhu ........................................................................................................................................................................ 787
Xiao Ziliang............................................................................................................................................................... 791
Yinshun...................................................................................................................................................................... 795
Yixing ......................................................................................................................................................................... 800
Yuan Hongdao ......................................................................................................................................................... 806
Yuanwu Keqin .......................................................................................................................................................... 810
Zhanran ..................................................................................................................................................................... 814
Zhi Qian ..................................................................................................................................................................... 818
Zhili............................................................................................................................................................................. 826
Zhixu (see Ouyang Zhixu)
Zhiyi............................................................................................................................................................................ 833
Zhongfeng Mingben............................................................................................................................................... 839
Zhuhong .................................................................................................................................................................... 844

Korea:
Chinul......................................................................................................................................................................... 853
Hyujŏng ..................................................................................................................................................................... 860
Ich’adon ..................................................................................................................................................................... 864

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viii Contents

Kihwa ......................................................................................................................................................................... 869

Kim Sisŭp .................................................................................................................................................................. 873
Kyŏnghŏ..................................................................................................................................................................... 877
Kyunyŏ ....................................................................................................................................................................... 882
Muhak Chach’o ........................................................................................................................................................ 887
Musang (see East Asia)
Pou .............................................................................................................................................................................. 891
Tosŏn .......................................................................................................................................................................... 895
Ŭich’ŏn ....................................................................................................................................................................... 900
Ŭisang ........................................................................................................................................................................ 903
Wŏnch’ŭk .................................................................................................................................................................. 908
Wŏnhyo...................................................................................................................................................................... 913
Yi Nŭnghwa .............................................................................................................................................................. 918

Japan:
Amaterasu Ōmikami .............................................................................................................................................. 923
Annen......................................................................................................................................................................... 930
Benzaiten (see South and Southeast Asia: Sarasvatī)
Dōgen ......................................................................................................................................................................... 933
Dōhan......................................................................................................................................................................... 941
Eisai (see Yōsai)
Eison ........................................................................................................................................................................... 944
En no Gyōja .............................................................................................................................................................. 951
Enchin ........................................................................................................................................................................ 956
Ennin .......................................................................................................................................................................... 961
Ganjin (see East Asia: Jianzhen)
Genshin ..................................................................................................................................................................... 967
Hachiman ................................................................................................................................................................. 971
Hakuin ....................................................................................................................................................................... 976
Hōnen ........................................................................................................................................................................ 980
Ikkyū Sōjun ............................................................................................................................................................... 987
Ingen (see East Asia: Yinyuan Longqi)
Ippen Chishin .......................................................................................................................................................... 991
Jakushō ...................................................................................................................................................................... 995
Jiun Sonja .................................................................................................................................................................. 998
Jizō (see East Asia: Dizang)
Jōjin............................................................................................................................................................................. 1002
Jōkei ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1006
Kakuban .................................................................................................................................................................... 1011
Keizan Jōkin ............................................................................................................................................................. 1016
Kōmyō ........................................................................................................................................................................ 1020
Kūkai .......................................................................................................................................................................... 1026
Kūya ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1036
Menzan Zuihō ......................................................................................................................................................... 1041
Monkan ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1047
Mugai Nyodai ........................................................................................................................................................... 1057
Mujaku Dōchū ......................................................................................................................................................... 1062
Musō Soseki .............................................................................................................................................................. 1066
Myōe ........................................................................................................................................................................... 1071
Nichiren ..................................................................................................................................................................... 1076
Nōnin.......................................................................................................................................................................... 1088

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 Contents ix
Raiyu........................................................................................................................................................................... 1094
Ryōgen........................................................................................................................................................................ 1097
Saichō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1102
Saigyō ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1107
Shinran....................................................................................................................................................................... 1111
Shōtoku Taishi ......................................................................................................................................................... 1117
Tenjin ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1122
Tenkai ......................................................................................................................................................................... 1128
Yōsai/Eisai ................................................................................................................................................................. 1134
Zaō .............................................................................................................................................................................. 1139

Tibetan Cultural Sphere

Atiśa and the Bka’ gdams pa Masters ................................................................................................................ 1145
Ge sar of Gling ......................................................................................................................................................... 1159
Gter ston: Tibetan Buddhist Treasure Revealers ............................................................................................. 1165
Gtsang smyon Heruka ........................................................................................................................................... 1171
Lcang skya Rol pa’i Rdo rje ................................................................................................................................... 1175
Mi la ras pa................................................................................................................................................................ 1181
The Mongolian Jebdzundamba Khutugtu Lineage ....................................................................................... 1191
Padmasambhava in Tibetan Buddhism ............................................................................................................ 1197
The Sa skya School’s Five Forefathers................................................................................................................ 1213
Spirits of the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet ................................................................................................ 1226
Ston pa Gshen rab: The Bön Buddha ................................................................................................................. 1233
Tibet's Crazy Yogins ................................................................................................................................................ 1239
Tsong kha pa and his Immediate Successors .................................................................................................. 1246
Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet ..................................................................................................................... 1254

Appendix To Volume I:
Buddhist Narrative Literature in Japan ............................................................................................................. 1269
Poetry: Japan ............................................................................................................................................................ 1286
Korean Sŏn Literature............................................................................................................................................ 1294

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 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
The Tibetan plateau is often portrayed as a vast,
sparsely populated land, but for Tibetans it is over-
flowing with a surfeit of gods and spirits. Perhaps
this is why the immense collection of Tibetan pro-
tector deities is often referred to as an “ocean” in the
relevant literature (Khri byang 03, 199[?]; Klong rdol
bla ma, 1973; Sle lung rje drung, 1976; Ngag dbang
blo bzang rgya mtsho, 1992). Protector deities
(srung ma), often called Dharma protectors (chos
skyong; Skt. dharmapāla) or “Oath-bound Ones”
(dam can), have always played a significant role in
the practice and propagation of Tibetan Buddhism.
Most Buddhist monasteries have a protector chapel
with its own distinct pantheon of deities connected
to the history of that institution and its sectarian
affiliation. These centers generally have extensive
liturgical manuals (bskang gso), the performance of
which are done throughout the ritual year to stimu-
late the continued protection of the monastery
and local community by these deities. Most Tibet-
ans likewise pray to protector deities at monaster-
ies and before their home shrines for a myriad of
reasons. Laymen and laywomen beseech protectors
often for more worldly concerns, such as fending
off illness or death from a family, guarding crops
and livestock from wild animals, or shielding the
village from enemies and destructive weather. The
activities of protectors are often divided into four
categories (las bzhi): pacification (zhi), augmenta-
tion (rgyas), subjugation (dbang), and destruction
(drag) (Cuevas, 2015, xxi–xxiv). Much like tantric
practitioners in their ritual ministrations, the deity
will work through these four activities in the pro-
cess of combatting negative forces, both seen and
unseen. In this way, protector deities are active in
all levels of Tibetan society, keeping back baneful
influences and insuring auspicious connections or
material support so that the Dharma and the com-
munity continue to flourish.
Protector deities themselves are drawn from a
dizzying array of spirit types that are clanlike in
their categorization (Tucci, 1949, 711–730). Terms
like Dharma protector or guardian deity are labels
that can be applied to any kind of divinity that
has been ritually, and often forcefully, subjugated
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by a tantric specialist. The most popular narra-
tive trope in this regard involves the famous 8th-
century tantric master →Padmasambhava, whose
various hagiographies recount the numerous local
gods he tamed as he traveled across India and Tibet
(O rgyan gling pa, 1996; Douglas & Bays, 1978). Other
Buddhist masters throughout Tibetan history have
taken part in this process as well, such as →Mi la
ras pa (1052–1135; Quintman, 2010), Rwa lo tsa ba
Rdo rje grags (1016–1128/1198; Cuevas, 2015), and Sog
bzlog pa Blo gros rgyal mtshan (1552–1624; Gentry,
2017).
As for the types of spirits that become protector
deities, they include a mix of Tibetanized Indian
divinities, such as yakṣas (gnod sbyin), nāgas (klu),
and rākṣasas (srin po), as well as strictly indigenous
gods, such as rgyal po, btsan, and dmu (→Spirits of
the Soil, Land, and Locality in Tibet; Tucci, 1949,
717–725; Cornu, 1990, 226–229). These examples do
not fully capture the impressive amount of termi-
nology used to define these supernatural beings,
and English words such as “demon” and “spirit” only
conflate or elide their diversity. Beyond these spirit
types, there are also ontological categories that dis-
tinguish where these and other supernatural beings
stand on the spectrum of enlightenment in Tibetan
Buddhism. There are generally four such categories:
(1) enlightened buddhas, bodhisattvas, and tantric
tutelary deities, (2) transcendent Dharma protec-
tors who are emanations of enlightened beings,
which are called “supramundane guardians” (’jig
rten las ’das pa’i srung ma), (3) worldly Dharma pro-
tectors, called “mundane guardians” (’jig rten pa’i
srung ma), who were once local spirits that were
subjugated and placed within the Buddhist pan-
theon presided over by tantric deities, and (4) the
horde of untamed indigenous spirits from which
worldly protectors are drawn and who often
make up members of their retinue (de Nebesky-
Wojkowitz, 1956, 3–5, 23).
While the above categorization scheme appears
orderly, the reality is far messier when we consider
individual deities and their narratives. There is dis-
agreement within and between different Tibetan
Buddhist sects about the ontological nature of some
BEB, vol. II
 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
protector deities. One group will state that a certain
deity or group of deities are simply worldly spirits,
prone to karmic accretion like all beings in saṃsāra,
while another group will claim that the deities are
ultimately an emanation of enlightened beings (de
Nebesky-Wojkowitz, 1956, 177). Although the follow-
ing narratives focus on worldly protector deities,
a few of the divinities explored below exhibit this
ambiguity.
Important Sources
Within the discipline of Tibetan Studies, research
on protector deities is still comparatively nascent.
The foundational resource one must first refer to
when exploring Tibetan gods and spirits remains de
Nebesky-Wojkowitz’s Oracles and Demons of Tibet
(1956). Drawing on over 200 Tibetan texts, many
of them rare, Nebesky-Wojkowitz catalogued the
major supramundane and mundane Dharma pro-
tectors one encounters in Tibetan Buddhism, as
well as the numerous kinds of local spirits. The work
is an encyclopedia of deity iconography, mythology,
and ritual practices, and de Nebesky-Wojkowitz
even notes alternative spellings and narratives for
most of the deities he discusses. The book itself
has something of an infamous reputation within
Tibetan exile communities today. Because the
author died at the exceptionally young age of 36,
some believe that the wrathful deities themselves
struck him down prematurely due to his irreverent
handling of their secrets (Bjerken, 2004, 38; Blofeld,
1970, 73).
An even older source that merits mentioning is
the three-volume work Tibetan Painted Scrolls by
the Italian scholar G. Tucci (1949). While concerned
with Tibetan Buddhist history and iconography
overall, this work provides a great deal of useful, if
unsystematic, material on Indo-Tibetan myths tied
to important Buddhist divinities and protector dei-
ties. The first work to give explicit and sustained
attention to a Tibetan deity cult, in terms of its
historical and ritual development, is A. Heller’s dis-
sertation (1992a). Heller focuses on the institutional
and iconographic evolution of the protector deity
Beg tse, a wrathful red deity with three eyes who
brandishes a sword, bow, and arrow while bring-
ing a heart to his mouth. She specifically explores
Beg tse’s liturgical development as he moved from
his initial Sa skya ritual context into the lineage
of the Dalai Lamas. Much of Heller’s scholarship
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1255
concerns Beg tse and other Tibetan deities, espe-
cially through an art historical and philological lens
(Heller, 1988, 1990, 1992a, 1994, 1996, 1997, 2001, 2003,
2006).
S. Karmay's work also often explores Tibetan
protector deities, as well as local mountain deities.
Most of his work has been reprinted (1998; 2005; see
also 1988). Finally, a thorough doctrinal examina-
tion of the mundane/supramundane ontological
dichotomy can be found in Seyfort Ruegg (2008).
Beyond these contemporary examples and a hand-
ful of articles by other specialists, however, the bulk
of research conducted specifically on protector dei-
ties is still limited to unpublished master’s theses,
doctoral dissertations, and conference papers.
In terms of Tibetan material on protector dei-
ties, countless texts touch on the subject and most
Tibetan masters have composed rituals and hagiog-
raphies concerning divinities. These texts are either
found in various collected works or in monastic
ritual collections. Nevertheless, it warrants men-
tioning a collection of deity hagiographies that
represents one of the most significant attempts to
collect and standardize the mythologies of Tibetan
protector deities. This important work was com-
posed by Sle lung rje drung Bzhad pa’i rdo rje (1697–
1740) in 1734, and is titled the Dam can bstan srung
rgya mtsho’i rnam par thar pa cha shas tsam brjod
pa sngon med legs bshad (Unprecedented Elegant
Explanation Briefly Expounding the Hagiographies
and Iconographies of the Ocean of Oath-Bound
Guardians of the Teachings). While this text is writ-
ten from a Dge lugs pa point of view, Sle lung was
particularly thorough about citing his numerous
references in his attempts to reconcile conflicting
accounts, making it an indispensable resource (Bai-
ley, 2017).
Regardless of the current state of the field, the
available Tibetan sources and existing scholarship
show that the mythic narratives of worldly protec-
tor deities in Tibetan Buddhism are rich and varied.
They possess elements of Indian mythography, tan-
tric cosmology, and indigenous Tibetan geography
and history. There are a number of shared themes
across these narratives as well. For instance, the
origins of a wrathful protector deity can usually be
traced to their past lives. It is often the case that
these beings were once devout religious practitio-
ners before something disrupted their practice.
After being reborn as a fierce spirit, they needed to
be subjugated, sometimes multiple times, before
being ritually forced to protect the Dharma.
1256 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
To illustrate these dominant structures and ele-
ments, what follows are the mythic narratives of
six popular Tibetan Buddhist protector deities
divided into three thematic categories. The first cat-
egory concerns the nature of Indo-Tibetan rebirth
accounts for one of the forms of the goddess Dpal
ldan lha mo, as well as for the god Pe har. The sec-
ond category focuses on protector deities as wrath-
ful revenants, using the gods Tsi’u dmar po and Rdo
rje shugs ldan as exemplars. The final category will
look at the ’Bri gung Bka’ brgyud protectress A phyi
Chos kyi sgrol ma and the three Sa skya Witches.
While many protector deities are quite ecumenical,
existing in the ritual corpora of several traditions,
these latter goddesses are vivid examples of specifi-
cally sectarian protectors. Inevitably, the narrative
samples below do not include the numerous varia-
tions that exist for each divinity’s mythos. While
the decision to elaborate on some elements and
condense or excise others can act as a standardiz-
ing method, it is important to be aware that diver-
gences exist and a shift in emphasis or difference in
detail often falls along sectarian lines. There is still
a lacuna in the relevant literature concerning these
nuances.
Indo-Tibetan Rebirths
Dpal ldan lha mo, Queen of the Desire Realm
Dpal ldan lha mo, which simply means “Glorious
Goddess,” is a broad label for a number of popular
female protector deities. Due to Dge lugs influence
over the last several centuries, Dpal ldan lha mo is
most often an abbreviation of Dpal ldan lha mo
Dmag zor rgyal mo, one of the two main protec-
tors of the Dalai Lamas’ lineage – the other being
Pe har, who will be discussed below. Another Glori-
ous Goddess is Dung skyong ma, the “Conch Shell
Protectress,” also called ’Dod khams dbang phyug
ma, the “Queen of the Desire Realm,” who is found
in Rnying ma, Sa skya, Dge lugs, and ’Brug pa Bka’
brgyud pantheons. She is of white complexion and
brandishes a flaming crystal sword while holding
a jewel-vomiting mongoose. The mythic origins
of this divinity are clearly drawn from both the
Purāṇic corpus and the Rāmāyaṇa epic of India
(Dimmitt & van Buitenen, 1978, 299–303; Swami
Venkatesananda, 1988). While the summary below
is drawn principally from Heller’s work, the story is
originally found in a text entitled Mkha’ ’gro ma me
lce ’bar ba’i rgyud (Tantra of Burning Flames), found
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in the Rnying ma’i rgyud ’bum (Cog ro Klu’i rgyal
mtshan, 1973; Heller, 1997, 287–288; Tucci, 1949,
218–219).
Beginning in the legendary past, while the devas
and asuras were waging a war against one another,
the bodhisattva Vajrapāṇi created the goddess
Pārvatī, called Umā, to act as Śiva’s partner. From
their union, Umā gave birth to the god Mahākāla
and the goddess Cāmuṇḍī. The latter decapitated
one of the prominent asuras and came to be known
(in Tibetan) as Dung skyong ma. Soon after, the gods
raided the demon city of Laṅkā, which was ruled
over by Rāvaṇa, the antagonist of the Rāmāyaṇa.
While Rāvaṇa survived the assault, he gave his sis-
ter in marriage to Śiva in order to pacify the divine
incursion. From their union another goddess was
born, Remati, who became Dung skyong ma’s maid-
servant. Through this connection, Rāvaṇa saw and
fell in love with Dung skyong ma, pining after her
obsessively.
One day, when the gods went to Laṅkā en masse
to watch the monkey brothers Sugrīva and Vālī
fight, Rāvaṇa saw an opportunity and devised a plot
to capture Dung skyong ma. By taking the form of a
beautiful deer, and with Remati’s assistance, Rāvaṇa
successfully lured away and seduced the goddess.
Her mother Umā was furious with this transgres-
sion and cursed both Dung skyong ma and Remati
by transforming them into ugly and ferocious
rākṣasas. From then on, they ate the flesh of corpses
and dogs, and even gorged on their own bastard
children. Unhappy with their lot, the two demon-
esses fled Laṅkā, but not before stealing Rāvaṇa’s
scorpion-handled sword and a mongoose-skin bag
filled with jewels.
After roaming aimlessly for a time, Dung skyong
ma and Remati found their way to the ocean shore.
For a week, they practiced the wind cakra of Yama,
the Lord of Death, until a great black storm arose
and surrounded them. Amid that tempest, Dung
skyong ma recited a prayer of aspiration, saying,
“[m]ay I immediately give up this life, obtain the
Secret Mantra practice, and gaze upon the Bud-
dha’s face! May I become the Queen of the Desire
Realm! May Remati, my black maid-servant, act as
my disciple for all time!” Immediately after mak-
ing this vow, a great cyclone whipped the two
demonesses into the sea, drowning them (Cog ro
Klu'i rgyal mtshan, 1973, 118). Dung skyong ma was
accordingly reborn as ’Dod khams dbang phyug ma.
Remati was eventually reborn as Dung skyong ma’s
servant.
 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
The first half of this mythic narrative loosely but
vividly illustrates popular Indic elements. The bat-
tle of the devas and asuras is Purāṇic, while Dung
skyong ma’s role closely parallels that of Sītā and her
capture by Rāvaṇa in the Rāmāyaṇa (Swami Ven-
katesananda, 1988, 154–161). The monkey brothers
Sugrīva and Vālī are also mentioned, but in a con-
text quite condensed and removed from their usual
role in the epic. While the epic of the Rāmāyaṇa has
been known in Tibet (de Jong, 1972; Mkha’ ’bum,
2000), this is a particularly shallow iteration, since
the protagonist Rāma is absent altogether. More
tantric and indigenous Tibetan elements filter in
toward the end of the myth. The scorpion handled
sword does not appear in Indian versions of the
epic, since the pernicious and poisonous scorpion
is a predominantly Tibetan symbol (Heller, 1997).
The Yama ritual is also distinctly tantric in nature.
Beyond this, the tale evinces a brief but powerful
rebirth and conversion account that reaches its cre-
scendo with a prayer of aspiration; the women vow
to be reborn as seekers of awakening in a classic
expression of the Mahāyāna bodhisattva vow.
Pe har
The Dharma protector Pe har is a wrathful protec-
tor deity, possessing three heads – black, white, and
red – and six arms, each grasping a weapon. He is
the chief of a group of five deities called the Five
Sovereign Spirits (rgyal po sku lnga). While these
divinities are generally considered worldly pro-
tector deities, they are occasionally referred to as
supramundane protectors, especially at Gnas chung
Monastery, their chief ritual and institutional cen-
ter on the outskirts of Lhasa (Nair, 2004, 28–34). The
other deities that make up the Five Sovereign Spir-
its are believed to emanate from Pe har, and seldom
appear in their own mythic accounts. By contrast,
Pe har has a robust mythology that illustrates both
classical Indian and indigenous Tibetan narrative
tropes. The deity’s mythos can be divided into three
major events: Pe har’s many lifetimes prior to Tibet,
his arrival in Tibet, and his establishment at Gnas
chung Monastery.
According to Sle lung, many eons ago in the
land of the asuras, there was a devout king named
Dharmajvāla. His closest friend was his minister
Legs ldan nag po. Being quite religious, the two
friends decided to become monks. Dharmajvāla
took the ordination name Zla ’od gzhon nu, while
Legs ldan nag po took the name Dun ting nag po.
However, while the king delighted in philosophy his
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1257
minister delighted in meditation, causing them to
drift apart. Later, Zla ’od gzhon nu saw the beautiful
daughter of a brahmin and began an illicit affair with
her. His old friend Dun ting nag po reproached him
for this, which angered Zla ’od gzhon nu. From then
on, and for several lifetimes, Zla ’od gzhon nu would
transform into various animals to torment Dun
ting nag po, only to be stymied by the bodhisattva
Vajrapāṇi. This negative activity ultimately caused
Zla ’od gzhon nu to be reborn in hell, and to expe-
rience other unpleasant lives. Later, Zla ’od gzhon
nu was born among wrathful spirits as a great white
three-faced, six-armed man, while the monk Dun
ting nag po became an arhat named Legs ldan nag
po. One day, when the awakened monk Legs ldan
nag po was settled in the meditation of →Hayagrīva,
Zla ’od gzhon nu transformed into a great iron scor-
pion and bit Legs ldan nag po’s foot, but the arhat,
emboldened by Vajrapāṇi and taking on the form of
Hayagrīva, subjugated the fierce spirit.
In his next life, Zla ’od gzhon nu came to reside
in the Bha ta hor region, near modern day Qinghai
Lake. One day, when the great tantric master Pad-
masambhava was dwelling in a cave at Bha ta hor,
Zla ’od gzhon nu transformed into a white lion to
test the master. Just as the lion was about to pounce
on Padmasambhava, the exorcist took on the form
of Hayagrīva and struck the beast with his staff. The
spirit then transformed into a frightening black
monk and threw a meteor down onto Padmasam-
bhava’s head. Once again the master took on the
form of Hayagrīva and seized the spirit. Zla ’od
gzhon nu finally transformed into a young layman
and bowed before the master, who subjugated him
(Sle lung rje drung, 1976, 369:4–378:4).
Although Sle lung does not discuss Pe har’s arrival
in Tibet, the Fifth Dalai Lama (1617–1682) does in his
1643 history of Tibet entitled, Gangs can yul gyi sa la
spyod pa’i mtho ris kyi rgyal blon gtso bor brjod pa’i
deb ther rdzogs ldan gzhon nu’i dga’ ston dpyid kyi
rgyal mo’i glu dbyangs (Song of the Spring Queen
that is a Celebration of the New Golden Age: A His-
tory that Expounds on the Main Heavenly Kings
and Ministers that Ruled over the Land of Snows).
According to this source, in the 8th century, the
Tibetan Dharma King Khri srong lde’u btsan invited
the abbot →Śāntarakṣita and Master Padmasam-
bhava to establish Tibet’s first Buddhist monastery,
called Bsam yas (Kapstein, 2006, 68–69). A guard-
ian for Bsam yas’s treasury was needed, and even-
tually the current incarnation of Zla ’od gzhon nu,
now named Pe har, was chosen to take this office.
1258 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
As such, King Khri srong lde’u btsan’s son went with
an army to Bha ta hor and brought Pe har back to
Bsam yas (Ngag dbang blo bzang rgya mtsho, 1993,
187:4–188:3).
Pe har’s eventual transfer to Gnas chung Monas-
tery is elaborated upon in the biography of a ’Bras
spungs Monastery abbot named Lcog pa Byang
chub dpal ldan (1404/1464–1471/1531). This text is
attributed to Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, the Fifth Dalai
Lama’s final regent (Sørensen, Hazod & Tsering
Gyalbo, 2007, 216–218), and states that Pe har left
Bsam yas and came to reside at Yang dgon Mon-
astery in Tshal, southeast of Lhasa. Sometime in
the late 15th to early 16th centuries, due to the past
karma of the myriarch lord of Tshal, Don yod rdo
rje (1462/1463–1512), Pe har took possession of an
oracle and prophesied that he would abandon Don
yod rdo rje’s lineage when he died and when Gung
thang Monastery was destroyed by fire. In response
to this prophecy, Don yod rdo rje became very angry
and threw Pe har and his sacred possessions into
the Skyid chu River (Sørensen, Hazod & Tsering
Gyalbo 2007, 217). At noon the next day, Pe har and
his sacred items came to rest on the banks of the
Skyid chu River below ’Bras spungs Monastery. The
abbot of Bde yangs College at ’Bras spungs, Lcog pa
Byang chub dpal ldan, instructed two attendants to
retrieve the deity. When Pe har came before Lcog
pa Byang chub dpal ldan, the deity stressed that
his sacred items lacked a home, so he offered to act
as a guardian for the abbot and the monastery in
exchange for a dwelling. In response, the abbot built
a shrine to house Pe har’s possessions, calling it a
small abode (gnas chung) for the Dharma protector
(Sangs rgyas rgya mtsho, n.d., 10a.5–15a.2; Bell, 2013,
600–602).
Pe har’s pre-Tibet existence and iconography
unequivocally reflect the primary plot structure and
themes found in the Subjugation of Rudra, the foun-
dational tale of demonic taming at the root of the
9th-century tantra, Dgongs pa ’dus pa’i mdo (Great
Compendium of the Intentions of All the Buddhas
Sūtra; Rdo rje thogs med, 1982, vol. XVI, 223–227).
In this subjugation myth, the title villain likewise
starts out as a religiously devout student along with
his servant, only to misunderstand his master’s
teachings and corrupt his practice over time while
his servant excels (Dalton, 2011, 159–206). This nar-
rative kernel itself seems to parallel the tale of Indra
and Virocana found in the Chāndogya Upaniṣad
(Olivelle, 1996, 171–175). The two deities study under
the same teacher, Prajāpati, but only Indra takes the
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time to fully understand his profound teachings,
while Virocana misapprehends their meaning. This
provides an Upaniṣadic etiology for why Indra and
the Vedic devas are superior to Virocana and the
demonic asuras.
Returning to the Compendium of Intentions, after
countless horrible lifetimes, the corrupt student
eventually became the ferocious three-headed,
six-armed demon named Rudra, while his former
servant became the enlightened tantric bodhisat-
tva Vajrapāṇi. It is Vajrapāṇi, along with Hayagrīva,
who ultimately subjugate Rudra, who in the end is
given the initiation name Legs ldan nag po. These
names are all echoed in Pe har’s mythos, since it is
Legs ldan nag po who is his former dharma brother,
Vajrapāṇi who helps subjugate him, and Hayagrīva
who is summoned through tantric ritual to aid the
process. Moreover, the framing story of the Com-
pendium of Intentions involves Vajrapāṇi relating
the subjugation myth to Rāvaṇa, the demon king
of Laṅkā and antagonist of the Rāmāyaṇa, though
in this tantric context he is a Buddhist devotee. Pe
har’s origins can thus be traced to Vedic, Epic, and
tantric Indian narrative contexts.
It is with Pe har’s arrival in Tibet that his mythol-
ogy stands on more indigenous ground. Being
subjugated by the 8th-century tantric exorcist Pad-
masambhava brings Pe har into the larger narrative
tradition of the great master’s exploits, taming per-
nicious gods and spirits as he makes his way across
the Land of Snows. The famous biography of Pad-
masambhava, the Padma bka’ thang (Padma Chron-
icles), discovered by the treasure revealer O rgyan
gling pa in the 14th century, even offers a more con-
densed but nonetheless vibrant account of Pe har’s
subjugation (O rgyan gling pa, 1996, 648–661). Pe
har’s association with King Khri srong lde’u btsan
and his son, as well as the founding of Bsam yas
Monastery, further link the deity to Tibet’s legend-
ary imperial past.
When Pe har makes his circuitous way from Bsam
yas to Gnas chung, the protector deity not only has
a more direct presence in comparatively recent
Tibetan history, but also in sectarian and political
affairs as well. It seems likely that Pe har had close
ties with the Tshal pa Bka’ brgyud lineage that even-
tually soured, as the tale of Don yod rdo rje above
signifies – at least according to the predominantly
Dge lugs narrative at Gnas chung. This resulted in
the deity’s rejection by the Tshal pa and acceptance
by the Dge lugs at ’Bras spungs Monastery, paving
the way for his inclusion in the burgeoning lineage
 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
of the Dalai Lamas. The Dharma protector’s grow-
ing involvement in the ritual activity of the Second,
Third, and, especially, Fifth Dalai Lama is indicative
of this expanding prestige within Dge lugs circles.
This heightened importance culminates in the late
17th century when, under the auspices of the Fifth
Dalai Lama, Pe har is made one of the two central
protectors of the Dalai Lama lineage, alongside
Dpal ldan lha mo Dmag zor rgyal mo. Moreover, the
Gnas chung Oracle, a monk who channels the spirit
of Pe har and his emanations, has also been a con-
stant source of clairvoyant guidance for the Dalai
Lamas’ government since the 17th century.
Wrathful Revenants
Tsi’u dmar po
The red Dharma protector Tsi’u dmar po is another
popular ecumenical deity, found in all major sec-
tarian traditions of Tibetan Buddhism. He has his
origins in 16th-century Rnying ma treasure litera-
ture, but became absorbed into the Dge lugs pan-
theon by the end of the 17th century. According to
Sle lung, Tsi’u dmar po’s story begins in the legend-
ary past, when the King of Khotan and his queen
had a son named ’Phyor ba. As an adult, ’Phyor ba
became extremely religious and joined a monas-
tery. His monastic name was Candrabhadra. He
later went to dwell in the forest of a kingdom ruled
by King Dharmaśrī. One day, while ’Phyor ba was in
the forest, the daughter of the king was bathing in a
nearby pool. She was attacked by a poisonous snake
and ’Phyor ba, seeing her distress, came and applied
medicine to her wound. At that very moment two of
the king’s ministers saw this and, misunderstanding
it, reported back to the king. They told the king that
a ruffian was having sex with the princess, causing
the king to become very angry. He summoned his
servants and ordered them to find the monk and kill
him.
Upon her return, the princess explained what
actually happened and pleaded with her father, but
no one would listen to her. Frustrated, she leapt off
a cliff after uttering a regressive prayer (log smon) –
a curse exclaiming that her next rebirth will be a
wrathful and vindictive one rather than a compas-
sionate and beneficent one. ’Phyor ba later learned
of these events and fled the kingdom. Due to this
traumatic affair, his thoughts became disturbed
and he regressed in his practice. He went to Tibet,
and in the domain of a king related to Dharmaśrī,
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1259
he poisoned the men and raped the women. One
day, the king sent forth his champion soldiers
and they captured ’Phyor ba on a mountain path.
Pierced by many swords and on the verge of death,
he exclaimed, “I will be reborn as a terrifying yakṣa
that will destroy all beings! I will come to kill the
king and his ministers!” Due to his maliciousness
and arrogance, ’Phyor ba was immediately reborn
in a demonic land inside a red blood egg. When the
egg burst open, the ferocious spirit Tsi’u dmar po
was born.
Because of his great hatred, six other btsan
spirits emanated from Tsi’u dmar po’s body. They
arose from his head, bones, body heat, blood, pus,
and garments of flesh, respectively. These seven
deities, called the Seven Blazing Brothers (’bar ba
spun bdun), slaughtered everyone around them,
consumed the life energy of sentient beings, and
brought ruin to the three realms. The great bodhi-
sattva Avalokiteśvara admonished these seven
brothers for their severe misconduct, so that
they promised to protect the Buddhist teachings
thereafter.
Later in India, the great spiritual master Padma-
sambhava arrived at a charnel ground on the banks
of a boiling lake of maneating demons. At mid-
night, he heard seven wolves with blood-clotted
hair cry out, so the master manifested the form of
Hayagrīva. The wolves retreated to their masters,
the seven brothers, and the latter prostrated them-
selves before Padmasambhava. The spiritual master
asked them who they were and the leader of the
horsemen replied, “I am Tsi’u dmar po, lord of the
yakṣa. Previously, Hayagrīva conferred empower-
ments on my team and from then on we promised
to guard the Buddhist teachings.” Padmasambhava
then asked about Tsi’u dmar po’s residence, parent-
age, and life essence. Tsi’u dmar po replied, “[m]y
abode is this very charnel ground of India. In Tsang,
it is called the split cavern. My father is Legs pa, lord
of the dmu. My mother is the yakṣa Gdong dmar
ma. The essence of my life energy is a tantra recited
by glorious Hayagrīva.” Then the great spiritual mas-
ter bestowed empowerments on Tsi’u dmar po and
gave him a secret name. Later, when Padmasamb-
hava arrived in Tibet, he was welcomed by Tsi’u
dmar po and his team of riders (Sle lung rje drung,
1976, 458–470).
There is some complexity in the conversion
portion of this narrative. The root tantra explains
that Tsi’u dmar po and his team of horsemen were
subdued and converted by Avalokiteśvara, yet its
1260 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
accompanying ritual scripture and Sle lung’s text
state that the seven horsemen were initially sub-
dued by Hayagrīva. Since Hayagrīva is generally
considered a wrathful emanation of Avalokiteśvara,
the subtle difference seems to be a matter of narra-
tive preference. Regardless, after an encounter with
Padmasambhava, the horsemen’s vows to protect
the Buddhist teachings were renewed. This need
to repeat a deity’s subjugation is a common trope
in Dharma protector narratives and is reflected in
most of their liturgical manuals, where the divini-
ties must be reminded of their vow to protect the
teachings of the Buddha before being entreated to
perform a requested action
Rdo rje shugs ldan
A more recent historical example of the wrathful
revenant is the controversial protector deity Rdo rje
shugs ldan. This divinity continues to be the focus
of an intrasectarian fissure in the Dge lugs school of
Tibetan Buddhism today (Repo, 2015; Dreyfus, 1998).
In fact, it is likely that the conflict is a late 20th-
century development, since the deity appears in Sa
skya and Bka’ brgyud ritual texts prior to the 20th
century. In his chapter on Rdo rje shugs ldan, de
Nebesky-Wojkowitz (1956, 134–144) likewise makes
no note of a disagreement. As it stands today, the
divide primarily centers on the deity’s ontological
status. Proponents of his worship consider Shugs
ldan to be either an enlightened emanation of the
bodhisattva Mañjuśrī or a buddha in his own right.
Opponents, who make up most Tibetan Buddhists
and include the Fourteenth Dalai Lama, claim that
Shugs ldan is a pernicious spirit that promotes het-
erodox practices and threatens Tibetan unity (Ten-
pai Gyaltsan Dhongthog, 2000).
For all the controversy that surrounds Rdo rje
shugs ldan, he is a comparatively “new” protector
deity, since his story begins with a 17th-century
monk named Grags pa rgyal mtshan (1619–1656).
As with all protector deity narratives, there are con-
flicting details, but most accounts claim that Grags
pa rgyal mtshan and the Fifth Dalai Lama were
rivals. Grags pa rgyal mtshan himself was one of
the children considered to be the reincarnation of
the Fourth Dalai Lama before the child who would
become the Fifth was ultimately chosen. Instead,
Grags pa rgyal mtshan was determined to be in the
incarnation line of the great Dge lugs hierarch and
15th abbot of Dga’ ldan Monastery, Paṇ chen Bsod
nams grags pa (1478–1554). Having gone through
the monastic curriculum as peers and rivals, Grags
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pa rgyal mtshan’s intelligence and popularity began
to challenge that of the Great Fifth’s. The strained
relationship reached its conclusion when Grags
pa rgyal mtshan died under mysterious circum-
stances. In his autobiography, the Fifth Dalai Lama
states simply that the monk died of a sudden ill-
ness (Karmay, 2014, 364–365). However, later popu-
lar accounts state that Grags pa rgyal mtshan was
found with a Tibetan ceremonial scarf stuffed down
his throat, either through suicide or murder – the
latter supposedly committed by a henchman of
the Dalai Lama’s minister (Dreyfus, 1998; McCune,
2007).
A detailed account of the aftermath of Grags
pa rgyal mtshan’s death can be found in the 20th-
century work, Dge ldan bstan pa bsrung ba’i lha
mchog sprul pa’i chos rgyal chen po rdo rje shugs ldan
rtsal gyi gsang gsum rmad du byung ba’i rtogs pa
brjod pa’i gtam du bya ba dam can rgya mtsho dgyes
pa’i rol mo (Music that Delights the Ocean of Oath-
Bound Ones: A Discourse on the Biography of the
Wonderful Three Secrets of Mighty Rdo rje Shugs
ldan, the Emanated Great Dharma King, Supreme
Deity who Protects the Dge lugs Teachings), com-
posed by the third Khri byang, Blo bzang ye shes
bstan ’dzin rgya mtsho (1901–1981), one of the Four-
teenth Dalai Lama’s tutors. According to this text,
after Grags pa rgyal mtshan died, strange events
started to occur, presumably caused by his vindic-
tive ghost. The monk’s cremated relics were placed
in a silver stūpa in his old residence at ’Bras spungs
Monastery, but shortly thereafter visitors com-
plained that they heard voices, knocking sounds,
and other disturbances in the building. To remedy
this, the Dalai Lama’s minister placed Grags pa
rgyal mtshan’s relics in a box and threw it into the
Skyid chu River, where it floated down to an area
called Dol in Lho kha. This had no effect, however.
The Fifth Dalai Lama had baneful visions, such as
a black monkey with orange eyes following or rid-
ing a colleague. Other high officials and members of
his cabinet had portentous dreams. There would be
slapping sounds against walls, plates of food would
mysteriously overturn, prayer diagrams became
ineffective, and ghostly voices would harass people.
There was an epidemic that caused the deaths of
several monks. The Potala Palace, the Dalai Lama’s
winter home, was itself shaken by an earthquake.
Grags pa rgyal mtshan’s former residence at ’Bras
spungs Monastery even had to be destroyed in an
effort to quell the malicious spirit. The Fifth Dalai
Lama also built a protector house in Dol, but none
 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
of these efforts stemmed the tide of supernatural
occurrences.
Finally, a destructive ritual was conducted by
high Rnying ma lamas in an attempt to destroy
Grags pa rgyal mtshan’s ghost. That rite also failed;
the fire sacrifice was weak and a member of the
ghost’s retinue supernaturally shook the Potala Pal-
ace with his spear to distract the Fifth Dalai Lama
during his ritual ministrations. Other distractions
occurred in the course of the tantric specialists’
services. Even when one master tried to draw Grags
pa rgyal mtshan into a ladle to then pour him into
the ritual fire, he would not drop into it. The inaus-
picious circumstances continued. Monks suffered
strokes and died, laypeople saw monks walking
about with donkey heads, people were being pos-
sessed, and doctors were misdiagnosing illnesses.
Some accounts state simply that the Fifth Dalai
Lama and his government finally made peace with
Grags pa rgyal mtshan’s fierce spirit and requested
that he act as a Dharma protector for the Dge lugs
sect. Other accounts state that the spirit left Lhasa
of his own accord and attempted to act as a protec-
tor of Bkra shis lhun po Monastery in Gtsang, since
it had been the home of his former teacher Paṇ
chen Blo bzang chos kyi rgyal mtshan (1570–1662).
However, the spirit was barred from entering the
premises by the protector deity Vaiśravaṇa and his
retinue, so he traveled further west to Sa skya Mon-
astery and became a protector there, since that was
the home of one of his previous incarnations, Sa
skya Paṇḍita (1182–1251). Later the spirit was given
the Dharma protector name of Rdo rje shugs ldan,
possibly by the Gnas chung Oracle himself (Khri
byang 03, 199[?], 101.5–116.5).
In the case of both Tsi’u dmar po and Rdo rje
shugs ldan, a devout monk was wrongfully mur-
dered. Because of this misdeed, the monk became
enraged and was reborn as a wrathful ghost that
wrought havoc before finally being tamed, often
after great effort. Another wrongfully murdered
monk is the originator of one of the Sa skya Witches
discussed below.
Family and Sectarian Guardians
A phyi Chos kyi sgrol ma
The specific protector deity of the ’Bri gung Bka’
brgyud sect is the Dharma protectress A phyi Chos
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1261
kyi sgrol ma – not to be confused with the first Rdo
rje phag mo incarnation of Bsam sdings Monastery,
Chos kyi sgron ma (1434–1467/1468). A phyi Chos
kyi sgrol ma was the maternal great-grandmother
of the tradition’s founder, ’Jig rten gsum mgon
(1143–1217). Like Pe har, there is also some ambiguity
about the ontological status of this deity. Although
she is portrayed as a worldly Dharma protector, she
is also considered a manifestation of the enlight-
ened tantric deity Vajrayoginī.
Muldowney (2011) translated an abridged 20th-
century hagiography of Chos kyi sgrol ma. This
popular account states that the Wisdom Ḍākiṇī
Vajrayoginī decided to be reborn in Central Tibet,
specifically in an area called Gzho stod in the ’Bri
gung Valley, within the fortunate and prestigious
Sna nam clan. She was born as the daughter of the
Rnying ma yogin Sna nam pa Jo bo pal and his wife
’Bri za dar ’dzoms sometime in the early 11th cen-
tury. The two had initially wanted a son, so they
went to the Svayambhū Stūpa outside Kathmandu,
Nepal, to pray for one. The couple had auspicious
dreams while in Nepal, and after nine months of
good omens ’Bri za dar ’dzoms gave birth to a daugh-
ter. She was born with a third eye and immediately
spoke, claiming that her renown would permeate
the world. Her parents were frightened by these
signs, however, so they threw her into a nearby body
of water. When she miraculously surfaced, they
realized that she was special and took her home,
although her father continued to wish that he had
a son rather than a daughter.
The daughter was named Chos kyi sgrol ma,
“Savioress of the Dharma,” because even at a young
age she made a vow to dedicate her life to the Bud-
dha’s teachings. She even taught her neighbors and
friends as a toddler, much to their surprise. By the
age of five, Chos kyi sgrol ma received Vajrayoginī
teachings and spoke cryptically about meeting
someone in Khams, in Eastern Tibet.
After a few years, Chos kyi sgrol ma’s father died
of smallpox. When she was 18 years old, her mother
died as well and she renounced her parent’s wealth
as a result. She stayed with her uncle thereafter, but
now that she was of age her marriage was on every-
one’s mind. When a merchant traveling east came
to town, Chos kyi sgrol ma left her home with him
and his band, determined to reach Khams.
Once in Khams, Chos kyi sgrol ma met a Rnying
ma master named Skyu ra Tshul khrims rgya mtsho.
Neither of them wanted the trappings of worldly
1262 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
living, especially a conventional marriage, so they
were pleased with each other and with focusing
their energies on teaching the Dharma. Neverthe-
less, the nearby families and neighbors panicked
about the need for a proper marriage feast. In
response, Chos kyi sgrol ma miraculously produced
a tantric feast, and food and drink rained down on
the wedding guests. Shortly thereafter, Chos kyi
sgrol ma gave birth to four virtuous sons. As her sons
grew, Chos kyi sgrol ma developed magical pow-
ers and practiced her abilities in charnel grounds.
When they were older, she initiated her sons in
the Vajrayoginī practice and continued to perform
miraculous acts, such as binding pernicious spirits
under oath. Numerous sacred sites in the area bear
her mark to this day. Having composed her own
sādhana practices, she promised to protect those
who would continue to perform them after her
death. Chos kyi sgrol ma was over 70 years old when
she passed away. One of her sons, Dpe ka dbang
rgyal, likewise had four sons, and one of their sons
was ’Jig rten gsum mgon, the founder of ’Bri gung
mthil Monastery (Muldowney, 2011, 18–30). Icono-
graphically, Chos kyi sgrol ma is usually represented
with three eyes and a semi-wrathful expression. She
rides a blue horse while holding a doublesided drum
and a skull cup. She shares a number of attributes
with the tantric deity Vajrayoginī (Muldowney, 2011,
49–52).
It is argued that A phyi Chos kyi sgrol ma’s hagio-
graphy is structured in such a way as to mimic that
of the traditional 12-stage scheme of the Buddha
Śākyamuni’s life story. This scheme includes ele-
ments such as a celestial preexistence, an auspi-
cious human birth, a renunciation of home and
communal expectations, a series of miraculous
activities, and an equally miraculous death and
ascension to a blissful realm. Nonetheless, there
are notable divergences, such as Chos kyi sgrol ma
having no ties to institutional Buddhist centers and
using her children as a primary means for propa-
gating the Dharma. It is also the death of Chos kyi
sgrol ma’s parents that helps catalyze her decision
to travel to Khams (Muldowney, 2011, 63–70). Bailey
(2016b) likewise sees the 12 stages of the Buddha’s
life reflected and inverted in the fundamental sub-
jugation of Rudra, discussed above as a major influ-
ence on Pe har’s mythology. In both instances, there
is a tension between the nature and qualities of an
enlightened being and that of an unenlightened
worldly deity.
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
The Sa skya Witches
To this day people fear and respect a trio of protec-
tor goddesses found at Sa skya Monastery, known as
the Sa skya Witches (sa skya ’bag mo). While ’bag mo
is here glossed as “witches,” it is much more ambigu-
ous, referring to “living demonic women” or “wicked
women.” The myths surrounding these deities vary
in detail and in thematic content, but in either case
they speak to a specifically Sa skya oriented ritual
cosmos, institutional history, and regional protec-
tion. According to Conrad (2012, 6–21, rendering
Padma dbang ’dus, 1995), the “witches” are named
Mus mo srid skyid, Nam mkha’ sgrol ma, and Shangs
mo Rdo rje bu khrid. The head of this team is tech-
nically Mus mo srid skyid, who is considered an
emanation of Gur mgon’s consort – Gur mgon being
the form of Mahākāla most revered by the Sa skya
tradition. Possibly due to her transcendent origins,
Mus mo srid skyid does not have as rich a mythol-
ogy as the other witches, who are recognized solely
as worldly deities.
The second witch, Nam mkha’ sgrol ma, has her
beginnings in the early 16th century, although she
does not become a protector deity until a century
later. According to tradition, there was a Sa skya
master named Kun dga’ rin chen who, during his
youth, trained under his famous uncle, the head of
the Sa skya School, Sa lo chen po ’Jam dbyangs kun
dga’ bsod nams (1485–1533). When he became an
adult, Kun dga’ rin chen went to reside at Sa skya
Monastery in hopes of shoring up and expanding
the Buddhist teachings. However, before he could
get started, the minister of Lhasa and his army
forcefully occupied the Sa skya lands and closed
the monastery. Since his uncle, the Sa skya Throne
holder, had passed away by this point, Kun dga’ rin
chen fled the region. He went off to the fringes of
the Sa skya territory in order to practice and study
on his own.
One day, Kun dga’ rin chen’s uncle miraculously
appeared in the sky before him and entreated him
to remain strong and resolute in his goals. Kun dga’
rin chen returned to Sa skya Monastery with his
hopes revived, although he still feared for his life.
This fear was not unwarranted. Shortly after his
return, one of Kun dga’ rin chen’s teachers, an old
monk named Rab ’byams pa Bsod nams ’od zer, was
captured by the Lhasa minister and his forces. They
tied him to a pillar and shot arrows at him until
he died. Because of the disharmony his conduct
inspired in the region, the minister was sent off to
 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
another place and control of Sa skya was returned
to its lineage holders.
It is said that when Rab ’byams pa Bsod nams ’od
zer was on the brink of death, he stated with great
intention, “[a]s I pass from this lifetime, may I be
born as the ruler (dbang ba) of one third of the
world.” However, because his mind was clouded
with anger, he inadvertently said, “[a]s I pass from
this lifetime, may I be born as the devourer (za
mkhan) of one third of the world” (Conrad, 2012,
74). Because of this regressive prayer, he was reborn
in Khams as a living demoness or witch (’dre mo)
named Nam mkha’ sgrol ma who immediately
began harassing people and destroying property.
Generations later, in the early 17th century, Kun
dga’ rin chen’s grandson, Sgra chen Mthu stobs
dbang phyug (b. 1592) went to Khams to subdue
Nam mkha’ sgrol ma. He was unable to tame this
powerful demoness, so he took her as a sexual con-
sort instead. When she died, he skinned and tanned
her flesh, and used it to make a lifelike mask. He
infused the mask with her consciousness and
imbedded a vajra at its forehead. Once completed,
Sgra chen Mthu stobs dbang phyug reminded the
trapped spirit of Kun dga’ rin chen’s original vow to
advance the Dharma, as well as Nam mkha’ sgrol
ma’s original regressive prayer, and he commanded
her to protect the Sa skya teachings and lineages.
The mask was later placed in the Sa skya Monas-
tery protector chapel and this witch was placed
in Gur mgon’s retinue. From that time onward the
mask has been used every year during an annual
ceremony, where it is worn in religious dances,
resulting in miraculous visions and omens. Oral tra-
dition states that Nam mkha’ sgrol ma will appear
as a beautiful young woman to help monks, nuns,
and members of the local Sa skya community. How-
ever, she will appear as a screaming, blazing demo-
ness to those who would harm Sa skya villages and
monasteries.
The third witch, Shangs mo Rdo rje bu khrid, has
a simpler, more generic myth associated with her
origins. An unnamed Sa skya throne holder sum-
moned this witch from a region in Shangs, north-
east of Sa skya, and bound her to an oath to protect
the Buddhist teaching. She continued to serve the
successive hierarchs of Sa skya thereafter. Neverthe-
less, there are a number of stories about her activi-
ties as a capricious protectress, one who needs to
be constantly reminded of her vow. As a protector
deity, Rdo rje bu khrid also removes obstacles and
For use by the Author only | © 2019 Koninklijke Brill NV
1263
helps those who go astray. In this latter capacity,
the witch is said to appear in the form of a young
local girl who guides people on their way and then
vanishes when her services are no longer needed. If
enemies or thieves try to harm a Sa skya pa, wher-
ever they are, she will appear in a horrible form and
kill them. She also has a mask that possesses magi-
cal properties (Conrad, 2012, 6–20).
In the case of these goddesses, both A phyi Chos
kyi sgrol ma and the Three Sa skya Witches were
once family or local deities who came to be asso-
ciated with specific schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
They can now be found represented iconographi-
cally and liturgically at the numerous institutional
centers that promote these sects across the Tibetan
cultural sphere.
Concluding Remarks
The above accounts are only a sampling of the nar-
ratives one encounters in the dense mythologies
of Tibetan Buddhist protector deities. Nonethe-
less, most of them exhibit overarching themes
and tropes. In many of these narratives, the pro-
tagonist is murdered and as a result professes a
regressive prayer, which acts as an inversion of the
bodhisattva vow. Rather than praying to become a
bodhisattva on the path to awakening, these figures
promise instead to become terrifying and demonic
spirits who vindictively hope to terrorize those who
wronged them in a future life; they inevitably bring
carnage to the world at large. It requires the inter-
ference of powerful tantric buddhas, and the mas-
ters who embody them, before the fierce energies
of these deities can be quelled and channeled into
more constructive endeavors.
Some of these divinities can trace their origins
back to Buddhist versions of Indian epics and
mythic compilations. Others are explicitly Tibetan,
either in geographic origin, indigenous symbol-
ism, or sectarian affiliation; many even have Bon
counterparts and influences (Bellezza, 2005; Gib-
son, 1991). Most often one finds permutations of
both cultural influences, which speaks to the South
Asian origins of Buddhism and its assimilation into
Tibetan culture. Although there are peaceful pro-
tector deities known for their pacifying activities,
wrathful deities like those discussed above appear
to be far more prevalent. The worship of these fero-
cious divinities is in many instances legitimized by
1264 Worldly Protector Deities in Tibet
claims to their ultimately enlightened nature, such
as in the case of A phyi Chos kyi sgrol ma and Pe har.
However, there is limited consensus on this, and in
the case of Rdo rje shugs ldan it can even result in
controversial disagreement and violence. Regard-
less, worldly protector deities permeate the Tibetan
Buddhist imaginaire. Their mythoi can be found
canonized in liturgical manuals and iconographies,
represented in monastic murals, paintings, and stat-
ues, and preserved in oral accounts promulgated by
Tibetans across the generations.
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