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Asit Baz 2
Asit Baz 2
Asit Baz 2
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RESPIRATORY FAILURE
• Definition
• Physiopathology
• Clinical and PE findings
• Approach to the patient
• Treatment
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• Respiratory Failure →
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HYPOXIA
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TISSUE OXYGENATION
1) Cardiovascular system
2) Hematological system
3) Respiratory system
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Causes of acute respiratory failure. (October 11, 2011. Patrick J. Neligan, MD. Galway, Ireland)
CLASSIFICATION
• Clinical
Acute
Chronic
• Physiopathological
Hypoxemic (Type I)
Hypercapnic (Type II)
Perioperative (Type III)
Shock (Type IV)
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MECHANISMS of HYPOXEMIA AND HYPERCARBIA
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P50
p50 is the oxygen tension
when hemoglobin is 50 %
saturated with oxygen
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1. LOW FiO2
• Rare
• High altitude
• Indoor environment
• Toxic gas inhalation
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2. DIFFUSION DISORDERS
• Most important mechanismsm for hypoxemia
• Also known as Alveolar capillary block syndrome
• Diffusion of O2 and CO2 are impaired
• The mechanism of hypoxemia is V/Q mismatch rather than
block
• Alveoloarterial membrane thickens
• Pulmonary vascular and interstitial lung diseases may cause
diffusion disorders
• Impairment of gas exchange occurs
• Quick response to O2 treatment
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3. V/Q MISMATCH
– V=4-6 L/min
– Q=4-6 L/min
– V/Q≈0.8-1.2
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4. SHUNT
V/Q=0
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• Anatomical shunt
• Bronchial, pleural and thebesian veins directly joins to the
arterial circulation. Its nearly 2-3% of CO
• Physiological shunt
• Non ventilated but perfused parts of the lungs
• Shunt<30% à May respond to O2 therapy
• Shunt>50% à No response to O2 therapy. Moreover,
hypercapnia may be observed
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SHUNT
• Intracardiac shunts
– ASD, VSD
• Pulmonary vascular shunts
– AVM
• Pulmonary parenchymal shunts
– Pneumonia
– Pulmonary edema
– ARDS
– Diffuse alveolar hemorrhage
– Atelectasis
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5. HYPOVENTILATION
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HYPOVENTILATION
• Decrease in minute ventilation
• Inhibition of respiratory center
• Spinal chord trauma
• Neuromuscular disease (MG)
• Thoracic wall abnormalities (Kyphoscoliosis)
• Heart failure, ARDS, Pneumonia, Atelectasis, bronchospasm
and pulmonary embolism
• Cystic fibrosis (Chronic respiratory failure)
• Rarely isolated
• P(A-a)O2 is Normal
• Hypercapnia
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PERIOPERATIVE (Type III) RESPIRATORY FAILURE
• Primary Mechanism
• First 24 hours after upper abdominal surgery
• VC decrease 50% and reaches to normal value at postoperative
day 7
• First 24 hours after lower abdominal surgery
• VC decreases 25% and reaches to normal value at
postoperative day 3
• Also VC decreases up to 30% after cardiac surgery and
thoracotomy
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PERIOPERATIVE (Type III) RESPIRATORY FAILURE
• Pulmonary Reasons
• Atelectasis
• Pneumonia
• Aspiration
• ARDS
• Fluid overload, Heart failure
• Pulmonary embolism
• Bronchospasm, COPD
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PERIOPERATIVE (Type III) RESPIRATORY FAILURE
• Extrapulmonary Reasons
• Inhibition of respiratory center
• Sedative drugs
• Anesthesia
• Opioid drugs
• Diaphragm paralysis
• Phrenic nerve injury
• Obstructive sleep apnea syndrome
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SHOCK (Type IV) RESPIRATORY FAILURE
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DIAGNOSTIC TOOLS FOR RESPIRATORY FAILURE
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CLINICAL FINDINGS
• Hypoxemia • Hypercapnia
• Anxiety, agitation • Tachypnea
• Dyspnea, bradipnea • Tachycardia, hypertension
• Tachypnea, tachycardia • Sweating, flushing
• Hypotension, hypertension • Flapping tremor
• Sweating • Pupillary edema
• Arrhythmias • Headache, lethargy
• Confusion • Hallucinations,
• Cyanosis • Convulsion
• Lactic acidosis • Coma
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APPROACH TO THE PATIENT WITH RESPIRATORY
FAILURE
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TREATMENT
• Primary Target
• Immediate correction of hypoxemia and preventing tissue
hypoxia
• Secondary Target
• Controlling CO2 and respiratory acidosis
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TREATMENT
• ABC
• Maintaining adequate ventilation
• O2 treatment
• Mechanical ventilation
• Improving hemodynamic parameters
• Treatment of anemia
• Treatment of underlying disease
• Symptomatic treatment
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O2 TREATMENT
• Close follow-up
• PO2≥60mm Hg and SaO2≥90%
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• If hypoxemia persists decrease patient’s O2 consumption
(sedation or paralysis)
• Optimize hemoglobin levels
• Optimize CO
• Prone position
• Pulmonary vasodilators (impairs V/Q match)
• In case of hypercapnia in a hypoxic patient O2 should be
kept under 2-4 L/min
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• All metabolic reactions maintained in a narrow range of pH
• pH alterations lead to changes in enzyme activity, electrolyte
balance which effects organ functions (cardiorespiratory, CNS)
and pharmacological properties of the drugs
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SYSTEMS REGULATING
ACİD-BASE BALANCE
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RESPIRATORY ACIDOSIS
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RESPIRATOY ACIDOSIS
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RESPIRATOY ACIDOSIS
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RESPIRATOY ALKALOSİS
• PaCO2<35 mm Hg
• Most frequent form of acid-base disorders
• Inappropriate increase in alveolar ventilation relative to VCO2
• Anxiety, irritability, vertigo, syncope
• Tetanus can be observed in severe cases
• Primary pathology is hyperventilation
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RESPIRATORY ALKALOSİS
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RESPIRATORY ALKALOSİS
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METABOLIC ACIDOSIS
• [HCO3-]<22 mEq/L
• Fatigue, weakness
• Headache, lethargy
• Nausea, vomiting and diarrhea
• Stupor and coma
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ANION GAP
• Anion Gap=[Na+]-([Cl-]+[HCO3-]
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METABOLIC ACIDOSIS
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METABOLIC ALKALOSIS
• [HCO3-]>26 mEq/L
• Shallow breathing with decreased frequency
• Hyperactive reflexes
• Electrolyte imbalance
• Atrial tachycardia
• Dysrhythmia
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METABOLIC ALKALOSIS
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METABOLIC ALKALOSIS
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PARAMETERS IN ARTERIAL BLOOD GAS
• pH=7.35-7.45
• PaO2=104-(0.27xage)=80-100mmHg
• PaCO2=35-45mmHg
• Total CO2=25-29 mmol/L
• HCO3act=24(22-26)mmol/L
• HCO3std=24(22-26)mmol/L
• Base excess= (-3)-(+3)
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pH PaCO2 HCO3
Respiratory acidosis ↓ ↑ N
Respiratory alkalosis ↑ ↓ N
Metabolic acidosis ↓ N ↓
Metabolik acidosis ↑ N ↑
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• PaO2 for oxygenation
• PaCO2 for ventilation
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1. Evaluate pH àAcidemia or alkalemia
2. Evaluate PaCO2 and HCO3 à Respiratory or metabolic
3. Differential diagnosis of the primary acid-base imbalance
4. Evaluate for the compensation à Acute, chronic/simple or
mixed
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• If the expected compensation does not occur, especially at
the late stage of the diseases, combined acid-base imbalance
should be kept in mind
pH PaCO2 HCO3
Combined metabolic/respiratory
acidosis ↓ ↑ ↓
Combined metabolic/respiratory
alkalosis ↑ ↓ ↑
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THANK YOU…
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