Chapter A general introduction to shamanism

Shamanism

- It is an ancient spiritual healing practise that was found in pre-modern societies in

world wide

Etymology

- The first contact of westerns with this practise was in Siberia by a group of German
explorer. The word ‘shaman’ is of Turko-Tartar family where ‘sa’ means ‘to know’.
Although many other scholars point to the similarity with sramana (pati Sanskrit)
which means a wandering monk, but their meanings are not remotely similar. Shaman
have been found in all pre-modern societies, ie. Indian- American, Incas , Siberia and
all share some common features-
- i) Activities of healing physical ailments.
- ii) Alteration of consciousness.
- iii) Rhythmic beatings of drums.
- iv)Visions, soulflight including OBE.

Position of shamans in societies-

i) Shamans are generally respected for their services provided in society and in some
cases feared as they can even harm others through magical practises.
ii) Practitioner may not always be in the role ‘shaman’ as a member of society he
exercises his role as hunters, weavers or may practise other occupation and gives
his services only when asked by a fellow member.
iii) Shamans also play an effective role in managing the resources of nature as he/she
can ask or command fellow clan member to refrain from hunting a species thus
preventing over exhaustion of resources.

Eligibility-

- This profession is not hereditary as discussion with shamans reveals that they did not
take up such role wilfully but were guided by spirits to do so.
- Initiates often go through a period of intense illness after which they achieve higher
cognitive perception.
Methodology

The research on the topic was done mostly through interviews and the study is based on accounts of
people who have either witnessed healing sessions or the ones who have undergone such healing. The
study draws upon the experiences of shamans and those living around them. Psychosomatic approach
to illness and altered consciousness has also been suggested by the above mentioned people and only
referred as an explanation to rationale minds. As such no philosophy is basis for healing in the Adi
tradition but a general hint is made to spirits who play role in either helping or obstructing the daily
lives of the inhabitants. Case studies have been also drawn on instances of healing where the priest is
involved. The study also includes the general do’s and dont’s and common beliefs of the people and
the role of the priest which are various in nature. No formal technique has been applied in the study of
the topic and the accounts of the interviewees have been accepted indiscriminately as no gain or glory
is promised to the former in altering of their accounts of description.

Limitations

Language was a barrier at times when expression of Adi words could not be made in hindi. Though
equipped with translators who were mostly friends at times it was hard at times to express terms that
were generally expressions and not words signifying objects or emotions. Although language barriers
were at times hindrances a communication gap was not observed as a rudimentary version of Hindi is
commonly spoken, thus allowing a basic conversation. The second barrier was also language but in
this case barring the communication of experiences. Language as a mode of expression is very limited
as in it can only impart a version of experience and the inference of which is also subjective. The
accounts that have been mentioned were mostly described by an observer thus first hand observations
are very few and are limited to interviews. Usually when enquired about such topics the initial
reaction of those interviewed remained the same that when anything about priests is talked about
whether ill or praise the priests can hear it. Thus talking anything about the priest is generally
considered a taboo. The accounts at times may seem exaggerated to foreign ears and at times
rationality has to be put aside while considering as mystical in nature, thus no discrimination has been
made about the accounts revealed by the locals and it has been mentioned in the study the way it was
observed.

Introduction

Arunachal Pradesh is home to many indigenous tribes namely Adi, Nyishi, Galo,
Apatani and numerous other small tribes along with tribes that have settled from
neighbouring countries such as Tibet, Nepal, and Bhutan which makes the state an
amalgamation ground of different cultures. Thus making Arunachal Pradesh the state
with possibly 30 to 50 distinct languages in addition to numerable dialects and sub-
dialects. I chose to do my study on the priests of the Adi tribe who are commonly
called as ‘Miri’ primarily due to the reason that I am acquainted with people
belonging to the same tribe as good friends. I undertook this study during my visit to
the town of Pasighat located in the East Siang district and neighbouring villages of
Arunachal Pradesh during December, 2018.

The study is based on first hand interviews with the priests and local accounts provided by
the residents about the same. The study also takes into account the information revealed by
those present during healing sessions and also those who underwent such healing rites.
Names and identities have been kept the same unless demanded to be kept secret. The Adi
society has tribal roots though advancement in technology and communication has variably shaped
the lives of the people. Division of labour is not based on lines of caste and there is general absence of
any form of hierarchical order. The people do not rely upon jobs for subsistence but only due to the
demand of an ever increasing commercial world. Business related to sale and purchase of agricultural
goods is practised by the locals and the non-tribal population is generally seen practising small
business enterprises which in most cases is a retail shop. Those living in towns trace their roots to an
ancestral village with which they are connected not only in a sense of family but a place which
wombs their cultural origin. Relations amongst family members are not limited to family members
restricting themselves to specific role. Alienation amongst people is absent which may be due to a
small population but specifically due to their frankness and “humane-ness” amongst the population. A
political setup that is referred as “Gaon Bura” which can be commonly understood as an assembly of
the senior citizens also includes a local priest. The decisions taken by this group may be on various
issues such as feud, personal matters including divorce, social gathering events, and any such issue
that may concern the local population. Examples may be cited of places where ban on sale and
purchase of alcohol has been imposed by such assemblies and it should also be noticed that in very
rare cases matters regarding dispute reach courts or judiciary. The religious believes of the people can
be categorised under animism, which is named Donyi-Polo. It consists of the worship of sun and
moon respectively and other elements of nature. The worship of dadi botte and kine nane who have
been represented in human form are considered male and female deities. The former is responsible for
protection of household and other places from evil spirits and the latter is worshipped for prosperity in
business and agriculture. It was only recently in the 1980’s that a moment started by Talom rukbo saw
the consolidation of the belief pattern into a codified religion which has also been interpreted as a
reaction against mass conversation of faith that had been undertaken by religious missionaries. In such
a cultural background we see a priest referred as ‘Miri’. The profession isn’t a result of dynastic
succession or a wilful decision but as a result of forces that chose him for this role. Other than
providing his services of healing he contributes to his family, and society as a general member of the
community. Though it is not that the Miri enjoys the best of both worlds as the forces that take over
him do not know any bounds, thus he may leave for the forest anytime of day and his return from the
same is not fixed. Trance like states do not come at fixed time thus in his social life he mostly remains
aloof and occasionally involves in public gatherings. Although it should be noted that though the term
‘Priest’ is used as such no institution of priesthood is present, no defined rules or codified texts are
considered an authority over priesthood. The only guide that a Miri has is the spirit and rituals that are
performed by him are not taught by anyone. Apong is a local brew made of rice fermented over a
period of 2 weeks or more that in turn increases the alcohol content. All guests are offered a small
amount and it is specially brewed for festivals in advance. The role of apong is important not only at
social events but also as as an item used in sacrificial rites. Commonly made of rice it has a white
colour and its variants include kala (black) apong which is black in colour made of chaff of rice.
Apong has an intoxicating effect and a little amount is enough to get one drunk, if consumed
excessively one may have to crawl back home and a hangover waits the next day. It is also believed
that the evil spirit can not attack those under its influence.

Role of dreams

Dreams are given the role of indicators that bring out incidents that may take place in near
future. Dreams are interpreted in psychoanalysis are the product of the subconscious and
reflect ones innermost desires. Though the Adi not completely aloof of such interpretation,
but dream in this realm are indicators of incidents that may take place. Report have been
made by interviewee about dreams that they have encountered before illness. One such
account is of Dite Perme who had a dreamdreams that his feet had rottened and host to
various insect. After reporting his dream to his mother the interpreted it as a bad omen. A few
days later Dite suffered an injury in his right foot while lifting some bricks. Other common
dreams that are variously considered omens and as recurring themes such are climbing a
mountain, crossing a river by bridge, fishing, infestation by leech. Those awaiting results for
board exams or any other events often get dreams of climbing a mountains or crossing a
bridge, if the task is accomplished then fortune remains in favour if the dreams falls or does
not wallts the bridge due to fear, then chances are likely that he or she has failed. This is not
only a common belief but a not occurrence reported by many student a waiting result of a
entrance. Dreams of fishing are often sign of good fortune that indicate monetary or financial
gain. Infestation by kach commonly indicates illness that may a wait in near future. Dreams
also signal the initiation of a normal person into the miri.

Initiation

Entering in the miri tradition is not a wilful attempt or a professional choice but is only a possibility
that occurs when favoured by spirits, hereditary roots are not seen in this tradition. Initiates know that
such possibilities awaits them in near future through the medium of dreams. A recurring theme in
dreams is encounter with other beings referred in the local language as uyu that can be interpreted as a
messenger or guide. Visions of flying over mountains are also common. A normal person may look at
initiates and wonder as for hours they may sit doing nothing. The initiate may also suffer an illness of
sorts and such experiences are said to increase their cognitive perception. Another instance that is
commonly reported is when initiates are often found missing from their home and for searching them
a team of local people is sent into the nearby forests, which is headed by the maternal uncle. An arrow
is shot by the uncle in a random direction and the direction in which the arrow goes the search party
follows that route. In most of the cases the lost ones are found in burrows dug by foxes and often in a
naked state and other times they are also found at nearby streams. It is said that the uyu takes the
initiates to such places and the ones taken often report that they do not remember how or when the
reached at such places. A specific age for those who undergo such initiation and experiences may vary
but it is generally observed that either it happens early in life that is pre-puberty or at a very late
period that is after 50’s. Gender is no exception, both male and female healers are present in the Adi
tribe.

Types

The typology as such does not exist in the tradition but has been created primarily for studying the
various roles and ways in which the Miris function and impart their services to those under need. The
first kind is referred to the ones who specialize in healing of those suffering from a physical ailment.
It is often seen that people who have suffered a fracture or dislocation of bones are healed merely by a
touch and chanting done by a Miri. An instance is notable when Dite Perme a friend suffering of chest
pain had referred to doctors and the latter suggested that the pain was due to an abnormal growth in a
bone of rib cage, medication was prescribed and preventive methods such as abstinence from smoking
was suggested. When dite went back and shared about the ailment to his mother she took him to a
local Miri. The priest held dite by wrapping her arms around him in various manners and revealed that
Dite had suffered an injury around six years ago and the bone had healed rhough the blood clot in that
region was the cause of pain. The Miri said that if they had come when the boy was injured she could
have healed him and the pain may occur whenever it gets cold. Those suffering from diabetes or low
blood pressure also refer to priests along with undertaking medical attention.

The next section of Miris help in finding lost objects or retrieving stolen items. The common practice
of Miris is that they take a bowl of water place a leaf over it and at the top of a leaf uncooked rice is
placed, after invoking the spirits through chanting they determine the direction and place in which the
item may be found. It is to be noted that the manner in which the Miris indicate the possible location
of goods, is not a clear or exact description of the place but hints are made regarding the place which
may be at crossroads or near a river, the description of the person who may have stolen the goods is
made in terms of dressing, time or place of residence of the thief. It should be noted that no person or
place is noted in specific. A miri gifted in this art was employed as a household aid at a friend’s
house, and was always approached by people who have lost their cattle, goods and in return he was
invited to their houses for a meal. The Miri was so occupied with such people that his employer had to
at last send him back to the fields for work.

The last section of Miris are responsible for driving away spirits that have manifested people. On such
instances the priest performs rituals that includes placing of stones in particular way and chanting,
rhythmic beats induced by shaking the Dao, after invoking the spirits in him the priest talks with the
spirit that has manifested the host and asks the spirit what it wants and asks the latter to leave. After
this sacrifices are made, the Miris are offered meals or goods which is at the will and capacity of the
family who has called the miri.

Roles

Apart from rendering his sevices as a shaman his roles are similar to that of a common person.The
priest has aa personality that is respected due to his other functions. He or she can issue rules on
hunting or can make predictions that turn out to be true. Regarding hunting he may ask a specific
person to refrain from hunting a specific specie of plant or animal in compliance not to law laid by
forest officials but only because the consequences that such action will attract. This may be referred as
theory that says whenever one gets excess of anything from nature it is a symbol of death in the
family. An instance may be cited of a family that has settled in Pasighat since three generations. The
ancestors of the family are originally from Nepal, the family witnessed an excess production of
pumpkin, which happened even when the season did not permit such crop. The family saw the death
of an old woman. There have been instances when a person may get too much hunt or fish even when
those accompanying him do not get anything from the hunt but the former is endowed with an excess.
This also hints at death of a member of a family, thus a priest may ask from refraining from such a
hunt. The priest is also a member of the ‘Gaon Bura’ thus commanding political control at a certain
level. He is also said to foresee events of near future and thus warns people to refrain from going to
certain places until a ritual is conducted at that place to send the evil spirits away. These warnings are
provided in advance and often it is witnessed that a death or accident takes place where the priest had
asked people to refrain from going. In one instance the Miri of Ngopok Village saw a vision of blood
that was oozing away from the ground. The Miri at a public gathering asked people to refrain from
going to a certain point where he envisioned it to take place. After two days it was reported that a boy
from a neighbouring town had come to cut down a log from that place and while cutting down the tree
the log fell over one person that led to his immediate death. Thus a Miri has numerous roles and is
revered in the society. Although it is generally seen that people suffering from ailments come to a
priest but at times it is seen that the priest himself looks for people to heal or may send someone from
his home to call a specific person to heal. These are periods when the spirits are evoked within the
Miri without his will thus he or she may start looking for a patient.

Healing sessions

A typical healing session is based upon the nature of the ritual, for this we have taken into account the
common paraphernalia of a Miri and the most common elements of all rituals. Before starting the
rituals the spirits are evoked in him and the Miri draws a figure from stones and constatntly shapes it
as to ascertain the nature and will of the spirit that has infested the patient. Then the Miri converses
with the spirit to ascertain the nature of his visit in the host and what sacrifices are demanded for the
spirit to leave the body of the host. The Miri then goes for preparing the sacrifice, in which from a
bamboo and egg is tied and later a sacrifice is made which is commonly of a hen and at times maybe a
pig and at rare cases a dog.The meat of the sacrificed animal is distributed amongst the community
members. Other than this “kaekir” a local varity of ginger that is comparatively dark in colour and has
a strong odour and garlic is rubbed on the people who are host to evil spirits. After the healing is
completed for a few days some rules are to be observed by the family members, which are, abstinence
from leaving the village or welcoming a guest, cutting of trees or picking fruits from forest is avoided,
and clothes are not to be washed. Such period may last to a maximum of three days or as suggested by
the priest.This period of abstinence is observed so that the evil spirit that has warded off may not enter
again into the household through any means. It is observed by the locals that those people who are
host to evil spirits and infest such spirits multiple times even after performing rituals generally end up
committing suicide. A case of a man is observed from the Ruksin area who even after undergoing
multiple sessions of healing had not benefitted and ended up committing suicide. The grave of such a
person is desecrated and the remains are burnt to ashes as it is inferred by the Miri that such graves
are also hosts to evil spirits, more on this topic is added in the case study.

Case study-

Desecration ritual

On the way from paighat tomebo there is a bridge over seku river, after crossing the bridge the road
takes a long curve, this area has been prone to accidents 5 to 6 years ago. An incident took place on
31st august, 2007 when a school bus carrying children rammed into a tree as the driver tried to stop a
bus on account of what he described a person trying to cross the road. In the incident two children had
died. Though this was not the first instance of accident at this place numerous fatal accidentshad taken
place and the others suffered injuries. It was commonly reported by people that while crossing this
place they saw a figure who was either in their way or tried to cross the road. The people knew the
infamous place and began preventive measures as slowing down their vehicles but after an incident at
the school of mebo the the miri intervened. At the green valley school a boy in 9 th grade was declared
possessed and after performing a ritual by a miri the evil spirit revealed that