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ENSC 0100: INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS .........................................................................................................1

LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................4
LIST OF FIGURE ....................................................................................................................5
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................6
1.1 Definition of terms ........................................................................................................... 6
1.2 Natural resources.............................................................................................................. 7
1.3 Environmental problems and dilemmas........................................................................... 8
ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM ..........................................................................................10
2.1 Ecology .......................................................................................................................... 10
2.2 Ecosystem ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Components of Ecosystem...................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Feeding relationship-Food chains, food webs and trophic level............................. 11
2.3 Functions of Ecosystem ................................................................................................. 12
2.4 Ecological Succession.................................................................................................... 14
2.4.1 Types of Succession................................................................................................ 14
2.4.2 General succession process ..................................................................................... 14
2.5 Major types of ecosystems/ biomes ............................................................................... 15
2.5.1 Terrestrial biomes/ecosystems ................................................................................ 15
2.5.2 Aquatic ecosystems or biomes ................................................................................ 19
2.6 Biodiversity ............................................................................................................... 22
2.6.1 Levels of biodiversity ............................................................................................. 22
2.6.2 The value of Biodiversity........................................................................................ 22
2.6.3 Loss of Biodiversity ................................................................................................ 23
2.6.4 Biodiversity hotspots .............................................................................................. 24
2.6.5 Biodiversity Conservation ...................................................................................... 24
2.6.6 Conservation of Biodiversity in Kenya................................................................... 25
2.6.7 Approached to biodiversity conservation ............................................................... 25
HUMAN POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT ..............................................................28
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 28
3.1.1 Trends in Population Growth .................................................................................. 28
3.1.2 Kenyan Population Trends...................................................................................... 30
3.2 Demographic factors influencing population growth patterns ....................................... 31
3.3 Demographic transition.................................................................................................. 31
3.2.1 Stages of the Demographic Transition.................................................................... 32
3.2.2 Factors that have contributed to demographic transition ........................................ 33
3.2.3 Environmental and Social Consequences of Population Growth ........................... 35
3.3 Stabilizing Population Growth in Developing Countries .............................................. 38
3.6.1 Traditional methods ................................................................................................ 38
3.6.2 Modern methods ..................................................................................................... 39
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES................................................................................41
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 41
4.2 Pollution ......................................................................................................................... 41
4.2.1 Water pollution ....................................................................................................... 41
4.2.2 Air pollution ................................................................................................................ 43
(1). Global warming and climate change ..................................................................... 45
(2). Acid rain ................................................................................................................ 48
(3). Ozone Layer Depletion .......................................................................................... 50
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT ........................................................................................54
5.1 The human dimension to environmental quality ........................................................... 54
5.1.1 Air pollution (Indoor and outdoor) ......................................................................... 55
5.1.2 Household wastes.................................................................................................... 56
5.1.3 Water ....................................................................................................................... 56
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 5.1.4 Food ........................................................................................................................ 57
5.1.5 Soil .......................................................................................................................... 57
5.1.6 Housing ................................................................................................................... 57
5.1.7 The workplace (Occupational hazards)................................................................... 58
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT ............................................59
6.1 The concept of sustainable development ....................................................................... 59
6.2 Can development be truly sustainable?.......................................................................... 59
6.3 What sustainable development entails: .......................................................................... 59
6.4 Principles of sustainable development ........................................................................... 60
6.5 Concerns for sustainable development .......................................................................... 60
6.6 Constraints on sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa .................................... 61
6.7 Enhancing sustainability ................................................................................................ 63
6.7.1 Economic policies ................................................................................................... 63
6.7.2 Human oriented Policies ......................................................................................... 64
6.7.3 Sustainability in Agriculture ................................................................................... 64
6.7.4 Promoting better husbandry: ................................................................................... 65
6.7.5 Sustainability in Industry ........................................................................................ 65

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Direct and indirect impact of humans on biological resources .................................. 24
Table 2: World population growth........................................................................................... 28
Table 3: Additions to World Population 1971- 2002............................................................... 29
Table 4: Kenya‘s demographic indicators and projections ...................................................... 30
Table 5: The dependence ratios for the years 1979, 1984, 1989 and 1996 .............................. 37
Table 6: Relative contribution of greenhouse gases to the greenhouse effect ......................... 47

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: : Components of the environment .............................................................................. 6
Figure 2: Simple terrestrial food web ...................................................................................... 12
Figure 3: Simple aquatic food web showing all possible feeding relationships ...................... 12
Figure 4: Major types of ecosystems ....................................................................................... 15
Figure 5: : Major zones of a lake/ reservoir ............................................................................. 19
Figure 6: Diagrammatic representation of a typical biosphere reserve. .................................. 27
Figure 7: Human population growth in less developed and developed countries ................... 29
Figure 8: The central feedback structure that governs a population system ............................ 31
Figure 9: The Demographic Transition model......................................................................... 32
Figure 10: Vertical thermal stratification of the atmosphere ................................................... 44
Figure 11: Natural greenhouse effect....................................................................................... 46
Figure 12: Enhanced greenhouse effect ................................................................................... 47
Figure 13: Routes of human exposure through the gaseous, liquid, and solid environment ... 54

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INTRODUCTION
This course presents an overview of Environment and Science. The ecological concepts and
principles governing ecosystem structure and function, as models of sustainability will be
explained. It will also provide foundation of understanding some of the environmental issues
of concern. The effects of man‘s interference in the environment will also be explored.
Fundamental issues such as human population growth, global climate change, ozone layer
depletion, worldwide habitat destruction and biodiversity loss, soil erosion, deforestation, air,
soil, and water pollution will be discussed. Techniques of controlling and preventing them
will be discussed. This course begins by defining the terminologies that make the title of this
course, namely, Environment and Science.

1.1 Definition of terms

Environmental science: defined as a scientific discipline that studies the interaction of
humans with the environment.
Environment: The circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or group of
organisms including humans as well as the social life (the complex of socio-cultural
conditions that affect individuals or community). The environment includes all conditions
that surround living organisms:
 Climate
 Air and water quality
 Soil and landforms
 Presence of other living organisms

Components of environment

ENVIRONMENT

Physical environment Non-physical environment

Natural Man-made

Living Non-living

Figure 1: : Components of the environment

Physical components
(a). Natural Non-living things
 Land (lithosphere)
 Water (Hydrosphere)
 Air (Atmosphere)
(b). Natural living things
 Plant (terrestrial and aquatic)
 Higher animals e.g. human beings, insects, birds and fish and also micro-
organisms
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Non-physical components
They include social, economic, educational, religion of individuals within the community

Biosphere
This is the portion of the universe in which living organism occupy. It is the largest and most
self-sustaining biological system. Biosphere has been referred to as that part of the earth in
which life is permanently possible and which contain all living organism. The biosphere can
be divided into four:
(i). Hydrosphere – ocean, sea, lakes, water bodies
(ii).Lithosphere – solid earth
(iii). Atmosphere- gaseous envelope, around the earth
(iv). Biota- is the sum total of all life on the earth. It is only some portion of the
hydrosphere, lithosphere and atmosphere that are in direct contact with the biota that
constitute the biosphere. This implies that not all aspect of the first 3 that are
biosphere but the life supporting portion of these.
Environmental degradation: Refers to the deterioration in the quality of then environment
as well as the various environmental compartments (air, water, soil). This makes the
environment unsustainable for many purposes e.g. pollution and contamination of water
reduces water quality.
Ecosystem: Refers to the specific biological community and its physical environment (biotic
and abiotic) interacting in exchange of matter and energy.
Ecology: is the scientific study of the relationships that living organisms have with each other
and with their natural environment.
Biome: a broad, regional type of an ecosystem characterized by a distinctive climate and soil
conditions and a distinctive biological community adapted to the prevailing conditions
Community: an aggregate of populations living in the same local area and interacting with
one another.
Sustainability: This is a concept in resource utilization and involves the management that
has the objective of ensuring that future generations will have the opportunity to meet their
needs and aspirations from the same resource base. In an economic sense it means the
development that benefit the present generation and environment while ensuring that the
future generations will inherit their fair share of the earth‘s resources.

1.2 Natural resources

A natural resource may be defined as any material provided by nature which can be
transformed in a way that it becomes more valuable and useful. For an example wood is used
for making furniture. Yarn obtained from cotton is used for weaving cloth. Likewise, various
machine, tools and household goods are made of metals. Such products as furniture, clothes,
machine, and tools are more valuable than their raw form i.e. wood, cotton and metal,
respectively.
Thus, water, minerals, forests, wildlife as well as human beings are resources. Any material
may be called, as a resource provided and appropriate technology is available to transform
that into more valuable goods.

Classification of natural resources

On the basis of continuity, natural resources are classified as under:
(a). Renewable Resources

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 (b). Non-renewable Resources and
(c). Cyclic resources

Renewable Resources
Resources, which can be renewed along with their exploitation, are always available for use.
Hence they are called renewable resources. For instance, forests, wildlife, fishery are
renewable. If trees are felled for wood, original forest covers may be maintained through
planting new trees or allowing the forest to regenerate through natural process of
regeneration. Energy resources such as solar energy, wind energy and tidal energy though
considered as renewable resources are not affected by human use and are sometimes referred
to as flow or perpetual resources.

Non-renewable Resources
The formation of some resources
several thousands of years. Once
replaced. Thus, their exploitation
resources are called non-renewable
like iron ore, fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) take
they are used in unsustainable way, they cannot be easily
at large scale will result in their fast depletion. Such
resources or exhaustible.

Cyclic Resources
These are resources with no final use as they can be used continuously. For example, water
used in industry and domestic ways can be cleaned and used again for similar or other
purpose.

1.3 Environmental problems and dilemmas

The evolution of ma‘s relationship with the natural environment dates back to the dawn of
man‘s emergence as the dominant species on the planet earth. It is inseparable from that of
man‘s own development underlying the present idea of development as well as the earlier
notion of progress of the betterment of man‘s life on earth through increase in the goods and
services available to him.

Increased production of goods and services has been sought through different combinations
of labour, raw materials and accumulated capital available. These factors were combined
within the context of different economic and social systems and this has impacted the
environment in one way or another in both the developed and developing countries. Problems
experienced by the individually advanced countries are largely an outcome of a high level
economic development, creation of large productive capacities in industry and agriculture;
growth of complex system of transport and communication; massive urban conglomerations
etc. All these have damaged and disrupted the natural as well as the human environment in
one way or another. These problems having physical, economic and social consequences
may be grouped under five categories:
i. Resource deterioration - problems arising from shortage of food, mineral, power and
other resources, in the face of a rising global population of human beings. This
involves the reduction in the quality and quantity of resources. Such resources include
both renewable and non-renewable resources.

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 ii. Environmental pollution - Pollution is caused by the need to dispose of waste
(gaseous, liquid or solid materials), which cannot be completely eliminated. The
wastes which are released into the environment cause air, water and land pollution.
This can adversely affect the environment including man.
iii. Human health and quality of life- This is greatly influenced by the environment.
Although environments as well as genetic factors are involved in the production of
disease, the environmental determinants such as water supply, urban environment
quality, climate and the pattern of human contacts are emphasized more. Physical
disruption such as the effects of noise pollution can damage the ear and cause
temporary or permanent noise-induced hearing loss, depending upon the intensity and
duration of the sound level. Noise can arise from various sources such as transport
vehicles and industrial machines and can be a major human irritant as it may affect
mental health.
iv. Radioactivity from nuclear weapons and nuclear energy production- Nuclear
technology has generated a worldwide debate on the environmental hazards
embracing topics such as possible risks to people exposed to low levels of radiation,
the safety of nuclear installations, the impact on particular sites, environmental risks
associated with radioactive wastes and diversion of nuclear material for non-peaceful
purposes e.g. production of nuclear weapons.
v. Social disruption: congestion, loss of sense of community
These environmental problems manifest themselves in varying degrees depending on the
sectors concerned, the geographical regions and the stage of development.

Major environmental problems in developing countries reflect poverty and the very lack of
development or mal-development of their societies. Due to this, the population here depend
heavily on the availability and the quality of natural resources. Rapid population growth has
led to over-exploitation of these resources to meet the growing demand and thus degradation
of the environment. The result has been rapid deterioration of the environmental quality-
land, water, vegetation and other living organisms. In developed countries, environmental
problems mainly relate to energy and resource consumption leading to pollution, fast
depletion of natural resources and overall damage to the ecosystems. In developing countries,
environmental problems are related to poverty, diseases, lack of adequate housing, clean
drinking water and safe disposal of human body wastes. High population levels and growth
rates are the causes of many such problems. The search for fresh agricultural and grazing
land, the depletion of forests for timber and fuel and the intensified use of chemicals for pest
control, pasture improvement and crop productivity, all combine to degrade the environment.

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ECOLOGY AND ECOSYSTEM

2.1 Ecology
Ecology is the study of living organisms in relation to each other and their environment. The
study of ecology could be in terms of plant ecology or animal ecology. Ecology can be
divided into two:
i). Autecology is the study of one single organism in relation to its environment
ii). Synecology is the study of the community in relation to its environment.

There are three levels of biological organization

i). Organism (individual)
ii). Population
iii). Community
 Population is the group of organism of the same type capable of inter‐breeding.
 Community composes of all the population within a given habitat usually thought as
inter‐dependent. It consists of different individual organism.

2.2 Ecosystem
No life exists in a vacuum. Materials and forces which constitutes its environment and from
which it must derive its needs surround every living organism. Thus, for its survival, a plant,
an animal, or a microbe cannot remain completely detached in a shell. Instead, it requires
from its environment a supply of energy, a supply of materials, and a removal of waste
products.
For various basic requirements, each living organism has to depend and also to interact with
different non-living or abiotic and living or biotic components of the environment.

A system is simply a collection of a part that interacts with one another to form a single
whole. Ecosystem consists of the living community and non- living factors of the
environment. Ecosystem describes the interaction between the inanimate non-living
environment and the community of plants and animals including the micro-organism.

An ecosystem is therefore a functional ecological unit comprising of living organisms and

their non-living environments that interact to form a stable self-supporting system
Or
Any spatial or organizational unit which include living organisms and non-living substances,
all interacting to produce an exchange of materials between the living and non-living parts.

2.2.1 Components of Ecosystem

There are two basic components/ elements in any given ecosystem:
i. Living or biotic elements
ii. Non-living or abiotic elements

Abiotic Factors (Non-living elements)

Among the main abiotic factors of the ecosystem are included the following:
i. The climatic factors as solar radiation, temperature, wind, water currents, rainfall.
ii. The physical factors as light, fire, pressure, geomagnetism,
iii. Chemical factors as acidity, salinity and the availability of inorganic nutrients needed
by plants.

Biotic or Biological Factors (Living elements)

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The biological (biotic) factors of ecosystem include all the living organisms-plants, animals,
and micro-organisms (bacteria and viruses). Each kind of living organism found in an
ecosystem is given the name a species. A species includes individuals which have the
following features:
• They are genetically alike.
• They are capable of freely inter-breeding and producing fertile off springs.
Based on how the living organisms acquire energy and obtain food (nutrients), there are two
types of organisms:
(i). Producers (Autotrophs) - Photosynthetic algae, green plants and bacteria capable of
converting atmospheric sunlight through photosynthesis to manufacture their own
food; all other organisms depend upon them directly or indirectly for food.
(ii).Consumers (Heterotrophs) - organisms which cannot synthesize their own food from
sunlight and then depend on the producers (green plants).
There are two categories of consumers
1. Macro-consumers- Macro-consumers are the consumers, which in a order as they
occur in a food chain are, herbivores, carnivores (or omnivores).
(a). Herbivorous,- feeds directly on producers (green plants) also known as
primary consumers
(b). Carnivorous- feed directly on primary consumers (1 st level carnivores) e.g.
Cheetah or on other carnivores (2nd level carnivores) e.g. Hyena. Carnivores
are also considered as predators (lion, cheetah) or scavengers (vultures,
hyenas)
(c). Omnivorous animals- derive their energy either from producers or consumers
e.g. Human being and other primates like baboons
2. Micro-consumers- Popularly known as decomposers
(i). Reducers (Decomposers or saprophytes).-Reducers are heterotrophic
organisms like animals; they are fungi and bacterial that decompose dead
organic matter.
(ii).The ecosystem is completed by saprotrophs or decomposer organisms such as
bacteria, flagellate protozoans and fungi, They break down the organic
compounds of cells from dead producer and consumer organisms in any of
these ways-
 Into small organic molecules, which they utilize themselves, or
 Inorganic substances that can be used as raw materials by green plants.

2.2.2 Feeding relationship-Food chains, food webs and trophic level

Species are related by their feeding behaviour in food chains or food webs.
Food chain- This is linear arrangement of feeding relationship that traces energy flow.
Producers generally form the base of any given food chain. There are two basic types of food
chains as under:
(i). The grazers food chain includes the sequence of energy flow from producer +
herbivore + carnivore + reducer;
(ii).The detritus food chain- the principal energy input is not green plants but dead
organic matter. Examples include the forest floor, a salt marsh, the ocean floor etc
Example of food chains
Rose plant aphids beetle chameleon hawk

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Food web- A food web is a network of all the possible trophic interactions representing an
aggregation of the individual food chains interlinked in an ecosystem. It represents a more
realistic view than a food chain of what happens during trophic interactions in an ecosystem.

Figure 2: Simple terrestrial food web

Phytoplanktons Macrophytes Weathering and

atmospheric inputs

Zooplanktons Bacteria Nutrients

Macro fauna Small fish Big fish

Figure 3: Simple aquatic food web showing all possible feeding relationships
Trophic level
This is the position occupied by an organism in a food chain such as producers, herbivore,
primary carnivore, etc. Green plants form base of any trophic level while higher organisms
constitute the subsequent trophic levels.
Producers>>>>>>> Herbivores>>>>>>> Carnivores
These arrangements can be well describe by means of ecological pyramids. In this pyramid
the first or producer level constitutes the base of the pyramid. The successive levels, the three
make the apex.

2.3 Functions of Ecosystem

The functions of Ecosystem are as under:
a) Transformation of Solar Energy into Food Energy/chemical energy
The solar radiation is major source of energy in the ecosystem. It is the basic input of energy
entering the ecosystem. Green plants receive radiant energy and convert into chemical energy
through the process of photosynthesis while part of it lost as heat energy to the atmosphere
through respiration and excretion. Green plants transformed solar energy is stored in the cells
of primary producers (photosynthetic plants, algae and bacteria) and it becomes the source of
energy to other organisms in up the trophic levels. As energy transferred from one trophic
level to the other some portion of energy is lost through respiration inform of heat.

b) The Circulation of elements through Energy Flow

Energy flow is the main driving force of nutrient circulation in any given ecosystem. The
organic and inorganic substances are moved reversibly through various closed system of
cycles in the biosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and lithosphere. This activity is done in
such a way that total mass of these substances remains almost the same and is always
available to biotic communities.

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c) The Conversion of Elements into Inorganic Flow
The organic elements of plants and animals are released through the following ways:
 Decomposition of leaf falls from the plants dead plants and animals by decomposers
and their conversion into soluble inorganic form.
 Burning of vegetation by lighting, accidental forest fire or deliberate action of man.
When burnt, the portions of organic matter are released to the atmosphere and these
again fall down, under the impact of precipitation, on the ground. Then they become
soluble inorganic form of element to join soil storage, some portions in the form of
ashes are decomposed by bacterial activities.
 The waste materials released by animals are decomposed by bacteria. They find their
way in soluble inorganic form to soil storage.
d) The Growth and Development of Plants
In the biogeochemical cycles are included the uptake of nutrients of inorganic elements by
the plants through their roots. The nutrients are derived from the soil where these inorganic
elements are stored. The decomposition of leaves, plants and animals and their conversion
into soluble inorganic form are stored into soil contributing to the growth and development of
plants. Decompositions are converted into some elements which are easily used in
development of plant tissues and plant growth by biochemical processes, mainly
photosynthesis.
e) Productivity of ecosystem
The productivity of an ecosystem refers to the rate of production i.e. the amount of organic
matter, which is accumulated in any unit time. Productivity is of the following types:
1) Primary productivity: It is associated with the producers which are autotrophic
(photosynthetic) and to a much lesser extent the chemosynthetic micro-organisms.
Primary productivity (PP) is defined as ―the rate at which radiant energy is stored by
photosynthetic and chemosynthetic activity of producers.‖ Primary productivity is
further distinguished as:
 Gross primary productivity (GPP): is the rate of storage of organic matter in
plant tissues in excess of the respiratory utilization by plants during the
measurement period (the rate of increases of biomass).
 Net primary productivity (NPP): refers to balance between gross
photosynthesis and respiration and other plant losses as death etc.
2) Secondary productivity: These are the rates of energy storage at consumer level.
Since consumers only utilize food materials (already produced) in their respiration,
simply covering the food matters to different tissues by an overall process. The
secondary productivity is not divided into ‗gross‘ and ‗net‘ amount.
3) Net Productivity: Net productivity refers to the rate of storage of organic matter not
used by the heterotrophs (consumer) i.e. equivalent to net primary production minus
consumption by the heterotrophs during the unit period. It is thus the rate of increase
of biomass of the primary producers, which has been left over by the consumers.
4) Stability of Ecosystem: The stability of ecosystems refers to the balance between
production and consumption of each element in the ecosystem i.e. the balance
between input and output of energy and normal functioning of different
biogeochemical cycles and stable conditions of equilibrium Ecosystem stability can
be described under two equilibrium models:-
(i). The Equilibrium Model: The equilibrium model states that an ecosystem
always tends towards stability. As soon as the community of an ecosystem is

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 disturbed due to external environmental change, it quickly returns to original
state.
(ii).The non-equilibrium model: The non-equilibrium model states that
ecosystem stability is rarely attained because disturbances caused by frequent
external environmental change do not allow it to develop ordered state of
species assemblages in an ecosystem.

2.4 Ecological Succession

Biotic communities are not static but instead change through time. This change can be
understood on several levels. The simplest level is the growth, interaction and death of
individual organisms as they pass through their life cycles, affected by the cycles of seasons
and other natural phenomena. Some other levels of community change act over longer time
spans and that account for much larger changes in community composition and structure.
These include ecological succession and community evolution

Succession therefore denotes a sequence of changes in the species composition of a

community, which is generally associated with a sequence of changes in its structural and
functional properties. The changes associated with succession are usually progressive or
directional. This fact enables one to predict which species are likely to replace other in the
course of a succession. Succession tends to continue until the species combinations best
suited to the regional climate and the particular site are established.

2.4.1 Types of Succession

The succession may be of the following two types:
1) Primary Succession
Primary Succession is the process of species colonization and replacement in which the
environment is initially virtually free of life. The process may starts with bare rock or sand
dune or river delta or glacial debris and it ends when climax is reached.
2) Secondary Succession
Secondary succession is the process of change that occurs after an ecosystem is disrupted but
not totally obliterated. In this situation, organic matter and some organisms from the original
community will remain; thus the successional process does not start from scratch. As a
result, secondary succession is more rapid than primary. It is seen in areas burned by fire or
cut by farmers for cultivation.

2.4.2 General succession process

The process of succession begins with a bare area or nudation formed by several reasons,
such as volcanic eruption, landslide following sequential steps as follows.
1) Nudation-The process of succession begins with a bare area or nudation formed by
several reasons, such as volcanic eruption, landslide, flooding, erosion, deposits, fire,
disease, or other catastrophic agency. Man also may be reason of formation of new
lifeless bare areas for example, walls, stone quarrying, burning, digging, flooding
large land areas under reservoirs, etc.
2) Invasion-The invasion means the arrival of the reproductive bodies or propagules of
various organisms and their settlement in the new or bare area. Plants are the first
invaders (pioneers) in any area the animals depend on them for food. The invasion
includes the following three steps:
(i). Dispersal or migration: The seeds, spores or other propagules of the species
reach the bare area through air, water or animals.
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 (ii).Ecesis: Ecesis is the successful establishment of migrated plant species into
the new area. It includes germination of seeds or propagules, growth of
seedlings and starting of reproduction by adult plants.
(iii). Aggregation: In this stage, the successful immigrant individuals of species
increase their number by reproduction and aggregate in large population in the
area. As a result individuals of the species come close to one another

2.5 Major types of ecosystems/ biomes

Biome is climatically and geographically defined as areas with similar climatic conditions on
the Earth characterised by similar communities of plants, animals, and soil organisms, and are
often referred to as ecosystems. Such ecosystems have led to the evolution of organisms that
are similar in form and function but not necessarily in genetic heritage. A biome is made up
several ecosystems each characterised throughout its extent by similar plants, animals,
climate and soil.

A fundamental classification of biomes is:

i. Terrestrial ecosystems (land-based ecosystems)
ii. Aquatic ecosystems (water-based ecosystems)

Figure 4: Major types of ecosystems

2.5.1 Terrestrial biomes/ecosystems

Desert
Desert is a community with a broken vegetation cover of herbs, shrubs and sometimes-
scattered trees with extensive areas of soil in between. The mean annual precipitation is less
than 250 mm and there is a severe water deficit, limiting the abundance of plants and other
organisms. A combination of low average precipitation and different average temperatures
give rise to three types of deserts:

i) Tropical deserts e.g. Sahara

 Daytime temperatures are hot all year round and nights are very cold because of
lack of sufficient vegetation to moderate temperature.
 Make up 1/5 of the world‘s desert area and consist primarily of barren dunes
covered with rock and sand.
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  There are relatively few large mammals in these deserts. The dominant animals are
non-mammalian invertebrates e.g. snake. Mammals are usually small e.g. the
kangaroo, mice.

Adaptation of desert plants

 Absence or reduced leave size
 Shedding of leaves under low moisture levels
 Extensive shallow root systems to absorb as much water as during cloud bursts
 Succulent tissues- retain and store water
 Widely spaced plants to reduce competition for available water,
 Short life spans which allow plants to develop to maturity quickly following
rainstorm
 Animals also live in deserts, like plants they have evolved a number of adaptations
to survive in the harsh climate e.g. many animals are active at night (nocturnals) or
during early and late hours of the day when the heat is less intense.

ii) Temperate (mid latitude) deserts

 Daily temperatures are warm, most of the year.
 Vary greatly in the vegetation they contain.
 They contain widely scattered thorny bushes and shrubs, succulents and small
fast growing wild flowers that bloom after the rare brief rains.
 Wide spacing between plants reduces competition for water.

iii) Cold (high latitude) deserts e.g. Gobi.

 Winters are cold and summers are hot.
 They have a considerable amount of specialized vegetation as well as
specialized vertebrate and invertebrate animals.
 Soils often have abundant nutrients but little or no organic matter.

Grasslands
There are different types of grasslands:

i) Savannahs or Tropical grasslands

 Savannahs ecosystems that lie between rainforests and deserts
 Found in areas with high average temperature, very dry seasons about half of the
year and enough rain the rest of the year to support abundant grass and not enough
to support forests
 Located in a wide belt on either side of the equator.
 Consist of open plains covered with low or high grasses with varying number of
widely spaced, small and mostly deciduous trees and shrubs, which shed leaves in
the dry season.
 Have the greatest abundance of large mammals remaining anywhere in the world.
 Disturbances including fires and impact of herbivory on the vegetation is common,
but may be necessary to maintain these as Savannahs otherwise they would revert to
woodlands in wetter areas or to shrubs in drier areas.
 Due to harsh conditions in savannah, different animals adapted for survival:
Annual migration e.g. wild beasts migrate between Kenya and Tanzania,
Reproduce large numbers and are able to guard all directions to detect
approaching enemies

16
 Long legs and durable sock absorbing hooves e.g. antelopes
Efficient digestive system (ruminants) stomach with many chambers
Well-developed teeth system that grows as they worn out with large molar
provide a large surface area for effective grinding
Maintaining of grasslands – Herbivores graze and trample on tree seedlings
enabling the survival of grasses
Different feeding levels (ecological partitioning)- animals feed at different
levels limiting inter-specific competition

Factors that shape savannah ecosystems

 Climate
 Soil type
 Topography
 Fire- increase grass palatability for grazers and maintain the woody
vegetation for browsers
 Herbivory by grazers and browsers

Threats to savannah grasslands

 Agriculture-conversion of rich soil to farmland- corn , wheat, etc)
 Overgrazing- excessive grazing eventually kill deep-rooted plants
 Change in land cover result leaves the soil vulnerable to soil erosion and
growth of unpalatable forage
 Fire suppression allow weeds to encroach on former grasslands

Role of Fire in Savannah Grasslands

(i). It helps to burn the dry grass/litter creating room for new grass to sprout,
(ii).Fire prevents bush encroachment e.g. by burning the above herbaceous and
woody plants, thus reducing their density,
(iii). Burning of litter/dead matter releases the nutrients and makes them to be
available to new grass,
(iv). Fire kills parasites and pests and thus reduces diseases,
(v). Fire breaks seed dormancy in some grasses e.g. Thermeda triandra.

ii) Temperate grasslands

 They occur in regions too dry for forests and too moist for deserts.
 They include the Great North American Prairies, the Steppes of Eurasia, the
plains of Southern Africa and the Pampas of Southern America.
 Dominant species are grasses and other flowering plants, many of which are
perennial with extensively developed roots.
 Soils often have a deep organic layer.
 There is a high abundance and diversity of large mammals e.g. the wild horses,
asses, the antelopes of Eurasia, Kangaroos of Australia and antelope of Africa.
 Temperatures are moderate and rainfall is seasonal.

iii) Polar grasslands or Arctic Tundra

 They are found just below the arctic region.
 They are treeless plains that occur under the harsh climates of low rainfall and
low average temperatures.

17
  The dominant vegetation includes grasses and sedges, mosses, lichens,
flowering dwarf shrubs and mat-forming plants.
 There are some large and small mammals, birds and insects. Parts of tundra
have permafrost, which is permanently frozen ground. Such areas are extremely
fragile, ecologically.

Forests
They include the following:
i) Tropical rainforests
 They are found near the equator in areas with a relatively constant average
temperature (18-20oC) throughout the year, high humidity and heavy rainfall
(2000 mm/annum) almost daily.
 Species diversity is high with hundreds of species of trees within a few square
kilometres.
 The trees are very tall (50-60m) and form a dense canopy which block much of
light, only 1% of the light entering the forest reaches the forest floor therefore,
the floor has little undergrowth due to absence of light. Many species of animals
occur.
 Mammals tend to live on trees but some are ground dwellers. Insects and other
invertebrates are abundant and show a high diversity. Except for dead organic
matter at the surface, soils tend to be very low in nutrients.
 Most nutrients are held in the living vegetation; otherwise rainfall would rapidly
remove many chemical elements necessary for life.

NOTE

 The soils of the tropical rainforest are thin and extremely poor in nutrients, almost
all the nutrients are found tied up in the vegetation. Minerals released during
decomposition are rapidly absorbed by roots of trees or are leached to the
groundwater where they are unavailable to plants.
 Human disturbance Logging – Heavy logging has led to loss of many species has
disrupted nutrients cycle and loss of carbon sinks e.g. 50% of CO 2 is stored in this
biome. Conversion to agriculture/grazing lands – once trees are cut nutrients are
lost, agricultural yields are good for only a few years and soils are leached and
erosion is severe.

ii) Temperate (mid-latitude) deciduous forests

 Temperatures are moderately average and they change significantly during the
four distinct seasons. Summers are long, winters not very severe and there is
abundant precipitation spread evenly throughout the year.
 Dominant vegetation includes tall deciduous trees. Common species are
maples, beeches, oaks, hickories and chestnuts. These forests are important
economically for their hardwood trees used for furniture.
 Large mammals are not very common. Dominant animals are small mammals
including those that live on trees (e.g. squirrels) and those that feed on soil
organisms and small plants (e.g. mice). Birds and insects are abundant.

iii) Cold Northern Coniferous forests (Boreal forests or taiga)

 Are forests of the cold climates of high latitudes and altitudes dominated by
conifers especially spruces, firs and larches.
18
  These forests cover very large areas, but relatively few important species of
trees occur.
 They are economically important since they are the source of much lumber and
paper pulp.
 Dominant animals include a few large mammals (e.g. moose, deer, wolves and
bears), small rodents (e.g. squirrels and rabbits), small carnivores (e.g. foxes)
many insects and migratory birds and carnivores land birds such as owls and
eagles.
 Disturbances, particularly fires, storms and outbreaks of insects are common.

2.5.2 Aquatic ecosystems or biomes

The main factors affecting the types and numbers of organisms in aquatic ecosystems are
salinity, depth to which sunlight penetrates, dissolved oxygen and water temperature.
(a). Fresh water Lakes and Reservoirs
Lakes and reservoirs have four major zones:

Figure 5: : Major zones of a lake/ reservoir

1. Littoral – Shallow nutrient rich waters near the shore. It contains rooted aquatic plant
and an abundance of other forms of aquatic life.
2. Limnetic – The open water surface layer that receives light for photosynthesis and
contains varying amounts of floating phytoplankton, plant eating zooplankton and
fish, depending on the availability of plant nutrients.
3. Profundal – Deep water not penetrated by sunlight. It is inhabited mostly by fish that
are adapted to cooler, darker water and lower levels of dissolved oxygen.
4. Benthic – Occurs at the bottom of the lake. It is inhabited primarily by a large
number of bacteria, fungi, bloodworms and other decomposers which live on dead
plant debris, animal remains and animal wastes.

Freshwater lakes, ponds, rivers and streams cover a very small portion of earth‘s surface
(0.0091%), however they are critical for water supply and play important ecological roles.
Dominant plants are floating algae, which are referred to as phytoplankton when occurring
in a group. Along the shores and in shallow areas are rooted flowering plants such as water
lilies. Animal life is often abundant. The open waters have many small invertebrate animals
19
collectively called zooplankton. Fresh waters are economically important to people for their
fish, bird life and for recreation and transportation. Estuaries, areas at the mouths of rivers
where river water mixes with ocean waters, are rich in nutrients and usually support an
abundance of fish. They are important breeding sites for many commercially significant
species.

(b). Wetlands
Wetlands are dynamic, natural ecosystems characterized by water logged or standing water
conditions during at least part of the year and seasonal fluctuation of water levels. They
include freshwater swamps, marshes and bogs and salt water marshes. The water table is at
the surface and the ground is saturated with water. Standing water creates a soil condition
with no or very little oxygen facilitating anaerobic condition and growth of special plants
adapted to the anoxic condition.
Ramsar convention wet wetlands (1971)
Ramsar is town in Iran, where the convention on wetlands was signed in 1971.The
convention is an intergovernmental treaty, which provided the framework for national action
and International Corporation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands and their
resources. There are presently 146 contracting parties to the convention, with 1462 sites,
totalling 125.4 million hectares.

Ramsar definition of a wetlands ―Areas of marsh, fen, peatland, or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, blackish or salt
including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed six metres‖.

Significance of wetlands
Wetlands cover only (4-6%) of earth‘s land. However, they are very important in the
biosphere.
 In the oxygen less soils, bacteria that cannot live in high oxygen atmospheres live
there and carry out chemical reactions that produce methane and hydrogen sulphide
that have important effects in the biosphere particularly global energy budget.
 Over geological time, wetland vegetation produced the vegetation that today is coal.
 Salt-water marshes are important breeding areas for many oceanic animals and
contain many invertebrates. Dominant animals here include crabs and shellfish. Salt
water mashes are therefore an important economic resource.
 Dominant animals in freshwater wetlands are many species of insects, birds and
amphibians. The larger swamps of warm regions are famous for large reptiles and
snakes as well as for a relatively high diversity. In Kenya, fresh water wetlands form
an important breeding site for birds such as flamingoes.

Problems facing wetlands in Kenya

 Over-exploitation of the resource (Reeds, Mangroves, fishes, molluscs etc.) by
communities and other users. No clearly defined and established sustainable use.
 Introduction of exotic/alien species – e.g. the water hyacinth, Eichhornia crasspes and
Salvinia molesta the weeds have invaded East Africa fresh water ecosystem, the main
negative effects are:- reduction in fish population by smothering of breeding grounds,
extensive de-oxygenation in some areas and increased debris load over feeding
grounds. An alteration of the natural wetland fringe through successional patterns and
elimination of underwater plants and enhydrophytes in general. There are a variety of
20
 socio- economical detrimental effects e.g. physical threats water based utility
especially the national hydroelectric power station in Uganda, increased operational
costs for purifying and pumping the water, physical interference with fishing
operations (entanglements or loss of nets) and blockage of commercial transport.
 Inadequate education and awareness among the stakeholders, especially the policy
makers and resource users, particularly on wise use and sustainable natural resource
management practices.
 Inadequate technical and skilled human resources to undertake specialised
conservation and management programmes.
 Ineffective enforcement of the existing environmental sectoral policies, legislations,
regulations and rules touching on wetlands.
 Wetland pollution from urban centres, Deforestation of catchment forests,
sedimentation and siltation of wetlands from inappropriate land use and development
practices including agriculture, settlement, grazing, dam constructions and diversion
of rivers

Causes of wetland problems

 Due to their vast ecological wealth – overexploitation of wetland resources e.g. use of
explosives for fishing in marshy wetlands, this method kills juvenile and adult fish
alike and at the same time destroys habitats. Overgrazing on the wetlands exposes the
aquatic plants to harsh weather conditions.
 Rapid human population growth and immense agricultural activities along the wetland
areas- the need to feed a large human population has resulted in the conversion of
most wetlands into agricultural lands, and this has led to their depletion.
 Industrialization and urbanization- This has contributed to loss and unwise use of
wetlands, through discharge of wastes
 Reclaiming wetlands for agriculture – reduction and loss of habitats and subsequent
loss of many plants and animals species that dependent on those wetlands.
 Pressure from increased tourism – visit to marine parks for diving affect the bottom
marine environment, demands for ornaments exerts pressure on marine resources,
construction of tourist facilities cause destruction in terms of land conversion and
pollution.

Solutions to wetlands problems

 Develop a national wetland policy for conservation and sustainable use of wetland
resources.
 Carrying out a publicity outreach campaign to ensure that the communities bordering
the wetlands are sensitised on the importance of the conservation and sustainable
utilization of wetland resources.
 Introducing strict measures to avoid wastes from industries being discharged into the
wetlands.
 Population control – unchecked population growth has led to wetlands being
alternative areas for human settlements. They need to be defined and protected from
human encroachment.
 Making relevant and appropriate information on wetlands available to relevant
stakeholders.
 Facilitate acquisition and transfer of knowledge for sustainable wetland resource
utilization.

21
  Enforcing a total ban on use of toxic non-degradable chemical such as DDT.

2.6 Biodiversity
Biodiversity is the vast array of all the species of plants, animals, insects and the
microorganisms inhabiting the earth either in the aquatic or the terrestrial habitats. The
human civilization depends directly or indirectly upon this biodiversity for their very basic
needs of survival–food, fodder, fuel, fertilizer, timber, liquor, rubber, leather, medicines and
several raw materials. This diversity‘s the condition for the long-term sustainability of the
environment, continuity of life on earth and the maintenance of its integrity.

Although our understanding of the earth‘s organisms–its biological resources- is still

inadequate, there is no doubt that the abundance and diversity of living organisms provide
many benefits and make our world a beautiful and interesting place to live.

2.6.1 Levels of biodiversity

1) Genetic diversity- It includes the genetic variations within species, both among
geographically separated populations and among individuals within single population.
2) Species diversity refers to the variety of living organisms in a region. It includes full
range of species from micro-organisms to giants and mammoth varieties of plants and
animals, e.g. single celled viruses and bacteria etc. and multi-cellular plants, animals
and fungi.
3) Ecosystem diversity- Ecosystem diversity relates to the enormous diversity of habitats
and biotic communities, as wells as to variety of ecological processes within
ecosystems. Since the boundaries between various biological communities are highly
fluid, this is the most difficult factor to measure accurately, yet it may very well be the
most important, since this is where changes that affect all life occur. Climate changes,
often caused by things like global warming, are among the greatest threats to
ecosystem diversity.

2.6.2 The value of Biodiversity

Ecosystems and species provide an enormous range of goods and other services -immediate
as well as long term, material as well as spiritual and psychological - which are vital to our
wellbeing. The values of the earth‘s biological resources can broadly be classified into as
either direct or indirect values.

(i). Consumptive Use. Man is mostly dependent on plant and animal resources for his‘
dietary requirements. A major share of our food comes from domesticated crops and
animals.
(ii). Productive Use. Trade and commerce industry is very largely dependent on forests.
Besides, timber, firewood, paper pulp, and other wood products, we get many valuable
commercial products from forests. Herbs of medicinal value. Rattan, cane, sisal, rubber,
pectins, resins, gums, tannins, vegetable oils, waxes, and essential oils are among the
products gathered in the wild form forest areas.
(iii). Medicine. Many medicinal and aromatic plants are being exploited in the wild to tap
their potential for different ailment cure in the field of drug extraction e.g. Hippophae
rhamnoides, Ephedra Kerardiana. Dactylorrahiza hatageria etc. Besides, they are being
cultured in plantations and protected in wild to encourage in-situ and ex-situ
conservation viz. Animal products are also sources of drugs, analgesics pharmaceuticals,

22
 antibiotics, heart regulators, anticancer and ant parasite drugs, blood pressure regulators,
anticoagulants, enzymes, and hormones.
(iv). Ecological Benefits. Man cannot have control over nature in the wild. It can only put
―pressure on resources and pollute environment. Then what makes environment act as a
self-replenishing system with respect to resource generation and self-cleanliness. To
answer this comes into picture the role of biological communities. The processes of soil
formation, waste disposal, air and water purification, nutrient are all beyond the scope
of man‘s control. Non-domestic plants, animals, and microbes do this favor to mankind
by maintaining ecological processes at no cost. These also serve as a library of gene
pool. Wild species of plants and animals exercise control over disease-carrying
organisms and in suppressing pests. Food chain explains how nature keep a control over
population of organisms wherein organisms of small size and larger in number are
consumed by organisms large in size and smaller in number to next higher tropic level.
Hence, preservation of natural areas and conservation of wild species should be
encouraged and practiced to restore the biological wealth.
(v). Aesthetic Use. Wild species of plants and animals have always appealed man‘s
psyche. Human society has evolved from his early habitat in the forests, which abounds
in flora and fauna. Till date his instinct to observe nature in the wild calls him from
socially and culturally an evolved society, as tourist from far and wide places.
Thousands of tourists visit national park, sanctuaries and forests throughout the country
and especially in mountainous areas.
(vi). Cultural Benefits. A particular species or community of organisms may have
emotional value for a group of people who feel that their identity is inextricably linked to
the natural components of the environment that shaped their culture. This may be
expressed as a religious value, or it may be a psychological need for access to wildlife.
In either case, we often place a high value on the preservation of certain wild species.
(vii). Option Values. This refers to the use of various species for the benefit of mankind,
sometime in future. The hunt for various species under the scope of biotechnology is
already underway for finding solutions to various environmental problems. The
environmental issues being addressed to be: pollution as a major problem, ways to fight
various disease viz., cancer, diabetes etc., AIDS and others.

2.6.3 Loss of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is diminished or destroyed in a number of ways either by natural changes or by
human disruption. The loss of even a single species is considered as a tragedy as each form of
life is a natural storehouse of irreplaceable substances the genetic materials (Ehrlich &
Ehrlich, 1982). As species become extinct, the fine balance of nature is disturbed to great
extent. The loss of even a single species can alter a food chain/food web, i.e. ecosystem
disruption, and upset the delicate balance between one species that preys upon another.

Natural causes

Species arise through processes of mutation, isolation, and natural selection. Evolution can
proceed gradually over millions of years or may occur in large jumps when new organisms
migrate into an area or when environmental conditions change rapidly.

1. Species can be lost through natural selection e.g. if environmental conditions change
and species are unable to adapt to changing conditions some species can become
extinct (permanent loss of a species)
2. Too much predation or competition
23
 3. Diseases

Human caused- extinction

Man has a long history of dependence on biological resource hence depletion of resources is
obvious. It has never been the pursuit of mankind to completely destroy other species, but in
a variety of ways through ignorance or carelessness, we have reduced biological abundance
and driven species into extinction.

Human activities can either have a direct or indirect impact on biodiversity as

summarized in the table 2.

Table 1: Direct and indirect impact of humans on biological resources

Direct impact Indirect impact
 Hunting and food gathering  Habitat destruction
 Fishing  Introduction of exotic/ alien
 Harvesting wild plants species
 Trade in animal products  Diseases
 Pets and scientific trade  Pollution
 Predator and pest control  Genetic assimilation
 Cross breeding

2.6.4 Biodiversity hotspots

Areas with rich biodiversity and exhibiting high levels of endemism, which are under
immediate threat of species extinction and habitat destruction, are recognized on priority
basis worldwide for conservation practices and are known as hot spots. 12 hot spots identified
worldwide represent 14% of world‘s plant species in only 0.2% of its -total land surface. 12
mega diversity nations (Mexico, Columbia, Brazil, Peru, Ecuador, Madagascar, Indonesia,
Malaysia. India, China and Australia) contain 60-70 % of the world‘s biodiversity.

2.6.5 Biodiversity Conservation

Need for biodiversity conservation is realized by all nations of the world because their lies
common interest of masses. Most of the resources do not belong to an individual, a nation or
a continent. They are simply global. Each and every member on the earth has equal right over
it. To limit the loss of biodiversity globally, four major steps have been realized important at
national, regional and local levels.

(i). Global Environment Facility (GEF)

World Bank, United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) established the GEF in 1900 on a three-year pilot basis.
The GEF is expected to provide financial support for the biodiversity conservation issue.

(ii).International Biodiversity Strategy Programme (IBSP)

World Resources Institute (WRI), World Conservation Union (WCU), UNEP together with
more than 40 Governmental and non-Governmental organizations have prepared the
framework to drastically reduce the loss of biodiversity. This would serve mankind on a more
sustainable basis.

24
 (iii). Convention on Biological Diversity (COBD)
Under the sponsorship (aegis) of UNEP, more than 100 nations gathered during Earth
Summit at Brazil. This was accomplished to workout a legal framework for

 Governing international financial support for biodiversity conservation,

 The identification of international conservation priorities and
 Technology transfer for conservation and use of biodiversity.
(iv). Agenda 21
Developed through a series of inter-Governmental preparatory meetings with input from a
variety of non-Governmental processes including the Biodiversity Strategy Programme.
AGENDA 21 provides a plan of action on a number of issues including biodiversity.

2.6.6 Conservation of Biodiversity in Kenya

The hope for conservation of natural biodiversity however rests on preservation/ protection of
selected ecosystems and representative areas of different vegetation types in the country as
well as on saving some of the extinction-prone species. The number of endangered species of
plants and animals is on the rise, which has prompted governments and non-governmental
organizations to take certain steps in this direction. Forestry and wildlife are primarily under
the control of state governments under which they operate through separate state agencies
(KWS and KFS).

The aims and objectives of wildlife management in Kenya includes the following

i. Protection of natural habitats

ii. Maintenance of a viable number of species
iii. Establishment of biosphere reserves
iv. Protection through legislation

Some of the non-government organizations working in this direction are

i. Nature Kenya
ii. East Wildlife Service- Kenya
iii. World Wide Fund for Nature Kenya (WWF)

Laws Governing Biodiversity Conservation in Kenya

 Wildlife act
 Forest act 2005
 Others include Multilateral Environmental Agreements related to biodiversity
conservation and Kenya is a signatory are
(i). Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
(ii).Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora & Fauna
(CITES)
(iii). Convention on the Convention of the Migratory Species of Wild animals (CMS)
(iv). Ramsar convention on Wetlands
(v). International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

2.6.7 Approached to biodiversity conservation

In-situ conservation
It can be defined as the conservation of plants and animals in their native ecosystem (natural
habitats) or even man made ecosystem, where they naturally occur. This type of conservation

25
is applicable to wild flora and fauna as conservation is achieved through protection of
populations in their natural ecosystems. The concept of protected areas falls under this
category e.g. National Parks, Sanctuaries and Biosphere reserves etc.

Ex-situ conservation

It can he defined as the conservation of plants and animals away from their natural habitats,
which includes collection of samples of genetic diversity and their treatment in the
laboratory, where they are cultured. The concept of ‗gene banks‘ has primarily become the
talk for ex-situ conservation as it is important for conservation of agricultural crops and
forestry based afforestation programmes. Genetic resource centres fall under this category
and include botanical gardens, zoos etc.

Protected areas of Kenya for “In-Situ” Conservation of Biodiversity:

Three types of protected areas-

i. Wildlife Sanctuaries e.g. Nakuru, Nairobi, Dodori national reserve,

Taita Hills Wildlife sanctuary
ii. National Park; Nakuru, Nairobi
iii. Biosphere Reserves were created in Kenya for “In-Situ” conservation
of biodiversity e.g. Amboseli biosphere national reserve, Watamu
Marine National Park, Mt. Elgon N. P, Mt. Kenya N.P.

National Park- an area dedicated by statute for all time to conserve the scenery, natural and
historical objects, to conserve the wild life there in and to provide for enjoyment of the same
in such manner and by such means, that will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of
future generations with such modification as local conditions may demand‖.

Sanctuary- an area where killing, hunting, shooting or capturing of any species of bird or
animal is prohibited except by or under the control of highest authority in the department
responsible for the management of the sanctuary and whose boundaries and character should
be sacrosanct as far as possible.

Biosphere Reserves- described as undisturbed natural areas for scientific study as well as
areas in which conditions of disturbance are under control. These serve as the centres for
ecological research and habitat protection. The ―Biosphere consists of two main zones as:

26
Figure 6: Diagrammatic representation of a typical biosphere reserve.

UNESCO launched biosphere Reserve National Programme in 1971 under its Main and

Biosphere Programme (MAB). The main objectives of the programme are as follows:

• Conserve biological diversity

• Safeguard genetic diversity
• Provide areas for basic and applied research
• Opportunity for Environmental Science and training
• Promote international cooperation

27
HUMAN POPULATION AND ENVIRONMENT

3.1 Introduction

A complex interrelationship exists between population growth and the environment.

Increased population density leads to intensified human activities that if mismanaged
contribute to environmental damage and resource depletion, both of which can have negative
direct or indirect effects on human health and survival.
Knowledge of human population growth patterns and trends and how they impact on the
environment is therefore important in ensuring harmonious relationship between man and his
activities and the environment.

3.1.1 Trends in Population Growth

The term ―Human population‖ is defined in terms of “the dynamics of people, their
numbers, distribution (age and sex structure) and the activities undertaken within a
defined environment”.
Demography- Demography is derived from two Greek words demos, meaning people or
population and graphos, which means to write, measure, draw or describe. It is the
scientific discipline of gathering, compilation and presentation of data on human populations
vis-à-vis the changing number of births, deaths and diseases and the associated development
activities. Those involved in this study are called demographers.
Human population has been growing at an unprecedented rate over the last two hundred years
Before the Agrarian Revolution, about 10,000 years ago, the total global human population
was just about 250,000 people. However, human population subsequently experienced rapid
growth in the years following the Agricultural Revolution to clock a record of 50 million
people by 5000 B.C. (Table 2). In the year 1650, global human population numbered about
0.5 billion. Growth rate was about 0.3 per cent per year, which corresponded to a doubling
time of nearly 250 years.
Table 2: World population growth
Date Population (millions)
5000 BC 50
800 BC 100
200 BC 200
1200 AD 400
1700 AD 800
1900 AD 1600
1965 AD 3200
1990 AD 5300
2020 AD 8230
Source: Population Reference Bureau, Washington D.C.
By 1900, the population had reached 1.6 billion and was growing at 0.5 per cent per year,
doubling time of 140 years. By the year 1970, the population totalled 3.6 billion and the
growth rate had increased to 2.1 per cent per year. That was not only exponential but super
exponential growth. Both birth and death rates were falling although the former was
declining at a much slower pace prompting the population to surge. Between 1971 and 1991,
death rates continued to fall, but birth rates on average fell slightly faster. During the same
period, the population increased from 3.6 billion to 5.4 billion while the growth rate dropped
from 2.1% to 1.7%, respectively. Despite this significant drop in the population growth rate,
28
growth continued to be exponential. As a result more people were added to the world
population in 1991 than any other year ever before (Table 3)
Table 3: Additions to World Population 1971- 2002
Year Population Growth Rate People Added
(Millions) x (per year) = (Millions)
1971 3600 x 2.1% = 76
1991 5400 x 1.7% = 92
1998 5900 x 1.5% = 89
2002 6200 x 1.3% = 81
By 1993, the world population was about 6 billion. At the beginning of the 20 th century, it
was slightly over 6.1 billion persons; grew by about 2 billion in just the last 25 years.
Currently, the world population growth rate stands at 1.3% per year with over 80 million
people being added every year. This is comparable to the population of Germany, the
Philippines and Vietnam. Even though growth rate is gradually slowing, the world
population at 2050 could be 8.9 billion, according to projections by the U.N. Population
Division and 9.1 billion, according to the recent projections of the Population Bureau, 2002.

Presently, almost 99% of population growth (natural increase of births minus deaths)
disregarding any impacts of migration, occurs in the less developed countries of Asia, Africa
and Latin America (Figure 8). However, higher birth rates than death rates observed in most
developing countries is attributed to severe poverty, lack enough income to meet basic needs
for food, clothing and shelter.

Figure 7: Human population growth in less developed and developed countries

The human population is now growing exponentially and almost 90% of that growth is in less
developed countries.
About 6.6 million people are added to the world population monthly. This is equivalent to
the population of Israel, or El Salvador. The increase each week at 1.5 million is roughly
equivalent to the population of Botswana.

29
 3.1.2 Kenyan Population Trends
i. In the early 1960s, Kenya‘s population stood at slightly above 8 million (Table 4).
ii. Since then, the population has been rising steadily and in 1988, population growth
rate stood at 4.2%.

Table 4: Kenya’s demographic indicators and projections

Year 1962 1979 1989 1995 2001 2002 2025 2050
Total population (Millions) 8.6 16.2 23.2 27.5 31.9 31.1 45.3 55.5
Source: National Development Plan 1997 – 2002 and World Population Data, Population
Reference Bureau, Washington DC, 2002

In the last national population census (2009), the country‘s total population was about 38
million and hence the projection for 2050 as shown in table above was achieved much earlier.
iii. The major determinants of high population growth rate can be attributed to decline in
mortality due to advances in medical technology, public hygiene and environmental
sanitation plus increases in fertility levels
iv. Despite low mortality rate, the maintenance of high fertility rates can be attributed to
socio-cultural and religious factors which include:
(i) The belief in Africa that wealth flows from children to parents. Studies
indicate that 74% of parents expect to obtain regular housing and financial
assistance from their children. It has always been that the greater the number
of children, the greater the assistance the parents would derive from them.
(ii) Children are regarded as a source of labour in farms.
(iii)Traditional customary practices such as polygamy.
(iv) Children are regarded as a source of security in old age.
(v) Desire to get particular sex especially male children.
(vi) Going against the wishes of God who ordered man to multiply and subdue the
earth.
v. Today, the rate of population growth has slowed to only 2%, a decline partly due to
the fact that the country has undergone rapid changes in reproductive behaviour.
Total fertility rates have now fallen from 8.0 in the late 1970s to 4.5 children in the
second half of the 1990s.
vi. The mean desired number of children decreased from 6 in 1978 to 3.7 in 1993.
Currently, the gap between desired and actual fertility is two children.
vii. This general trend towards smaller families has been greatly helped by the availability
of good-quality family planning services and easier access to them especially for
women.
viii. Contraceptive use has grown from 7% in 1978 to 33% in 1993 although rates are
higher in urban than rural areas.
ix. The decline in desired family sizes reflects rapid changes in social attitudes about the
value of children. Long ago, children were regarded as economic assets while
nowadays, they are viewed as economic burdens.

30
3.2 Demographic factors influencing population growth patterns
x. Human population is not static. They do change with time and such changes in
population growth over time reflect population dynamics.
xi. Population dynamics is the interplay of several factors such as fertility, birth-rate,
death rates, migration, population distribution (age and sex structure) (Figure 9).

Population (total
Number of people)

Births Deaths

Fertility Mortality
Immigration Emigration
Figure 8: The central feedback structure that governs a population system
i) On the left is the positive feedback loop that generates exponential growth. On the
right is the negative loop that regulates population growth i.e. they tend to maintain
growth within some acceptable range or/redirect it to a stable state.
ii) Fertility - refers to the average number of children born of an average woman within
the child bearing age bracket (also referred to as actual reproductive performance).
iii) Birth rate (BR) (also known as Natality). Birth-rate is usually reported as crude birth-
rates (CBR). CBR refers to the number of childbirths occurring per 1000 (persons)
per year. It is statistically crude in the sense that it is not adjusted for population
characteristics such as the number of women in their reproductive age and the
proportion of population that is old or young, male or female is not considered.
iv) Death rate (DR) (also called Mortality). It refers to the number of deaths per 1000
people per year. African countries in which health and environmental sanitation are
retarded often have mortality rates of 20% and above per 1000 people. Highly
industrialized countries generally have mortality rates at around 11 per thousand
(Table 3.4).
v) The two feedback loops highlighted (Figure 3.4) can produce a number of different
dynamics behaviours. If fertility is higher than mortality, the population will grow
exponentially.
vi) If fertility just equals mortality, births will equal deaths and the population size will
stay constant, although there will be continuous turnover, the replacement of the old
with the new people. This condition of steady flow is called dynamic equilibrium.

3.3 Demographic transition

Demographic transition is a process in which societies move from a stage of high fertility and
mortality through a phase of rapid population growth as mortality declines but fertility
remains high, to a state of stable low fertility and mortality as social and economic
31
development improves. This phenomenon is the transition in birth and death rates that has
been observed in industrialized nations over the course of history. Combination of human
fertility and mortality patterns are as varied as cultures and histories of many countries.
However, some regularity exists, including the following:
xii. Some of the least industrialized populations such as the sub-Saharan African countries
still have relatively high mortality and fertility. The growth rate 2-3% per year in
these countries may increase as mortality decreases.
xiii. Populations at intermediate level of industrialization, such as those of Brazil,
Indonesia, Thailand and Egypt have low mortality and high fertility, which is steadily
decreasing. They are growing at moderate to rapid rates of 1-4% per annum.
xiv. Most highly industrialized populations like those in North America, Japan and Europe
have low mortality, low fertility and slow growth rates of less than 1% per year. The
populations are slowly declining as birth-rates fall below death rates. These countries
are said to have stable population.

3.2.1 Stages of the Demographic Transition

According to the Demographic Transition Model, population growth goes through four stages
(Figure 9).

Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 4

Figure 9: The Demographic Transition model

Stage I- Characterized by high birth rates and death rates, and population growth is slow, but
as industrialization progress, health care, nutrition and sanitation improve, death rates fall
steadily.

Stage II- Characterized by declining crude death rates and high birth rates for a generation or
two, creating a gap between fertility and mortality that causes high growth rate. Majority of
the European countries experienced this transition in the 18th , 19th and the beginning of the
20th centuries.
Stage III- This is the stage of declining birth rates (as a result of declining fertility rate)
almost equal to death rates and the population growth rate slows down and eventually reaches
near or zero growth rate. Declining fertility rates also occur due to improved education,
employment standards for women and widespread adoption of family planning programmes.
32
Many developed countries have attained demographic transition. Developing countries, on
the other hand, are trapped in stages II and III. Their death rates have declined markedly,
fertility and birth rates are declining but still remain above replacement levels; hence rapid
population growth in developing countries. They are caught in what is known as
―Demographic Trap‖. The developed countries‘ populations may eventually stabilize if their
birth rates remain low after the transition period.

Stage IV- This may occur in some post-industrial societies, in which chronic ailments such
as cardiovascular diseases, aging diseases and other degenerative diseases that account for
most mortality are treated, hence improving survival. This may give rise to an additional
phase of population growth (Stage V), a period of zero growth. This would be achieved if
birth rate decline is accompanied by a corresponding drop in death rates. Countries such as
Denmark, Sweden and Italy are experiencing this type of growth.

3.2.2 Factors that have contributed to demographic transition

i) Reduction in infant mortality rate – as a result, fewer birth-rates are needed to
ensure survival of family name.
ii) Rapid change in attitude about the value of children – In industrial societies,
a child is regarded as an economic burden while in agrarian societies, a child is
viewed as an economic asset.
iii) The GNP per capita – As the income per capita increases, birth-rates tend to
decline.
iv) Education and Employment (especially for women) – This postpones the
marital and child bearing age plus encouraging women to join the labour force
as an alternative to child bearing and domestic engagement.
v) Increased use of modern family planning methods – Among couples, this has
increased chances of having smaller families.
While they have led to demographic transition in industrialized nations, these factors have not
had the same effects in developing countries and the following reasons have been pointed out
by demographers:-
i) Slow modernization pace. However, other factors may be equally significant in
demographic transition than economic development.
ii) Lack of widespread adoption of family planning methods and educational
programmes.
iii) Traditional, cultural beliefs or pronatalistic cultures and social structures, which
have encouraged large families.
iv) Migration or population mobility – refers to the movement of large groups of
people into or out of an area for purposes of self-preservation and sustenance in
the form of work or farming. There are two types of migration: - Immigration –
movement into an area and emigration – out of an area. These include the
migrations of seasonal workers in economic sectors such as agriculture and
forestry, the migration of nomads, usually within a limited but nevertheless vast
area, and the short-term and increasingly long distance travels of tourists and
professionals.

Population mobility has increased greatly due to growing affluence and

interdependence, both of which have promoted the development of roads and
transportation systems. Large numbers of people can now move themselves from one

33
area to another with relative ease, to the extent that both host and source population size
and structure may change markedly.

Population movement is viewed particularly in relation to the rural-urban migration and

rural-rural migration. Both are associated with economic entrapment, with
unemployment and hunger, which drive to seek a better standard of living.

In the recent decades, however, rural-rural migration has been comparable to and
sometimes even greater than that from rural to urban areas. In many countries, large
populations have moved from poor rural areas to new agricultural frontiers, leading to
colonization of areas that previously were virtually uninhabited or only sparely
populated. Examples include the trans-migration programme in Indonesia, and the
expansion of the agricultural frontier in the Amazonian regions of several South
American countries.

Population movement also occurs as a result of warfare and environmental degradation.

Warfare may displace populations by rendering territories uninhabitable, for instance,
by laying of mines. Warfare also bring with it fear of persecution causing population to
flee.

According to most sources, at least 35 internal wars are currently occurring around the
world (UNHCR, 1995) and are contributing to the rapid increase in the number of
refugees. An environmental refugee has been defined as ―people who have been forced
to leave their traditional habitat, temporarily or permanently, because of a marked
environmental disruption – either natural or human induced – that jeopardized their
existence and/or seriously affected their quality of life (El – Hinnank; 1985). Such
environmental disruption often involves several factors such as soil erosion,
deforestation, and desertification and water shortage. The ebb and flow of considerable
numbers of people displaced by conflict increases pressure on the resource bases of the
receiving country or area.

Land may become irretrievably damaged from overuse, as is becoming the case in some
areas of African countries which have absorbed significant refugee populations
(UNHCR, 1995). The displaced are therefore both victims and agents of population and
environmental pressures. Refugees who often do not have access to clean and adequate
fuel and water are particularly vulnerable to malnutrition and disease.

v) The profound effects of such migrations are being felt on the population
structures of some countries such as USA, New Zealand, Australia and some
African countries. An emerging issue today as far as migration is concerned is
that it is not a permanent solution to our population problems. This is because
of the physical limits to the carrying capacity of the earth as well as the limited
places to which people can move since other planets (other than the earth)
cannot support biodiversity. Issues of how many people can be accommodated
on earth remain of central concern.
vi) Age structure – The age structure of a population is the distribution of
individuals among different ages (i.e. the proportion of individuals in each age
class). Different countries exhibit different age structures. Kenya exhibits an
expansive pyramid at the base, which declines toward the apex. This kind of
34
 pyramid illustrates an expanding population with a very high growth rate,
indicated by a higher percentage of youthful population. Such a population has
a built in population momentum which can last for more than 50 years and
above even after total fertility rates fall to replacement levels. Population
momentum occurs because a meager percentage of population is in the older age
groups (above 65 years), where mortality rates are high while children enter
their reproductive age bracket. United States on the other hand exhibits slow
growth with rapidly equal number of people in each age group but tapering off
at the older ages. Austria represents a declining population with a smaller
proportion of population above 65 years (as in the United States) and an equal
number of individuals in all age groups.

While population growth patterns show marked differences (Figure 9), in

accordance with differing levels of economic development, the global pattern of
population growth is one of an increasing proportion of adults and a growing
number of persons aged 65 and above. The number of persons aged 65 and
above is increasing in all regions and particularly for women. Age structure and
distribution data can be used for many social and economic calculations, used
for deciding health needs, education needs, environmental impact, consumer
patterns and determining life insurance premiums.

3.2.3 Environmental and Social Consequences of Population Growth

xv. The growth of world human population is clearly having a major impact on the
environment. It has more than tripled in the last century. This population explosion
has been accompanied by rapid changes in science and innovative technologies,
which increased the ability of man to manipulate the environment to meet is basic
needs and improve the standards of living. The rise in absolute numbers has obvious
implications for the environment and sustainability.
xvi. Rising population has put pressure on the environment through stimulating an
increased demand for, and utilization of, natural resources such as food, energy,
water, and through generation of excess wastes. This has made it almost impossible
for majority of developing nations to meet their people‘s basic needs and improve the
quality of life.
xvii. The major environmental problems we are facing currently, such as the greenhouse
effect, and associated climatic changes; the ozone layer depletion; global
deforestation and biodiversity loss are largely a consequence of the high consumption
patterns in developed nations. Decreasing consumption is therefore a first major step
in trying to address these problems.
Some of the environmental and social consequences of rising population in developing
countries are as highlighted below.
i). Land Subdivision- Growing human population has led to the subdivision of land
into smaller parcels, which cannot sustain production. This has occurred
particularly in Asia and Africa. The UN Food and Agricultural Organization
(FAO) estimates that over a billion people live in households that have too little
land to barely meet their food and fuel needs or even produce extra income to
barter.

35
 ii). Increased pressure on natural resources -More pressure has been exerted on
natural resources like water and forests. As a consequence of these tremendous
demands, more trees have been cut down for wood fuel, giving room for soil
erosion and the resultant environmental degradation to occur. Soil erosion
threatens food production. In addition, the increased demand for fuel wood has
also impacted heavily on women and children who have to spend more time
searching for water and gathering fuel wood. More than 3 billion poor people
face acute shortages of firewood. Approximately 60% of the global population
depends entirely on firewood to prepare their daily food requirements.
iii). Over cultivation or Intensive cultivation -The need to produce adequate food
for the ever-burgeoning population has resulted in the cultivation of land more
intensively. In the process, the land fails to get time to regenerate its lost soil
fertility and with continuous production, the fertility diminishes, resulting into
reduced productivity. In addition, intense grazing may reduce the biological
productivity of land and eventually cause desertification by reducing the green
cover. Net loss in food production is evident in many developing countries.
iv). Loss of biodiversity and habitat fragmentation- As the population increases,
new land areas are increasingly being opened up for agricultural production. The
results have been a reduction of wildlife habitats and tremendous biodiversity
losses. In most instances, marginal lands not favourable for agricultural
productivity are converted for such purposes. Many of these areas are prone to
famine, lightning, drought, floods, soil erosion, erratic rainfall and disease
outbreaks. This further aggravates the aridity problem as the desertification
problem is hastened.
v). Rural-Urban migration- As land pressure intensifies, unemployment looms, land
productivity in marginal areas declines and poverty escalates remarkably in the
countryside, and a large proportion of people migrate to urban areas in search of
employment and higher living standards. Concentrations of people in urban
centres overwhelm municipal services such as water supply, education, sanitation,
housing, energy, health and transportation which become too scarce to barely
meet the needs of all the rural immigrants. This contributes to many health
problems such as tuberculosis, viral infections and other contagious diseases.
Since the opportunities in these cities have not expanded rapidly to accommodate
such large numbers, majority of these immigrants ultimately end up in slums and
other sub standard (squatter) settlements. These places lack sanitation and even
proper drainage systems for hygienic disposal of waste products, much less other
vital social amenities mentioned above.
vi). Intensification of environmental pollution and associated problems - The
ever-increasing human population can also be blamed for intensified
environmental pollution problems. Agriculture presently depends on the
application of fertilizers and biocides to increase productivity. These chemicals
have harmful effects on the soil and human health even damaging natural
resources. Some of these, such as the chlorinated hydrocarbons like DDT, are
highly persistent in the environment and have been found to bio-magnify along
the food chains with catastrophic ecological consequences.

As the population increases, the demand for energy also increases. Fulfilment of
these energy demands will lead to utilization of more fossil fuels causing
environmental pollution.
36
 Many city councils are unable to cope completely with increasingly high levels of
solid wastes especially in urban centres, which has resulted into unchecked air,
water and land pollution.

Many developing countries can barely keep up with the increasing pace/demand
for food, employment and housing. This has forced people to adopt
environmentally damaging production methods.

vii). Increase crimes- Lack of employment and under employment in many

developing countries force majority of rural immigrants who settled in towns to
engage in illegal activities e.g. drug selling, poaching to make ends meet. Given
the high poverty levels that prevail in these countries, these decadent activities are
likely to continue despite efforts to eradicate them.

viii). Impoverishment of women and children -Rapid population growth does

significantly impact negatively on women and children. The clearing of trees for
agriculture and the increased demand for fuel wood have exacerbated
environmental problems such as soil erosion that threatens food production and
have compelled women and children to make increasingly long treks, searching
for, and gathering firewood and water. Most men move to urban areas in search
of employment and some keep their income to themselves. As poverty levels
escalate in developing countries, many men will be forced to abandon their
households.

ix). Increased Dependence Ratios - As a result of high population growth, the

number of people (dependants) being supported by a few productive Kenyans has
increased and hence the increase in the level of poverty. In Kenya for example,
52% of the population is youth, < 15 years, 2% aged 60 and above, 54% are
dependants. Therefore, 46% of the population (15-59 years) supports dependants.

Table 5: The dependence ratios for the years 1979, 1984, 1989 and 1996
Year Ratio

1979 1:112

1984 1:122

1989 1:128

1996 1:148

x). Effect on Savings- The goal of economic development is one of saving and
investing enough to produce a flow of income that will grow faster than the
population. The population explosion not only increases the ratio of savings and
investments needed to guarantee rising per capita incomes, it also aggravates the
difficulty of saving. High fertility can depress private savings in two ways: -
a. By reducing the volume of savings by individual families when such
savings are an important component of the nation‘s total.

37
 b. By increasing the proportion of national income that must accrue to non-
savers if standards of consumption play any part in determining the
earnings of one‘s income.
xi). Effect on the pattern of investment- Large families and a growing proportion of
young people also complicate the problem of raising per capita income by shifting
investment in the direction of relatively capital intensive projects particularly
education and housing. Elimination of illiteracy and provision of universal
education are investments with long-term gestation periods. Increasing number
and size of families also add greatly to the housing problem. Also, the baby boom
of advanced countries is most directly related to the problem of underdevelopment
as this devastating torrent of babies is now flooding the schools and universities.
Precipitating a strain on education and housing facilities with the rapid growth of
the school-age population and increased rate of family formation makes heavy
demands on the capital formation and human skills thus reducing the amount of
capital and technical assistance to developing countries.
xii). Effect on Employment and Unemployment- The population explosion makes it
just much more difficult to raise employment and per capita income together for a
large and growing proportion of the population in the zero to 15 years old age
group now means a large and growing proportion in the 15 + 20 years old age
group a few years hence it means a swelling stream of entrants into the labour
force and therefore a labour force that grows even more rapidly than population.

The environmental implications of high population growth is far reaching for many low
income countries, particularly in Southern Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa, where land
degradation and deforestation are most severe. Indeed, a strong relationship exists between
population growth and poverty.

The source of much suffering, ill health and death, poverty can act as an additional pressure
on the environment. This is because, pressing few or no resources, poor people may have
little choice but to exploit rather than protect their environment. At present, poorer countries
are experiencing growth and changes in their population structure, yet they have few or no
means with which to manage or adapt to the environment impacts that ensue.

3.3 Stabilizing Population Growth in Developing Countries

To address both environmental and social problems facing humanity at present, it is a settled
consensus that there is need to stabilize population growth particularly in developing
countries. This, therefore, makes stabilization of population growth a prerequisite for
sustainable development. The following population controls strategies/methods are at our
disposal to check population growth especially in developing countries.

3.6.1 Traditional methods

i) Breast-feeding - This practice can delay the resumption of ovulation (World Bank,
1992) and deplete body fat stores. It can be a very effective way of fertility
control if linked to certain taboos against sexual intercourse during fertile periods.
ii) Abstinence from sex – This should be done until a couple attains consenting adult
age and actually get married.
iii) Induction of sterility with natural agents (folk medicines).

38
 3.6.2 Modern methods
Modern family planning methods such as: -

i) Sex abstinence during fertile periods

ii) Celibacy – using changes in body temperature or cervical mucus colour and
viscosity to predict occurrence of ovulation.
iii) Mechanical barriers such as condoms, spermicides, diaphragm, cervical cap and
vaginal sponge are increasingly being used to avoid sperm – egg contact.
iv) Chemical pills or contraceptives pills – These prevent maturation or release of
sperms and eggs or implantation of embryo on uterus by controlling the levels of
hormones e.g. progesterone.
v) Physical barriers that prevent implantation of the embryo in the uterus e.g. Intra
Uterine Device (IUD).
vi) Surgical techniques that prevent release of sperm or eggs or sterilization. These
include tubal ligation techniques and vasectomy in females and males,
respectively.
vii) Skin implants inserted under the skin: these release progesterone analog hormone
gradually for up to 5 years.
viii) Abortion – Medical or surgical removal of a fertilized embryo up to the age of six
months done either ethically or unethically.

Another direct method that has been suggested in addition to the above modern and
traditional ones is setting the minimum age for marriage, to delay the onset of child bearing.
If more and more women enter the labour force and increase their education and living
standards, they will conversely delay the age of first child bearing and ultimately contribute
to fertility slowdown.

Each of the above methods is associated with certain side effects and complications. The
choice of which method to use is a function of one‘s social, moral and religious beliefs.
Many family planning control efforts have been unsuccessful due to the following inhibitive
and controversial issues: -
i) Lack of adequate information on formal family planning methods and their
associated uses and deleterious effects.
ii) Lack of proper education on population issues to explain the problems of rapid
population growth and benefits of reduced population growth.
iii) Poverty – As poverty deepens in the society, many can‘t afford to access certain
methods of family planning.
iv) Religious beliefs and convictions – Some religious beliefs access the use of birth
control efforts/methods since they alter the natural reproductive process.
v) Side effects and complications that arise from the use of some methods - These
make certain methods more unpopular than others.
vi) Traditional customs and values – These oppose the artificial alteration of
reproductive processes hence hamper use of family planning methods.
vii) Embarrassment associated with the use of certain methods e.g. condoms. For this
reason, many shy away from using them.
viii) Some argue that population growth is beneficial since more people mean more
ideas, creativity and work.
ix) Some claim that population growth issues are not as critical as the high
consumption issue.
39
 x) Others maintain that population growth would level off around the global carrying
capacity of the earth. This argument is supported by the fact that food production
is increasing faster than the population growth while the average fertility rates are
decreasing.
In spite of all these counter arguments, population control efforts are being universally or
widely adopted in almost every country. These efforts including other socio-economic
factors have resulted into remarkable fertility declines during the second half of the 20 th
century. There is optimism that population growth will continue to decline and the coming
century is likely to see the end of world population growth and become the century of
population stability and perhaps, aging.

However, practical changes in the society and socio-cultural life of people may be required to
make such programmes attain success. Among these changes are improved social,
educational and economic status of women; higher values on individual children; accepting
responsibility for our own lives; social security and political stability that give people the
means and confidence to plan for the future, and knowledge e.g. availability and use of
effective and acceptable birth control methods and change in attitudes.

40
MAJOR ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

4.1 Introduction
Man‘s activities have affected the environment in a number of ways. His ability to exploit
the environment has resulted in the modification of ecosystems/environment in many parts
of the world and has given rise to a number of problems such as pollution, salinization,
depletion of resources, spread of water-borne diseases, disruption of self-building processes
of the environment e.g. self-purification capacity of water bodies etc. In Kenya such
problems are manifested in the form of deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, water
shortage and degraded water quality, flooding, poaching and domestic and industrial
pollution etc.

4.2 Pollution
This is defined as any undesirable change in the physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water, soil) which can cause
harmful/undesirable effects on various forms of life including humans or damage to property.

Types of environmental pollution:

a). Water pollution (Surface-inland and marine waters and underground water)
b). Air pollution
c). Soil pollution
d). Noise pollution
e). Thermal pollution
f). Nuclear hazards

4.2.1 Water pollution

 Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies (e.g. lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers
and groundwater). It occurs when pollutants (chemicals, biological and physical agents)
are discharged directly or indirectly into water bodies without adequate treatment to
remove harmful compounds/ agents leading to undesirable/ harmful effect on living
organisms or reduced suitability for desired uses.
 Water pollution can be due to natural or human activities.
 Natural sources include soil erosion, leaking of mineral from rocks and decaying of
organic matter while man-made sources include domestic, agricultural and industrial
activities.
 Many water system have become waste receptacles i.e. dumping ground for wastes

Sources and types of water pollutants

Sources of pollutants
Pollutants can be discharged into the water system either through:
(i) Point-source pollution- These are source of water pollution in which the discharge of
pollutants occurs directly into water via a single point e.g. pipe or ditch. They are
easier to identify, monitor, measure, and control. Sewage discharge, industrial
discharge, oil well located near water bodies, power plants, underground coal mines
are examples of this category.
(ii) Non-point pollution- They are sources of pollution which do not have any specific
location for discharge i.e. the discharge are scattered and diffuse. They are difficult to
identify and control. Examples- run-off from agricultural fields, feedlots, lawns,
41
 gardens, construction sites, roads and streets, atmospheric deposition e.g. acid
deposition, seepage into groundwater etc.
Types water pollutants
(i) Pathogens (disease causing agents)-include bacteria, viruses, protozoa, worms
(parasites). These come from raw sewage and animal waste and they may be
responsible for 80% of the disease in developing countries. Measured by the amount
of colliform bacteria present.
(ii) Oxygen demanding organic wastes: can be decomposed by aerobic bacteria. Cause a
reduction in dissolved oxygen, suffocating oxygen-consuming organisms (fish).
Measured by biological oxygen demand (BOD) in mg/l.
(iii)Water-soluble inorganic chemicals, including acids, salts, and metals. Make water
unfit to consume and use for irrigation. Also can harm organisms and cause material
corrosion.
(iv) Inorganic plant nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) from fertilizers. Cause excessive
algal and plant growth that lower oxygen levels when they decompose.
(v) Organic chemicals, including oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, solvents, detergents.
Present health risks to humans and other organisms.
(vi) Water-soluble radioactive isotopes: These (and many other chemicals) often bio-
accumulate in fish and other organisms at the top of the food chain. Ionising
radiations emitted by such isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer and genetic
damages. Examples- uranium, plutonium etc.
(vii) Sediment or suspended matter (particulates) from soil and other solids. Disrupt
photosynthesis and transports large amounts of other, adsorbed pollutants. Also silt
up lakes, rivers, and reservoirs, increasing flood risk.
(viii) Thermal pollution: from the cooling of industrial and power plants. Lowers solubility
of oxygen and makes organisms more susceptible to other pollution types.
(ix) Genetic pollution caused by the introduction of non-native or exotic species.
 Large amounts of nutrient-rich agricultural runoff and other human discharges cause
cultural eutrophication. This result in algal blooms, oxygen depletion, and fish kills.
 Groundwater takes the longest recovery times from pollution due to low flow,
dispersion and dilution, colder temperatures, and lower bacteria levels. May take
thousands of years to cleanse itself of degradable wastes and non-degradable waste is
permanent. For all intents and purposes, once groundwater is polluted, it stays that
way indefinitely.
 Oceans are capable of diluting, dispersing, and degrading huge amounts of pollutants,
particularly in the deep ocean. Shallow continental shelves much more susceptible to
pollution impacts and environmental degradation. The most polluted areas are coastal
regions where raw sewage and industrial wastes are dumped directly into the water.
Ocean pollution can be reduced by separating sewage and storm runoff, improving
sewage treatment of the waste that is dumped, restricting ocean dumping, regulating
and restricting coastal development and industrialization, requiring double hulls for
oil tankers, recycling used oil, and improving oil cleanup techniques
 Biomagnification- the entry of non-biodegradable chemicals in small concentrations
and their accumulation into greater concentrations in the various levels of food chain.
Non-biodegradable pesticides such as DDT widely use in crop production and in
control of vectors such as mosquitoes enter the food chain and their concentrations
keep on increasing with each trophic level leading to higher concentration in the
higher organism up the trophic level.

42
  Bio-concentration-A process leading to higher concentration of a substance in an
organism than in the environmental media to which it is exposed. The accumulation
of chemical in the tissue of the organism is as a result of direct exposure to the
surrounding media (e.g. water) and does not include dietetary transfer.
 Bioaccumulation-the process by which chemicals are taken up by organism either
directly from exposure to a contaminated medium or consumption of food or water
containing the chemical. Therefore the accumulation could be through any route
including respiration, ingestion or direct contact with the contaminated medium.
Preventing and control of water pollution
Nonpoint Sources
Leading cause of water pollution is agriculture.
 Need to control runoff and reduce use of chemical pesticides, herbicides, and
fertilizers.
 Use natural, organic, and biological methods to replace these where possible.
 Plant vegetation buffer zones around fields to filter runoff.
 Recycle animal wastes for fertilizer.
 Control soil erosion (and many other problems that are caused by soil erosion) by re-
vegetation.
Point Sources
In most of the world sewage and industrial wastes are not required to be treated. In developed
countries most of this is required by law to be treated to some extent.
 Formulating and enforcement of laws –provide the regulatory basis for controlling
surface water pollution. In order to do this laws will have to be strengthened and by
providing more funds for monitoring and enforcement.
 Individual septic systems need to be upgraded and maintained regularly.
 In urban areas, storm and sewage lines need to be separated so storm runoff doesn't
cause system to overflow and raw sewage to be dumped into surface waters.
 Urban waste should undergo both primary (screening and filtering of solids) and
secondary (aeration, bacterial decomposition of organics, and disinfection) sewage
treatment.

4.2.2 Air pollution

To stay alive, we must inhale about 20,000 litres of air each day. This air contains N 2 and O 2
which makes up 99% of the atmosphere, each breath also contains small amounts of other
gases, minute droplets of various liquids and tiny particulate matter.
Vertical Thermal Structure of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere has a vertical thermal structure as well as a vertical pressure structure. It is
divided into layers according to the behaviour of temperatures in relationship to altitude.
From the surface of the Earth upwards, it is divided into four layers.
(i). The troposphere
This is the lowest layer in which we live and in which our weather is experienced.
"Troposphere" means the realm of mixing, because air is vigorously mixed and stirred here
by storms, convection, and wind systems.
 It extends up roughly 10 km (about 6 miles high).
 It is characterized by an inverse relationship between air temperatures and altitude:
Temperatures drop as you climb up in the troposphere.

43
  The tropopause forms the inter-phase between the troposphere and the next layer i.e.
the stratosphere, temperatures stop dropping with gains in altitude( temperature
becomes constant).
(ii).The stratosphere
 It extends from the tropopause up to about 50 km.
 It is characterized by a direct relationship between temperatures and. The warming
with altitude in the stratosphere attributed to the presence of the ozone layer in the
stratosphere. Ozone absorbs high energy, shortwave, ultraviolet radiation from the sun
heating up the absorbing object, accounting for the climb in temperatures with a climb
in altitude.
(iii). The mesosphere (above stratopause)
 It extends up from the stratopause to about 80 km.
 It is characterized by resumption of an inverse relationship between temperature and
altitude: Temperatures drops to nearly -100° C (~200° F). This is the coldest layer in
the atmosphere.
(iv). The thermosphere.
 It is characterized by a direct relationship between temperature and altitude.
 Temperatures get up to 725° - 1,225° C.
 The thermosphere is further subdivided on the basis of physico- chemistry
a. The ionosphere-The lower thermosphere and it extends from roughly 80 km to
around 300 to 600 km out. It is the first line of defense for Earth against
extremely short wave radiation (e.g., UV-B and UV-C) and, to a lesser extent,
high energy particles from the sun and cosmic rays. Another side effect is that
the ionosphere absorbs and reflects radio waves thus allowing radio
communication.
b. The exosphere – the outer layer of the thermosphere and lies beyond about
500-1,000 km. It is characterized by increasing hydrogen and helium content,
because the oxygen and nitrogen that dominate the lower atmosphere have
been dissociated into ions in the ionosphere.

Figure 10: Vertical thermal stratification of the atmosphere

44
Sources of air pollution
Can be divided into: (i). Natural and (ii) Anthropogenic sources
 Natural sources include volcanic eruptions, dusts from storm, forest fires, and pollen
grains
 Anthropogenic sources result from energy use e.g. from combustion of fossil fuels
such as coal, oil, natural gas, by industries, hydro-electric power generation,
agricultural activities e.g. intensification of livestock production, waste disposal,
pesticide use etc
Types of air pollutants
Air pollutants come in the form of gases and finely divided solid and liquid aerosols.
Aerosols are loosely defined as ―any solid or liquid particles suspended in the air‖.

Air pollutants can also be classified into primary or secondary.

a). Primary pollutants
Primary pollutants are harmful chemicals emitted directly into the atmosphere as a result
of human activities e.g. power generating plants (using coal) inform of (CO) or
completely, (CO 2 ) and also natural events e.g. emission of SO 2 from volcanic eruption or
anthropogenic activities e.g. burning of fossil fuels with sulphur impurities.
b). Secondary pollutants
These are pollutants formed in the atmosphere by chemical interaction, among primary
air pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. Examples of a secondary pollutant
include ozone, which is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NO x )
combine in the presence of sunlight; NO 2 , which is formed as NO combines with oxygen
in the air; and acid rain, which is formed when sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides react
with water.
Biophysical effects of air pollution
(1). Global warming and climate change
 Global warming is the trapping of heat between the earth‘s surface-troposphere
systems in response to greenhouse effect due to the presence of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere. This phenomena can be enhanced as a result of increased
concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere as a result of human activities.
 Climate is generally defined as the average state of the atmosphere for a given time
scale usually a decade or more for a specified geographical region.
 Climate change- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate
change as a change in the state of the climate that can be identified statistically by
changes in the mean and/or the variability of its properties and that persists for an
extended period, typically decades or longer. This change may be due to natural
internal processes or external forcings, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the
composition of the atmosphere or in land use.
 On the contrary United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) defines climate change as a change attributed directly or indirectly to
human activities that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and that is in
addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods/
 Greenhouse gases- They are the gaseous constituents of the atmosphere both natural
and anthropogenic that absorbs and emit radiation at specific wavelength within the
spectrum of IR-radiation emitted by the earth‘s surface, the atmosphere and clouds.
45
 This property causes greenhouse effect. Water vapour, carbon dioxide, methane,
nitrogen dioxide and ozone are the primary GHGs in the atmosphere. Other human
made GHGs in the atmosphere include sulphur hexafluoride (SF 6 ), Hydro
fluorocarbon (HFCs) and per fluorocarbons (PFCs) and CFCs
 Greenhouse effect- Greenhouse gases effectively absorb IR-radiation emitted by the
earth‘s surface by the atmosphere itself due to the same gases and by clouds.
Atmospheric radiation is emitted in all direction including downward to the earth‘s
surface. Thus, the trapping of heat within the earth‘s surface-troposphere system by
the primary GHGs naturally present in the atmosphere is known as natural
greenhouse effect.

Figure 11: Natural greenhouse effect

An increase in the concentration of GHGs leads to an increased IR opacity of the atmosphere

and therefore to an effective radiation into space from a high attitude at lower temperature.
This cause radiative forcing, an imbalance that can only be compensated for, by an increase
of temperature of the surface-troposphere system, a phenomenon known as enhanced
greenhouse effect (Fig 15).

46
Figure 12: Enhanced greenhouse effect
Table 6: Relative contribution of greenhouse gases to the greenhouse effect
Greenhouse gas % contribution
Carbon dioxide (CO) 2 55
Methane (CH4 ) 15
CFCs 11 & 12 17
Other CFCs 7
Nitrous oxide (N 2 O) 6

Effects of global warming

i. Climate change- Dry places may become drier and wet places wetter due to
convectional rainfall leading to flooding and violent storms.
ii. Extreme weather events such as El Niño and flooding, droughts
iii. Increased heat waves resulting from increase surface temperatures causing deaths of
organisms and people taken ill from heat stroke especially in temperate regions
iv. Melting of mountain and polar ice and glaciers. This cause sea level rise increasing
floods risk of low lying coastal areas, loss of beaches, property and life. It estimated
that 15% of the habitable land mass will be lost by 2050 including some major cities
like Bombay, London, Shangai, Bangladesh delta, Japan and Egypt will be wiped out.
v. Increase of disasters- Increase in seas temperature will trigger typhoons/hurricanes/
cyclones
vi. Pests and diseases (mosquitoes, ticks etc), that thrive well under warm condition will
increase and there will be increase incidences of human and animal diseases
vii. Reduction in food production- due to changing climate, climate pattern becomes
unreliable and difficult to predict and this will lead to food insecurity. This can also
lead to environmental refugee that could escalate to conflict over resource use.
viii. Loss of biodiversity through natural selection as those species that cannot cope/adapt
to the changing conditions will be eliminated to extinction e.g. polar bears due to
habitat loss.

Mitigation and control of global warming

47
  Ban the use of CFCs and encouraging people to use of environmentally friendly
substances as refrigerants and propellants.
 Adoption and use of CDMs as stipulated in the Kyoto protocol, e.g. use of solar
energy, wind, hydropower etc instead of fossil fuel.
 Afforestation and reforestation- enhance carbon sequestration
 Use of pooled transport of people and cycling to reduce vehicle emissions
 Shift to energy efficient engines e.g. electric cars, solar cars, alcohol cars etc
 Judicious use of agrochemicals such as nitrogenous fertilizers
 Use of three-way catalytic converter in the car engines to change hydrocarbons into
carbon dioxide and water

(2). Acid rain

Industrial, agricultural and other anthropogenic activities have greatly modified the global
Bio-geochemical cycles of nitrogen (N) and sulphur (S). It has been indicated that humans
have doubled the natural rate of N fixation, and atmospheric N deposition rates have
increased between 3 to more than 10 times, compared to pre-industrial times.

Several environmental problems are directly related to disturbance of the S and N cycles;
these include acidification and eutrophication of soils and water. Large-scale acidification
was identified as an important environmental problem in North America and Europe about 30
years ago. More recently, acidification has also been recognized as a potential threat to
ecosystems in other parts of the world

Normal rainfall is moderately acidic with pH of 5.6, this acidity results from dissolution of
atmospheric CO 2 by the raindrops.

The H+ concentration in a solution is usually expressed in the chemical term pH.

pH = - log10 (H+)

Thus, for (H+) = 10-2 moles/L, pH = 2

Similarly, a pH value of 8.3 corresponds to a (H+) = 10-8.3 mole/L

The primary pollutants contributing to acid formation are SO 2 and NOx (NO & NO 2
collectively designated as NOx) which are basically pollutants from the transport, industry
and energy sectors.

Formation of acid deposition

a). Sulphurous and sulphuric acids

SO2 is emitted from natural and anthropogenic sources and dissolves in cloud water to
produce sulphurous acid:

SO2+ H2O H2SO3 H+ + HSO3

Sulphurous acid can be oxidized in the gas or aqueous phase by various oxidants

SO2 SO3

SO3 + H2 O H2 SO4
48
As acid, SO 2

 acidifies lakes and streams

 destroys plant and fish life in lakes and streams
 may deplete mineral nutrients in the soil
 may cause reduction of forest and agricultural yields
 corrodes metals, structures made of limestone, deterioration of leatherworks
 Damages surfaces of buildings.

b). Nitric and nitrous acid formation

NO and NO 2 are produced in the combustion processes and lightning. They are involved in
many chemical reactions some of which produce acid pollution e.g. nitric and nitrous acids
may be produced:

2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2

i) Corrosion of buildings in urban areas- acid rain dissolves cement and

limestone, this leads crumbling of buildings therefore may cause loss of life and
property
ii) Reduced visibility- chemical processes of NO 2 may generate ozone in the
troposphere causing photochemical smog; it is the reddish brown haze caused by
presence of NO 2 (nitrogen dioxide) which reduces visibility. The most destructive
components are ozone and peroxyacetylnitrates (PANs).

NO2 Light NO + O

Ozone is a strong photochemical oxidant; a highly reactive chemical, it erodes rubber; it

irritates the respiratory system and damages trees.
O + O2 O3
iii) Soil acidification:
The process of soil acidification has multiple effects:

 Aluminum ions are toxic to plant roots.

 Hydrogen ions may cause direct injury to plant roots.
 Indirect effects may occur by decreasing nutrient availability at low pH (e.g. solubility
of various phosphates and trace elements decreases with pH).
 Several microbiological processes such as nitrogen fixation and mycorrhizal activity
are disrupted at low pH, and plants may become more susceptible to attack by soil
pathogens.
iv) Loss of aquatic biodiversity
Lowering of pH of the aquatic environment leads to death of species

v) Forest damage –
Tree leaves may suffer chlorosis; this may affect photosynthesis resulting into death trees.

49
Mitigation (Control) Measures of acid precipitation
a. Reduce emission of SO2 and NOx from fossil fuels- applying available control
technologies to reduce their emission and also by improving the efficiency the motor
vehicle engines and that of industries
b. Alternative energy sources – promote use of solar energy powered cars e.g. in
German some members of Green movement use them, promote solar energy use at
domestic level and use energy efficient stoves

(3). Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone (O3 )

Ozone (O 3 ) is a colourless, poisonous gas with a sharp, cold, irritating odour.

Ozone can be found in:

 The stratosphere, one of the upper layers of the atmosphere, where it occurs naturally
and is considered to be of beneficial nature as it keeps harmful excessive ultraviolet
sunlight from reaching the surface of the Earth.
 The troposphere, the lowest layer of the atmosphere, where it occurs both naturally
and as a result of human-generated emissions. It is from this point of view that ozone
is an air pollutant and by extension a secondary pollutant because it is produced by
the reaction of primary pollutants, nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons [including
VOCs], in the presence of sunlight. The tropospheric ozone is the main component of
the photochemical smog. A photochemical smog (of brown-yellow colour) is a
product of the chemical reaction between sunlight, nitrogen oxides and VOCs, which
results in the formation of ozone and airborne particles.

The process of ozone formation may take several days to complete, and ozone itself may turn
out to be far from the sources of original primary pollutant emissions.

Uses of Ozone

1. Ozone is a strong oxidant, it destroys microorganisms, and it is used in wastewater

treatment.
2. It prevents most of the Ultra- violet radiations (UV) from reaching earth‘s surface.
High concentration of ozone gas is found between 12- 25 km from the earth‘s surface
that layer is called stratosphere.
Formation of Ozone

1. O 2 UV (O) + (O)

Absorption of high frequency wavelength (UV of 200-300 nm) splits oxygen molecule
into 2 oxygen atoms.

2. (O) + O 2 + M O3 + M

Reactive atom o oxygen combines with molecule of oxygen and ozone is formed in
presence of inert gas M (M may be N 2 in excess of O 3 to prevent decomposition of O 3 ).

50
 3. O 3 UV O2 + O

In absence of M decomposition of zone occurs this results in removal of ozone from the
atmosphere

Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion

i) Aviation e.g. supersonic transport operating at height sufficient enough to cause

interference with ozone protective layer. In the engines of these jets:
High temperature

N 2 + O2 2NO

In the Engine

The ozone layer is depleted by:

NO + O3 NO2 + O2

ii) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)

CFCs were manufactured to replace SO 2 and NH3 as refrigerants. When they were
discovered every body thought they were safe, non-flammable and easy to manufacturer.
CFCs have high persistence (CFC- 11 can persist for 10 years); can fuse upwards into the
atmosphere without being broken. As they reach stratosphere they react with UV
radiation.

The dominant compounds are 2: -

CFC- 11; Trichlorofluoromethane (Cl3 FC)

CFC- 12; Dichlorofluoromathane (Cl2 F2 C)

Unit digit stands for the No. of Fluorine atoms and tenth digit No. of carbon atoms.

Reactions of CFCs

CFC- 11; Cl3 FC UV CFCl2 + Cl

Both produce Cl radical

CFC- 12; Cl2 F2 C UV CF2 Cl + Cl

Chlorine radical destroy ozone in a chain reaction

Cl + O 3 ClO + O 2

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 2ClO Cl2 + O2

Cl2 Cl + Cl

iii) Nitrous Oxide (N 2 O)

N2O + O3 NO2 + O2

iv) Hydrogen (H2 )

H2 H+H

H + O3 OH + O 2

52
Effects of ozone layer depletion
Ozone in the troposphere can have the following negative effects on animals (including
humans) and the natural environment:

 Irritation of the respiratory system causing coughing, throat irritation and an

uncomfortable sensation in the chest
 Susceptibility to respiratory infections
 Compromised lung function harming the breathing process which may become more
rapid and more shallow than normal
 Inflammation and damage to the lining of the lungs
 Aggravation of asthma
 Reduction in agricultural yields
 Interference with photosynthesis and suppression of growth of some plant species
 Increased cases of melanomic and non-melanomic skin cancer because of increase
penetration of UV rays
 Increase in eye cataract
 Severe sunburns
 Suppression of immune system
 Increase in photochemical smog

Mitigation and control Measures

1) Reduce production and usage of CFCs-putting in place legislation.
2) The use of CFCs is declining because of the agreement signed to reduce the production
of CFCs by ½ in 1987.
3) In countries e.g. UK people are discouraged from using CFCs containing sprays
4) CFCs are being phased out of production, but the problem is there are no suitable
alternatives.

53
HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT

5.1 The human dimension to environmental quality

Many aspects of human well-being are influenced by the environment, and many diseases can
be initiated, promoted, sustained, or stimulated by environmental factors. For this reason, the
interactions of people with their environment are an important component of public health.

Pressures on the environment in the form of pollutant emissions and /or discharge, resource
depletion, land-use changes and others affect environmental quality (the "state" of the
environment). Degradation of environmental quality can, in turn, lead to adverse human
exposures and eventual health effects.

Because the environment is considered to exist in one of the three forms- gaseous, liquid or
solid, each of these is subject to pollution, and people interact with all of them in one way or
another. Particulates and gases are often released into the atmosphere, sewage and liquid
wastes are discharged into water and solid wastes, particularly plastics and toxic chemicals,
are disposed of on land. This makes air, water and food to be principal platforms through
which human are exposed to environmental health hazards. Therefore, there are three major
routes of human exposure to environmental hazards. These are:

i) Skin- contact with the agent

ii) Lungs- inhalation of agent
iii) Gastrointestinal tract (GIT)- ingestion of agent

WATER

GIT Skin

Lungs GIT
AIR FOOD
HUMAN WELL-
Skin BEING

Skin GIT

SOIL

Figure 13: Routes of human exposure through the gaseous, liquid, and
solid environment

Definition of concepts
Exposure: is in any condition which provides an opportunity for an external environmental
agent to enter the body.

Agent: is any chemical, physical or biological material capable of eliciting biological

response.
54
Health:
 The condition of being sound in body, mind or spirit
 A flourishing condition or well-being—not just the absence of disease OR
 A state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity −WHO. (1948).

Hazard: it is a process, event, a substance/ group of substances, compounds that have the
potential to cause harm, injury or even death or damage to property upon exposure to it

Environmental health:
 It is the segment of public health that is concerned with assessing, understanding, and
controlling the impacts of people on their environment and the impacts of the
environment on them.
 It comprises those aspects of human health, including quality of life, that are
determined by physical, biological, social, and psychosocial factors in the
environment. It also refers to the theory and practice of assessing, correcting,
controlling, and preventing those factors in the environment that can potentially affect
adversely human health for the present and future generations.

Environmental health hazards

 Chemical hazard- chemical contaminants include toxic wastes and pesticides in the
general environment, chemicals used in the home and in industrial operations, and
preservatives used in foods
 Physical hazard- Physical factors that influence health and well-being range from injuries
and deaths caused by accidents exposure to excessive noise, heat, and cold and to the
harmful effects of ionizing and non-ionizing radiation.
 Biological hazards- biological contaminants include various disease causing organisms
that may be present in food and water or air, those that can be transmitted by insects and
animals, and those that can be transmitted by person-to-person contact

5.1.1 Air pollution (Indoor and outdoor)

When inhaled, air pollutants affect the lung and respiratory tract; they are also taken up by
the blood and transported throughout the body. And since air pollutants are deposited on soil
and plants and in water, they can contribute to further human exposure if contaminated food
and water are ingested. Indoor air pollution can be particularly hazardous to health because it
is released in close proximity to people. The most prominent source of indoor air pollution in
developing countries is household use of biomass and coal for heating and cooking, usually
involving open fires or stoves without proper chimneys.

A large number of studies in recent years have shown remarkable consistency in the
relationship observed between changes in daily ambient suspended particulate levels and
changes in daily mortality. Two different methods for estimating the total global mortality
from suspended particulate air pollution exposures arrive at very similar total numbers (i.e. 3
million and 2.7 million), with indoor air pollution accounting for the vast majority of total
deaths. Other air pollutants of health concern include ozone (O 3 ), environmental tobacco
smoke (ETS) and ionizing radiation. ETS is on the increase; in adult non-smokers, chronic
exposure to ETS increases mortality from lung cancer by between 20% and 30%.

55
 5.1.2 Household wastes
Poorly managed wastes, specifically excreta, liquid and solid wastes from households and the
community represent a serious health threat. Waste from industries and agriculture can also
cause serious health risks. Human faeces are dangerous to human health everywhere because
of the pathogens they contain. Ingestion of faecal pathogens can cause diarrhoeal disease,
cholera, intestinal worm infections and typhoid fever.

Solid wastes can come into direct or indirect contact with human beings at several stages in
the waste cycle. The health risks of uncollected solid waste are obviously most severe for
those actually living in unserved areas. Notable, pre-school children in developing countries
are at risk of injury, intoxication or infection since they are likely to be exposed to
uncollected waste in streets or at unofficial dump sites. But even if solid waste is collected, it
may create health risks for large numbers of people if disposed of improperly. Groundwater
used for drinking purposes, for instance, can become chemically or microbiologically
polluted if wastes are disposed of in or near water sources.

Recycling, too, although in principle a good approach to waste management, carries health
risks if proper precautions are not taken. Waste workers dealing with recycling of waste that
has a high metal or chemical content may experience toxic exposures, while in developing
countries "scavengers" who comb waste sites for articles that can be recycled and reused may
sustain injuries and come into direct contact with infectious dusts and disease vectors, such as
rats and flies.

5.1.3 Water
Adequate supply of safe drinking-water is universally recognized as a basic human need. Yet
more than 1000 million people do not have ready access to an adequate and safe water
supply, and a variety of physical, chemical and biological agents render many water sources
less than wholesome and healthy.

Today, more than 800 million of those unserved live in rural areas. Water supply also varies
widely in terms of region and country. For instance, urban areas generally have higher
coverage than rural areas. Even within areas, inequitable distribution can be very marked. In
cities, water is often provided to districts whose populations can pay for services.

Water pollution, whether it involves sewage, nutrients, synthetic organics, acidification or

specific chemicals, has a direct bearing on human health. Sewage, in addition to upsetting the
ecological balance of rivers and lakes, also carries microbial pathogens. Other nutrients
contaminate groundwater sources with nitrates, with the result that nitrate levels in drinking-
water often exceed the safe levels recommended by WHO. The most dangerous can
bioaccumulate in fish and shellfish which, if consumed, may be hazardous to human health.
Acidification contributes to high levels of heavy metals in drinking-water where metals in
soil and water distribution pipes are mobilized by acidified groundwater.

Untreated sewage, industrial effluents and agricultural waste are frequently discharged into
inland waterways, lakes and coastal zones, endangering the health of those who use these
water bodies for recreational purposes such as swimming, canoeing and windsurfing.
Recreational exposure to polluted waters can cause diarrhoea, respiratory infections, skin
irritation and other diseases, depending on the specific pollutants involved.

56
Finally, the aquatic environment provides an essential habitat for the mosquito vectors and
intermediate snail hosts of parasites that cause human diseases. Accelerated development of
water resources has led to habitat modifications and ecological conditions that favour certain
disease vectors. Health issues linked to irrigation development have become a particular
focus of attention, but increased transmission is also linked to the construction of dams and
reservoirs, to changes in land-use patterns and to poor water management in urban areas. The
most important water-related vector-borne diseases affected by development projects in
recent decades include malaria, schistosomiasis, dengue fever, filariasis and Japanese
encephalitis.

5.1.4 Food
Food is essential to a healthy life, but it can also be a major route of exposure for many
pathogens and toxic chemicals. These contaminants may be introduced into food during
cultivation, harvesting, processing, storage, transportation and final preparation. Inspection
and monitoring of food quality are therefore necessary to ensure food safety.

The increasing interdependency and complexity of our food supply mean that even the best
control systems are becoming strained, however. Food borne disease is now a widespread and
growing threat to human health, and a major cause of reduced economic productivity. Health
impacts range from mild indisposition to life-threatening illness. The people most affected
are the poor, who are also vulnerable to lack of food and under nutrition.

Biological and chemical agents in food represent the two major types of food borne hazard.
Biological agents tend to pose acute hazards with incubation periods of a few hours to several
weeks before the onset of disease, whereas chemical hazards usually involve long-term, low-
level exposures.

Many chemical hazards in food are produced naturally by organisms in the environment.
Others are inherent components of food itself. Yet other potentially hazardous chemicals are
produced during processing. Pollutants such as lead, cadmium and polychlorinated biphenyls
(PCBs) in air, water and soil can also lead to high levels of toxic chemicals in food.

5.1.5 Soil
Exposure to hazards in soil can occur, for instance, when farmers till agricultural soil, when
children play in schoolyards, or when dust from dry fields is blown into populated areas.
Additionally, deposition of biological, chemical or radioactive hazards on or in soil can lead
to indirect exposures following use of contaminated groundwater for drinking-water, or
consumption of food grown on contaminated soil.

Direct contact with soil or soil dust that has been contaminated with helminth eggs is a major
source of exposure to intestinal worm infection. Soil can also harbour many other parasites
and microbes, which can survive for long periods in spite of large variations in soil
temperature and humidity. Neonatal tetanus (NT) is a common example of an associated
disease. Tetanus spores infect humans through direct contact with soil or dirt; in developing
countries, childbirth in impoverished conditions often leads to NT.

5.1.6 Housing
Housing is of central importance to quality of life. Ideally, it minimizes disease and injury,
and contributes much to physical, mental and social well-being. The home environment

57
should also afford protection against the hazards to health arising from the physical and social
environment.

Numerous factors in the home environment may influence health negatively, though. Lack of
access to piped water or a nearby stand-pipe, and lack of sanitary facilities, is often
considered key indicators of "unhealthy" housing, leading to high disease burdens, in both
urban and rural areas. Factors such as high levels of noise, poor indoor air quality, inadequate
refuse storage and collection facilities, poor food storage and preparation facilities,
temperature extremes and high humidity, overcrowding, poor lighting, inadequate or
inappropriate construction material, building defects and pests may also influence health
significantly.

Crowded, cramped conditions, for instance, facilitate transmission of diseases including

tuberculosis, influenza, meningitis, diarrheal diseases and measles. Some evidence suggests
that women's health is more likely to be adversely affected by crowding than that of men. If
crowding combines with poor-quality housing materials, incidence of injuries and accidents
rises significantly.

5.1.7 The workplace (Occupational hazards)

In favourable circumstances, work contributes to good health and economic achievement.
However, the work environment exposes many workers to health hazards that contribute to
injuries, respiratory diseases, cancer, musculoskeletal disorders, reproductive disorders,
allergies, cancer, mental and neurological illnesses, psychological stress, eye damage and
hearing loss, as well as to communicable diseases.

Mechanical hazards, unshielded machinery, unsafe structures in the workplace and dangerous
tools are some of the most prevalent workplace hazards in developed and developing
countries alike. Approximately 30% of the workforce in developed countries and between
50% and 70% in developing countries may be exposed to a heavy physical workload or
ergonomically poor working conditions.

Exposure to some 200 biological agents, viruses, bacteria, parasites, fungi, moulds and
organic dusts occurs in selected occupational environments. Physical factors in the workplace
such as noise, vibration, ionizing and non-ionizing radiation and microclimatic conditions can
also affect health adversely if not controlled. Occupational chemical exposures are another
area of increasing concern. About 100 000 different chemical products are in use in modern
work environments and the number is growing.

With economic development many countries have experienced a shift from the hazards that
characterized work in agriculture, mining and other primary industries, to those that
characterize manufacturing industries or service industries. New occupational disease
problems have emerged and incidence of reported occupational disease has accordingly
increased in certain developed countries.

58
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ENVIRONMENT

6.1 The concept of sustainable development

Sustainable development is the ―development that meets the needs of the present generation
without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs and
aspirations (WCED, 1987. This definition implies that sustainable development involves
policies, strategies and programmes that do not make it more difficult for the development
process to be continued by future generations.
United Nation Environment Programme (UNEP, 1992) put forward the following relevant
definitions: -
 ―Sustainable development means improving the quality of human life while living
within the carrying capacity of supporting ecosystems‖.
 ―Sustainable economy is the product of sustainable development: it maintains its
natural resource base and it can continue to develop by adapting to changing
circumstances and through improvements in knowledge, organization, technical
efficiency and wisdom‖.
 Sustainable living indicates the lifestyle of an individual who feels the obligation to
care for nature and for every human individual who acts accordingly‖.

6.2 Can development be truly sustainable?

Some people regard sustainable growth of any sort to be impossible because of the limits
imposed by non-renewable resources and the capacity of the biosphere to absorb our wastes.
Using ever-increasing amounts of goods and services to make human life more comfortable,
pleasant or agreeable must inevitably interfere with the survival of other species and
eventually of humans themselves in a world of fixed resources.

However, those who believe in the concept hypothesise that both technology and social
organization can be managed in ways that meet essential needs and provide long term but not
infinite growth within natural limits, if the environment is taken into consideration in
development planning. Sustainable development is said to exist if each member of each
generation inherits an equally valuable stock of capital – manmade and natural, as the
members of the earlier generation.

6.3 What sustainable development entails:

Requirements for sustainable development, according to WCED (1987) include:
(i) a political system that secures effective citizen participation;
(ii) an economic system that is able to generate surpluses and technical knowledge on a
self-reliant basis;
(iii)a social system that provides for solutions for tensions arising from disharmonious
development;
(iv) a production system that respects the obligation to preserve the ecological base for
development;
(v) a technological system that can search continuously for new solutions; an
international system that fosters sustainable patterns of trade and finance; and
(vi) An administrative system that is flexible and has the capacity for self correction.

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6.4 Principles of sustainable development
Caring for the earth, a strategy for sustainable living (UNEP, 1991) enunciated nine
principles for sustainable development:
 Respect and care for the community of life.
 Improve the quality of human life.
 Conserve the earth‘s vitality and diversity.
 Minimize the depletion of non-renewable resources.
 Keep within the earth‘s carrying capacity.
 Change personal attitudes and practices.
 Enable communities to care for their own environments.
 Provide a national framework for integration, development and conservation.
 Create a global alliance.
It is obvious that sustainable development not only entails the embodiment of environmental
concerns in development activities and technology use but also necessitates changes in
attitudes, behaviour, philosophy, moral and ethical values, religious practices and relation-
ships among human beings and between humans on the one hand and organisms or things on
the other at the local, national, regional and global levels.

6.5 Concerns for sustainable development

Environment awareness has begun to shape the direction of technological innovations and to
provide new guidelines for market behaviour. In addition, various concerns have arisen and
they include the following:
1. Equity in both time and space. According to the World Commission on
Environment and Development, WCEP (Brundtland report), a world in which
poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological and other catastrophes.
Reducing poverty requires the introduction of new knowledge and organizational
forms into the economic system. Technology and related institutional reform thus
represent a key element in achieving sustainable development.
2. Sustainable economic development. This is essential for meeting basic needs and
to assure that the poor get a fair share of the resources they require. Such equity
cannot be achieved in the absence of political systems that secure effective citizen
participation in decision making and by greater democracy in international decision
making.
3. Choice. This is a critical element in technological and economic evolution.
Societies determine their own future. The choice with respect to technology
transfer is clear and compelling. Technology should not be transferred to benefiting
factions in developing countries which in return profit the suppliers of the
technology by supplying commodities to be consumed in developed countries.
Instead the capacity of the population in developing countries should be increased
in order for them to solve their problems and provide for their own needs.
4. Diversity of functional units. Diversity is essential for the creation of new
systems. It is the principal condition of innovation, adaptation and change. This
includes diversity in biological, technological and cultural issues. This enhances
the capacity of societies to integrate novel technologies into external systems and to
avoid imposition of particular technologies where no infrastructure exists to
assimilate them. Local initiatives and priorities provide the essential basis for
external assistance – thus technology transfer is properly understood since
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 sustainability also depends on practicability given the local experience, institutions,
economic structures, knowledge and ecological criteria.

6.6 Constraints on sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa

Constraints on sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa are legion. Some are general
and others are sectoral or specific – some are local while others are national or regional. It
must also be admitted that prior to the adoption of the current sustainable development
paradigm, sub-Saharan Africa lagged behind other regions in food security, standard of living
and various aspects of development. Consequently, the adoption of a new development
paradigm that places more emphasis on environmental resource conservation does not
eliminate the existing constraints to development. Rather, it requires more interdisciplinary
or systems approaches, greater sensitivity to environment in policies, strategies, planning and
execution of development programmes and stringency in defining the characteristics and
nature of technologies that can be used to ensure the maintenance of environmental quality
and the conservation of natural capital stocks, which is imperative for sustainable
development. The general constraints on sustainable development are political, socio-
economic and technological in nature.
a) Political Constraints:

 The colonial legacy – At the time when explorers established contact with
Africa, the prevailing ideology in Europe was based on the Old Testament idea
that God gave man ―dominion over the fish of the sea and every living thing that
moveth upon the earth‖. Thus it was believed that humans had the right to
exploit natural resources as desired. No serious effort was made to conserve
natural resources. The establishment of colonial spheres of influence and the
arrival of Christianity dealt a death blow to the appreciation of even ecologically
sound sustainable traditional or indigenous resource management strategies,
practices, systems, attitudes and behaviour patterns in the African culture. This
was most pronounced where these practices were applied as taboos associated
with traditional African religion. With colonialism came changes in the African
perspective of looking at things. Westernization and the propensity for
consumption patterns of a more materialistic kind that are satisfied only with
imports of foods and manufactured goods, leading to increasing dependence on
the developed countries.
 Political instability – No sustainable development can be achieved in sub-
Saharan Africa with the kind of endemic political instability that has been
rampart. Although inter-tribal wars were in existence before colonial
administrations were established, colonialism fuelled it by divide and rule
policies prior to independence leading to incompatibilities and unequal
development among different areas or peoples lumped together in the same
country. Coups and frequent changes in government have resulted in
inconsistencies in policies and development programmes and a lack of continuity
in development activities, all of which are incompatible with sustainable
development.
 Corruption and deficiencies in governance – One aspect of modernization is
the collusion between the elite or politicians in power in African countries with
businessmen or agents of the former colonial powers and other countries to
ensure that certain development activities are executed in ways that are of mutual

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 benefit to the individuals or businesses involved, often to the detriment of the
common people in the African countries concerned. It is also well known that
while some African countries are unable to allocate funds to vital development
projects, some of the politicians are busy stashing millions of dollars in foreign
banks. Related problems are a lack of accountability, waste, a lack of grassroots
democratic institutions and participation in decision-making.
 Deficiencies in planning – Sustainable development necessitates the adoption of
holistic or systems approaches, which call for multidisciplinary interaction
involving all relevant disciplines and ministries simultaneously working together
in the planning process in an integrated manner. In sustainable development,
environmental concerns are best integrated into the programme at the planning
stage.
 Inappropriate policies and strategies – Concern about the environment must
be embodied in development policies and strategies. Policies must be formulated
in relation to the objectives to be achieved and the strategies to be adopted must
aim at a range of alternative strategy options that ensure conservation of
resources and as far as possible enhancement of the quality of the resource base.
 Deficiencies in legal and legislative support of development Programmes –
There is a need for economic incentives and legal and legislative instruments as a
backup for development projects in which maintenance of environment quality
and the conservation of resources are given high priority. This would ensure
achievement of resource conservation and environmental quality and to take the
necessary measures to enforce compliance.
 Lack of effective regional integration and collaboration in development –
Since the 1960‘s when many African countries became independent, all regional
organizations such as the CCTA (Commission for Technical Cooperation in
Africa), EAFFRO (East African Freshwater Fisheries Research Organization)
and related inter-territorial research organizations have broken down. This is
also the case in trade and sometimes also in the sharing and exchange of
information on natural resources management and utilization. Even political and
economic organizations such as AU (African Union), ECA (Economic
Commission for Africa) and ECOWAS (Economic Community of West African
States) rarely function as well as intended.
b) Socio-Economic Constraints

 Socioeconomic constraints on sustainable development include deficiencies in

education and training; lack of an effective campaign of public enlightenment and
orientation, poverty, unfavourable economic conditions and limitations in
financial support.
 Sustainable development calls for environmental education at all levels, and the
development of appropriate curricula in science and technology embodying
various aspects of natural resources conservation and management. The
recommended ratio of 60:40 of students in Science and Technology to Arts and
Humanities respectively, in African schools and universities is rarely achieved at
all levels in any African country. There are also deficiencies in the education of
women, with the number of women at all levels far below the number of men,
especially in the sciences.
 With the change in development paradigm, there is need for a public
enlightenment campaign aimed at creating better awareness about sustainable
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 development, what it is, what it entails and the role of the masses in ushering it
sooner rather than later in Africa. Special training courses need to be developed
in environmental monitoring, resources inventory and environmental impact
assessment.
 The prevailing poverty and adverse economic conditions in African countries
owing to heavy debt burdens, unfavourable economic effects of structural
adjustments and several decades of continuing decline in commodity prices have
left African countries with limited funds to maintain adequate levels of relevant
research and development activities, to purchase, repair and replace scientific
equipment as well as to acquire journals and literature in relevant scientific
disciplines.
c) Technological constraints

 Development involves the application of science and appropriate technologies to

the conservation, management, processing and rational utilization of natural
resources. Many African countries have neither the critical mass of trained
personnel in many fields and at different levels, nor the institutional capacity for
the generation and adaptation of technologies in order to make them appropriate
for executing development programmes. Self-reliance and success in
development have eluded them. In the past, many development projects have
been either disappointing or total failures owing to attempts at horizontal transfer
of technologies and use of inappropriate technologies in location –specific
situations. Moreover, because sustainability was not an explicit objective of
development projects, no serious effort was made to choose and develop
technologies that ensure economic viability, ecological soundness and cultural
acceptability.

6.7 Enhancing sustainability

6.7.1 Economic policies

These include:

 Proper resource pricing – Undervalued resources are often wasted. For example,
the fact that clean air has no price may encourage pollution. The European
community now proposes levying energy taxes based on the carbon content of
fuel to control carbon dioxide emissions. Forest resources are typically
undervalued, leading to an exploitation of timber that has little development
benefit. Realistic pricing that recognizes the value of non-timber forest products,
along with conservation practices would promote sustainable development.
 Land reform – Many poor people in developing countries do not own the land
they farm. However, when people have secure rights to land and trees, they
invest in and conserve these resources. Although politically difficult to
implement, land reform policies may be an important stimulus to development.
Other policies, which facilitate land reform, include increases in land taxes;
control over inflation and investment in new knowledge or technologies.

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 6.7.2 Human oriented Policies
These include such initiatives as:

 Rural and agricultural development – Many development programmes have

neglected the poorest segments of the population. True sustainable policies
should commit public funds to providing basic services for everyone. Favouring
urban over rural development is neither practical nor sustainable. Rural and
agricultural development is essential for a society‘s general economic
development. It prevents further degradation of such natural resources as soils
and forests.
 Human development – Evidence from the performance of rapidly growing
economies indicates that investment in human development is one of the most
effective strategies. This includes providing more and better education, health
care and social services. When the responsibility for planning and executing
development programmes is moved from centralized agencies (which often lack
the information and resources to manage small activities) to community-based
operations, then local talent becomes involved and the disadvantaged benefit.
A wide range of policies can support human development, such as community-based
maternal/child, health/nutrition and family planning programmes. Urban self-help
programmes have improved urban conditions, while small credit programmes have reduced
poverty by providing seedling, credit and land to peasants.

6.7.3 Sustainability in Agriculture

These can be achieved through:

i. Improving the information bas: There are major gaps in knowledge concerning
socioeconomic costs of compelling land use demands on a declining resource; physical,
biological and economic costs of land degradation and effects of anthropogenic
distribution of minerals and chemicals on the environment, and especially on soil
microbiota and soil water. These gaps can be filled by improving methodologies for
impact assessment and establish monitoring stations at suitable sites as part of a global
network.
ii. Changing institutional mechanisms: Many countries do not have effective land use
policies to protect good agricultural land from urban development. In the developing
countries, most land use decisions are made by individual farmers and communities.
Government can influence these decisions through income related incentives.
Communities should be given an upper hand in deciding land use patterns and resource
management instead of these being imposed on them, oblivious to local needs and
perceptions. This can succeed if:
 The responsibilities and entitlement of farmers and rural communities to land is
decentralized through clear allocation of property rights.
 Commodity prices reflect full environmental costs of land use as well as giving
adequate incentives to producers.
 Once governments have set appropriate environmental standards to protect the
environment, their interventions should be kept at minimum so that markets
function efficiently.

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 6.7.4 Promoting better husbandry:
This includes promoting land saving or land protecting technologies. Those that deserve
particular attention include:
i) Introduction of new opportunities for sustainable agriculture arising
from advances in biotechnology.
ii) Wider application of ecologically sound conventional technologies.
iii) New approaches to soil conservation.
Research systems should develop technologies that are appropriate to farmer needs and
perceptions so as to build on the indigenous knowledge. This will deal with the challenge of
low uptake of technologies by farmers. Biotechnology offers a range of application for plant
and animal production – to make land use more sustainable by increasing yields and
decreasing dependency on toxic pesticides.
In soil conservation, there is need for a shift in strategy. Most soil conservation and
restoration efforts are based on physical or engineering approaches involving the use of
heavy machinery, erecting barriers to soil and water movement, etc. These actions are
expensive and are often imposed on farmers by central authorities. The present option is
centred on biological approaches to soil erosion, prevention, restoration and conservation
aimed at maintaining ground cover to protect the soil surface and using living bushes and
grasses to build up terraces. It also aims to involve farmers and local communities in the
design, implementation and maintenance of conservation schemes, and provide economic
benefits to them through higher crop yields.

6.7.5 Sustainability in Industry

There are various industrial sectors varying from food, energy, agriculture, shipping, etc. to
chemical and pharmaceutical. Majority of industrial activities are carried out by small and
medium sized companies. Sustainability can enhanced in the industrial sector through the
following:
a. Introduction of new rules and environmental constraints:This produces new
opportunities for innovative companies since they hasten the search for alternative
solutions. This does not always require the introduction of new technology – more often
it requires clever application of existing technology. Companies will use their know how
and technology assets to deal with changing rules and constraints to keep or increase their
competitive edge since many markets in various industrial sectors are growing towards a
global size, it will pay to have uniform rules in different regions of the world.
b. New course to provide new knowledge: In order to be able to cope with new
environmental conditions and rules, technical research and development departments of
companies will need a continuous refreshment of their skills pools. This calls for new
courses in schools and universities in order to provide the new knowledge for example in
areas such as;
i) How to approach issues of waste management
ii) New developments in optimizing low-waste manufacturing processes
iii) How to use biotechnology to avoid poisonous chemicals in agriculture
iv) The role of recycling in existing manufacturing processes.
c. Providing incentives: The potential for improving industrial processing and
manufacturing so as to fulfil stricter environmental requirements are vast. When
challenged by the right incentives, the industrial innovation engine, helped by industrial
research and development resources will in time produce new processes and
manufacturing concepts and reduce waste created by industry itself – more so in the field
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 of designing alternative environment friendly products to fulfil services required by
customers. The opinion and choice of the customer will have a great influence on the
speed of progress.
d. Waste minimization: It‘s applicable primarily to the intermediate stages of materials
processing. It is based on the fact that it is necessary to look at the causes of waste
generation before considering its effects. Apart from being environmental friendly, there
is substantial economic incentive in that the reduction of waste generated implies lesser
cost of waste treatment and disposal.Waste minimization involves:
i) Source reduction – this in addition to reduction of waste generated also uncovers
certain hidden inefficiencies in plant operation.
ii) Recycling – involves process analysis with a view of discovering possibilities of
the substitution of fresh reagents and solvents by the waste generated.
iii) Recovery – requires an investigation into possibilities of transforming the waste
from one industrial process into useful raw materials for other industrial
processes.
iv) Waste treatment and incineration
v) Storage and disposal of waste
Waste minimization may be enhanced by a strategy of long life goods and product life

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