Electrical Engineering in Japan, Vol. 189, No.

4, 2014
Translated from Denki Gakkai Ronbunshi, Vol. 133-B, No. 2, September 2012, pp. 157–166

A Study on Compensating Voltage Drop in Distribution Systems due to Nighttime

Simultaneous Charging of Electric Vehicles Utilizing Charging Power Adjustment
and Reactive Power Injection

YUKI MITSUKURI,1 RYOICHI HARA,1 HIROYUKI KITA,1 EIJI KAMIYA,2 SHOJI TAKI,2
NAOYA HIRAIWA,2 and EIJI KOGURE2
1 GraduateSchool of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University, Kita 14, Nishi 9,
Kita-ku, Sapporo 060-0814, Japan
2 The Tokyo Electric Power Company, Inc, 1-1-3 Uchisaiwai-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8560, Japan

SUMMARY ing concerns about energy security, sources of renewable

To reduce the environment load, electric vehicles
(EV) have been attracting attention and expectations. since
they can run with at good fuel efficiency and without ex-
haust gases. It is expected that EV will become more and
more popular. Generally, EVs would be used for driving
during daytime and be charged during the nighttime, con-
sidering lifestyle and time-of-use patterns. If most EV own-
ers adopt this use pattern, feeder voltage profiles could be
greatly affected, causing severe voltage drops. The battery
charger for EVs described in this papers consists of a self-
commutated inverter, which in principle can control not
only active power but also reactive power. We propose a
basic feeder voltage regulation algorithm, “PQ control”,
using EVs which involves adjustment of the EV charging
schedule and reactive power injection. In addition, we pro-
pose “prediction control”, which is based on “PQ control”
and is takes account of prediction of the receiving volt-
age. Advanced “communication control” regulation algo-
rithms, utilizing communication among EVs and the dis-
tribution system operator, are also proposed. The purpose
of this paper is to confirm the effectiveness of the three
proposed algorithms by simulations. C⃝ 2014 Wiley Peri-
odicals, Inc. Electr Eng Jpn, 189(4): 9–21, 2014; Published
online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com).
DOI 10.1002/eej.22558
Key words: electric vehicles; voltage drop; distribu-
tion system; dispersed voltage control.
1. Introduction
Against the background of such social issues as re-
duction of environmental impact of fossil fuels and grow-
energy are attracting increasing attention. It is expected
that the use of solar generation in power distribution sys-
tems will grow at a fast pace. One problem related to the
wider introduction of distributed power sources (including
solar generators) in distribution systems is voltage increase
caused by reverse power flow from distributed generators.
Voltage maintenance in power distribution systems at the
consumer site, which is the end system connection, is an
important part of system operation and includes measures
against the well-known problem [1] of overvoltage caused
by nonopening of capacitors installed for improvement of
the customers’ power quality at times of light load. Sev-
eral methods for solving this problem have been proposed
[2–6].
Electric vehicles (EV) have also been attracting at-
tention as a way of reducing the environmental impact
of high fuel costs and exhaust gas emissions in the near
future. A publication by the Ministry of Economy, Trade
and Industry of Japan, “Next-Generation Vehicle Strategy
2010” [7] provides target figures for next-generation motor
vehicles (including EVs) and indicates that that their num-
ber is likely to increase. The electric energy required for EV
operation will probably come from such charging sources
as households, commercial facilities, and public facilities.
This implies a considerable increase in the load on power
distribution systems. Considering today’s lifestyle and the
variable electricity tariffs dependent on the time of day,
the most likely pattern of EV use will be driving during
the day and charging during the night. If many EV owners
decide to use their vehicles according to this pattern, the
profile of distribution system use may change considerably
[8, 9]. Taking account of the effect of these changes on the
voltage profile of distribution systems, it appears important
to analyze existing methods of voltage control.

C⃝ 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

9
 The EV by itself may be regarded as a sort of
rechargeable battery. Naturally, each EV will be charged
in accordance with decisions made by the owner, but
this opens the possibility of designing control algorithms
such that EV charging (including discharging from the EV
to the distribution system) will contribute to more effi-
cient operation of the distribution system. For example,
Ref. [10] proposes a charging algorithm intended to im-
prove the load curve of the entire distribution system. Refs.
[11] and [12] investigate the shifting of EV charging times
for the purpose of minimizing distribution system losses.
When a self-commutated inverter is used for EV
charging, it is possible to functionally control not only
active power but also reactive power. Since the use of
active power in the system can strongly influence the
convenience of EV owners, it must be considered in
system design, but reactive power can be used for voltage
control within limits that do not seriously affect the
convenience of EV owners [13, 14]. Ref. [15] proposes
an algorithm for compensating the voltage drop caused
by simultaneous nighttime charging of EVs by injecting
reactive power from EVs into the distribution system. In
addition compensating the voltage drop by using EVs, it
is technically possible to limit voltage surges caused by
reverse power flow and to improve power quality.
In this paper, we propose a basic algorithm for volt-
age regulation (“PQ control”), which consists of adjusting
the EV charging schedule and injecting reactive power from
EVs. Based on the practical application of the PQ control,
we also propose “prediction control”, which is a voltage
control algorithm based on prediction of the receiving volt-
age, and “communication control”, an algorithm consisting
of exchange of information on voltage violations between
EVs and the system operator. The purpose of this investi-
gation was to confirm the effectiveness of these algorithms.
In contrast to Ref. [15], in which the output of
reactive power was examined for only one time period,
in this study we investigate the adjustment of charging
schedules covering several time periods. The method of
reactive power control proposed in Ref. [16] uses the
inverter available capacity, and therefore the inverters must
be treated as distributed power sources; but in the method
proposed in this paper, EV charging is treated as a load.
2. Voltage Control in the Distribution System using
Active and Reactive Power
2.1 Voltage control in a two-node system
The voltage drop Vs − Vr from the sending terminal
to the receiving terminal of the power system, as shown in
Fig. 1, can be approximately represented by
PR + QX
Vs − Vr ≅ , (1)
Vr
10
Fig. 1. Power system model.
Fig. 2. Distribution system model with branches.
where Vs is the voltage at the sending terminal; Vr is the
voltage at the receiving terminal; P is the active power
passing through the receiving terminal; Q is the lagging
reactive power passing through the receiving terminal; R
is the resistance of the transmission line; and X is the
reactance of the transmission line.
Therefore, the system voltage can be regulated if it is
possible to control either P or Q.
2.2 Voltage control in the distribution system
model
As can be seen in Fig. 2, an actual distribution system
consists of a primary feeder and secondary feeders (for
simplicity, in Fig. 2 the resistances of the feeders and the
impedances of the pole transformers are not shown). Here,
we consider regulation of the voltage at node #As by means
of the reactive power of nodes #As and #Bs shown in the
figure. Nodes #As and #Bs are low-voltage nodes on the
load side of the pole transformers. In accordance with Eq.
(1), the voltage drop VS − V As from #S to #As can be
calculated as
VS − V As = (VS − V A ) + (V A − V As )
XpQA Xs Q A
≅ + , (2)
VA V As
where X p and X s are the reactances of the primary and
secondary systems; Q A and Q As are the amounts of lagging
reactive power flowing into #A and #As; and V A and V As
are the voltages at nodes #A and #As.
When the reactive power at #As is changed by an
amount ΔQ, this change ΔQ is supplied along the path
#S ∼ #A ∼ #As, thus affecting the terms in Q A and Q As
in Eq. (2). Therefore, the voltage change ΔV As As at #As
due to the reactive power adjustment ΔQ at #As can be
calculated as follows if changes in the reactive power loss
are disregarded:
X p ΔQ X s ΔQ
ΔV As As ≅ + . (3)
VA V As
When the reactive power at #Bs is changed by ΔQ, this
change ΔQ is supplied along the path #S ∼ #B ∼ #Bs, thus
affecting only the term in Q A but not the term in Q As in Eq.
(2). Therefore, the voltage change ΔV As Bs at #Bs due to
the reactive power adjustment ΔQ at #As can be calculated
as follows:
X p ΔQ
ΔV As Bs ≅ . (4)
VA
Comparison of Eqs. (3) and (4) shows that the value of
ΔV As As is clearly greater than the value of ΔV As Bs .
Since the impedance of the secondary feeder is greater
than that of the primary feeder, especially in the pu system
(the square of the voltage transformation ratio), ΔV As As
is much greater than ΔV As Bs . This means that voltage
regulation by reactive power near the node at which volt-
age regulation is performed is more effective than voltage
regulation at a remote point.
3. Proposed Algorithm of Voltage Regulation Using
EV
3.1 EV model
We assume that in addition to the battery to store the
energy necessary to drive the vehicle, the EV analyzed in
this paper is also equipped with a self-commutated inverter
for AC/DC conversion. Although currently used EVs do
not have this feature, in principle it is possible to freely
exchange active and reactive power between an EV and the
power system by appropriately controlling the inverter and
the battery. With this in mind, in this paper we consider
the use of an EV as a load that can be used for voltage
regulation in the distribution system by not only using the
active power for battery charging, but also controlling the
flow of reactive power in both directions as shown in Fig. 3.
This process should be implemented in such a way as not
to block charging for subsequent trips. Here, we examine
the regulation of the distribution system voltage by the
Fig. 3. EV model.
11
Fig. 4. PQ control diagram.
EV based on use of the idle capacity of the EV inverter
connected to the system. Also, since discharge of active
power into the power system strongly affects customers’
convenience, in this paper we do not consider this function.
3.2 Proposed method 1: PQ control
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the active
power (P) and the reactive power (Q) in the EV battery.
The EV can independently control both active power and
reactive power inside a circle whose radius is equal to
the inverter capacity. When EV is connected to the power
system via the inverter, the inverter charges the battery to
the maximum capacity (marked in the diagram as “normal
charge”) in the shortest possible time. It is expected that
with a growing number of EVs in operation and with an
increase in demand for EV charging, the drops in the system
voltage will be greater. However, when there is time before
the next trip, charging can be kept within the “reduce charg-
ing power” zone in the diagram, which makes it possible not
only to reduce the voltage drop but also to control reactive
power by using the idle capacity of the inverter (marked by
“reactive power control” in the diagram). In this way the
charging power (active power) can be reduced to reasonable
limits and the idle capacity of the inverter can be used for
reactive power control. We call this method “PQ control”.
The instructions for PQ control are as follows: First,
normal charging is performed in accordance with Eqs. (5)
and (6). These equations state that until the battery is fully
charged, only active power is used for charging, at the full
capacity of the inverter.
{
E (t = st)
L e (t) = ∑ c (5)
E c − t−ΔT
k=st P(k)ΔT (t > st)
{
S (L e (t) > 0)
P(t) = (6)
0 (L e (t) = 0).
Here, L e (t) is the amount of energy required for EV charg-
ing at time t (kWh); E c is the amount of energy necessary
for EV charging (kWh); st is the charging start time; P(t)
is the EV charging power (kW) from time t to time t + 1
(below, time period t), which is assumed to be constant
during this time period; ΔT is the duration of the time
period (h); and S is the capacity of the EV inverter (kVA).
We next determine whether there are any violations of
the lower voltage limit due to the charging load. In case of a
violation, the command value of P is determined according
to Eq. (7). This equation is based on the consideration that
charging can be completed at any time before the next trip
and the charging power is restricted to the value obtained
by dividing L e (t) by the time remaining to the next trip.
Fig. 5. Proposed prediction control diagram.
L e (t)
P(t) = (L e (t)) > 0, V (t) < Vmin ), (7)
et − t
where et is the time of the beginning of the next trip, V (t) is
the voltage at time t (V), and Vmin is the minimum voltage
level (V).
The Q command is determined by Eq. (8). This equa-
tion is based on the idea that the unused inverter capacity
created by P control can be used for Q control:
√
Q(t) = − S 2 − P(t)2 (L e (t) > 0, V (t) < Vmin ), (8)
where Q(t) is the reactive power consumed by EV at time
t (kvar).
In order to control the generation of reactive power
for the purpose of compensating the voltage drop, in this
paper the leading reactive power has a negative sign.

Fig. 6. Proposed algorithm for EV.

3.3 Proposed method 2: Prediction control

In the abovementioned PQ control, the PQ control the entire time period in which the charging is possible.
commands are chosen depending on the presence or ab- The magnitude of the adjustment can be found by solving
sence of voltage violations in the node under control at any the optimization problem for the purpose of averaging the
time. Therefore, if attention is focused on a certain time voltage over the entire time at which charging is possible.
period, it is impossible to respond to voltage violations that (Objective function)
may occur after it. There is a possibility that no optimal et−ΔT
∑
instruction for the entire time can be found. f = (Vtarget − Vpre (t))2 (9)
Consequently, in this study we assumed that under t=st
certain conditions based on past actual data, it is possible to
et−ΔT
∑
accurately predict the voltage at the location of the EV plug- V P Q (t)
in at any time, during normal charging or during charging Vtarget = (10)
t=st
(et − st)∕ΔT
under PQ control, and to use this information for voltage
control by the EV (below, this algorithm is referred to as δV δV
“prediction control”). V pr e (t) ≅ V P Q (t) + (t)ΔP(t) + (t)ΔQ(t)
δP δQ
Figure 5 shows a diagram of the proposed prediction
(11)
control. The time is plotted on the horizontal axis and the
voltage at a certain node is plotted on the vertical axis. (Constraint conditions)
The circles in this diagram correspond to predicted voltage
values in normal charging and under PQ control. Since, in {P(t) + ΔP(t)}2 + {Q(t) + ΔQ(t)}2 ≤ S 2 (12)
the example shown in Fig. 5, a violation of the minimum et−ΔT
voltage level at time point t2 is predicted, the purpose of ∑
{P(t)} + ΔP(t)ΔT ≥ E c , (13)
control is to avoid voltage violation at point t2 by adjusting t=st
only the active and reactive power ΔP(t) and ΔQ(t) over

12
where Vtarget is the target voltage for prediction control (V);
Vpre (t) is the predicted voltage after output adjustment (V);
V P Q (t) is the predicted voltage in normal charging or under
PQ control (V); ∂V ∕∂P ⋅ (t) is the voltage sensitivity at the
node under control as a function of the active power at the
node under control at time t (V/kW); ∂V ∕∂Q ⋅ (t) is the
voltage sensitivity at the node under control as a function
of the reactive power at the node under control at time t
(V/kvar); ΔP(t) is the adjusted part of the EV active power
(kW); and ΔQ(t) is the adjusted part of the EV reactive
power (kvar).
In Eq. (11) the voltage at the node where an EV is
Fig. 8. Proposed communication control diagram.
plugged in and the sensitivities of the active and reactive
power (∂V ∕∂P ⋅ (t) and ∂V ∕∂Q ⋅ (t)) can be estimated in
advance, for example, by the method proposed in Ref. [17].
is implemented, a voltage violation signal is sent to the
DSO. When the DSO receives information about voltage
3.4 Proposed method 3: Communication
violations, an instruction is sent for PQ control support to
control
the EVs plugged into the same secondary feeder as the EV
from which a signal similar to the “SF control” shown in
In the PQ control and prediction control schemes,
Fig. 7 was sent (below, this control is referred to as “SF
only the EV at the node where voltage violations exist is
control”).
operated in an autonomous and decentralized manner. In
If SF control fails to resolve the issue of voltage vio-
this section, we consider a case in which it is possible to
lations, the EV where these voltage violations occur sends
establish communication between EVs and the distribution
a voltage violation signal to the DSO again. At that time,
system operator (DSO) for the purpose of achieving more
the DSO sends a signal for PQ control support to all EVs
efficient voltage regulation, and we propose an algorithm
plugged into the same secondary feeder (as indicated in
for coordinated voltage regulation using this ability to com-
Fig. 7 by “PF control”) and all EVs that receive this signal
municate. According to the proposed method, the EV is
switch to PQ control (below this control is referred to as
controlled autonomously, but if the issue of voltage viola-
“PF control”). The reason for applying control in two steps
tions is not resolved, the system offers support for the EV.
is that by first operating EVs having higher efficiency, as
A detailed algorithm of the proposed method is
described in Section 2.2, the number of EVs to be charged
shown by the flow charts in Figs. 6 and 7. Each EV is first
can be decreased. The proposed communication control is
charged according to the normal charging pattern (or the
shown graphically in Fig. 8. The dotted lines in the figure
standby pattern in the case of a fully charged EV). Next,
represent the signal flow.
when voltage violations at the nodes are detected or, in the
case of a “PQ control support” signal from the DSO, PQ
control is implemented. If voltage violations at the node
under control cannot be eliminated even when PQ control 4. Simulation

4.1 Simulation conditions

In order to confirm the effectiveness of the proposed

method, we performed a simulation using the distribution
system model shown in Fig. 9. As shown in Fig. 9(a),
the model system had six high voltage nodes (#S and #A
through #E). Node #S represents the distribution substation
and, considering that the voltage sent from this substation
is high during the high load period and low during the low
load period, it is assumed to be 6.60 kV from 8:00 to 22:00
and 6.30 kV from 22:00 to 8:00. As shown in Fig. 9(b), it
is assumed that 30 pole transformers are connected to each
high voltage node (#A through #E) and that the length of
the secondary feeders between nodes #A and #D is 100 m.
Fig. 7. Proposed algorithm for distribution system Node #E, at which the voltage drop becomes relatively
operator. large, is located at a distance of 300 m. The loads connected

13
 Fig. 9. Distribution system model used in simulation.

to the pole transformers are arranged as shown in Fig. 9(c)

and include 12 residential loads. The nodes that are in the
same position relative to the impedance are called nodes #a
through #f, and a number 1 or 2 is assigned to denote the
load number. Thus, this system model, from the distribution
substation to the farthest secondary node #f of the primary
node #E (referred to below as “E f”), has a structure in
which voltage violations can easily occur. The impedance
values provided in the same figure were selected on the
basis of Refs. [17–19].
The load curve of one residential load according to
this distribution system model (not including the active Fig. 10. Load curve of one residential load without EV.
and reactive power of the EV) is shown in Fig. 10. In [Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
this diagram, the consumption of lagging reactive power available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
is plotted in the positive direction. Figure 11 shows the
voltage fluctuations with time at each node with the EV
not connected (that is, the power consumption only by the
residential load shown in Fig. 10). Figure 11 shows the as the first load plugged in at the low voltage node #f of
voltage at primary node #A a, which is the closest to branch Tr1. The 361st EV, shown in parentheses on the
the power source and has the highest voltage, and at sec- same line, is connected as the second load at the same
ondary node #E f, which is farthest from the power source location where the load of the first EV is plugged in. Since
and has a lower voltage. The voltages at the other nodes are we assume that cases of EV introduction will be centered
between these values. Below we discuss mainly the voltage around new residential areas and testing grounds, in this
observed at node #E f, having the largest voltage drop. paper we consider primarily cases of EV connections at
The following sections describe simulations carried nodes #D and #E. The total number of such residences
out with the number of EVs as a parameter. For this pur- as well as the maximum number of EVs introduced was
pose, we assume that the number of EVs plugged in for assumed to be 720. The other conditions of the simulation
charging is as given in Table 1. The first EV is connected are listed in Table 2.

14
 Table 2. Data for simulations

Parameters Value
Required energy to be charged 18 kWh
Time to start charging 23
Time of departure 7
Capacity of inverter for EV 3 kVA
Time step 0.25 h
Maximum voltage level 107 V
Minimum voltage level 95 V

Fig. 11. Voltage at nodes in absence of EV. [Color figure

can be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]

Table 1. Order of EV introduction

EVNo. Primary Tr No. Secondary Load No.

1(361) #E Trl #f 1(2)
2(362) #D Trl #f 1(2)
3(363) #E Tr2 #f 1(2)
4(364) #D Tr2 #f 1(2)
... ... ... ... ...
59(419) #E Tr30 #f 1(2) Fig. 12. Voltage at #E f in normal charging. [Color
60(420) #D Tr30 #f 1(2) figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available
61(421) #E Trl #d 1(2) at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
62(422) #D Trl #d 1(2)
... ... ... ... ...
119(479) #E TOO #d 1(2)
120(480) #D TOO #d 1(2)
121(481) #E Trl #b 1(2)
... ... ... ... ...
181(541) #E Trl #e 1(2)
... ... ... ... ...
241(601) #E Trl #c 1(2)
... ... ... ... ...
301(661) #E Trl #a 1(2)
... ... ... ... ...
360(720) #D TOO #a 1(2)
Fig. 13. Voltage at #E f with 181 EVs. [Color figure can
be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
4.2 Effectiveness and limitations of PQ control

(1) Effectiveness of PQ control. Fig. 12 shows the
voltage fluctuations at node #E f during normal charg-
ing. The notations “NoEV”, “60EVs”, “120EVs”, and
“181EVs” in this figure mean “before EV connection”, “60
EVs”, “120 EVs”, and “181 EVs”, respectively. According
to this diagram, the system voltage becomes lower when
vehicles are connected to the system for charging. When
fewer than 180 EVs are introduced, the voltage remains
higher than the minimum level, but when 181 EVs are
connected, a violation of the minimum voltage level occurs
between 23:00 and 24:00.
Figure 13 shows the voltage fluctuations when 181
EVs are introduced at node #E f during normal charging
and during charging under PQ control. According to this
diagram, under PQ control, it is possible to avoid voltage
violations during the period between 23:00 and 24:00. The
voltage drop under PQ control between 5:00 and 5:15 is
explained by charging during this time to compensate for
charging reduction between 23:00 and 24:00.
Based on Eq. (1), voltage control by reduction of
charging power is effective in the case of high system re-
sistance; in the case of high reactance, voltage control by
injecting reactive power is effective. According to Fig. 13,
PQ control results in a 0.53 V voltage improvement, while
suppression of charging alone results in a voltage improve-
ment of 0.30 V; hence, the application of PQ control results

15
 Fig. 15. Voltage at #E f with 241 EVs. [Color figure can
be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]

Table 3. PQ control status at each node at 23:00 with 241

EVs

#a #b #c #d #e #f
#D – Normal – Normal Normal Normal
#E – Normal Normal PQ PQ PQ

Fig. 14. Magnitudes of P and Q at #E f with 181 EVs.

[Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is mode, “PQ” means PQ control, and “–” means no EVs are
available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.] connected. According to this table, PQ control is imple-
mented at nodes #E d through #E f, where voltage viola-
in a voltage improvement of 57%. Thus, in this simulation tions occur, but since no voltage violations occur at other
system, reduction of charging power is more effective than nodes, PQ control is not implemented. Implementation of
injection of reactive power. We believe that this can be control depending on location can be achieved by using
explained by the fact that the resistive component of the communication control. The results of communication con-
secondary feeders and service wires shown in Figs. 9(b) and trol implementation are discussed in Section 4.4.
(c) is greater than the reactive component.
Figure 14 shows the active power (P) and reactive
power (here Q is positive when lagging occurs) of an EV at 4.3 Effectiveness and limitations of prediction
different times of day. In the case of only normal charging, control
the charging is performed at the maximum inverter capacity
of only 3 kW, while in the case of PQ control, the charging (1) Effectiveness of prediction control. Figure 16
is reduced between 23:00 and 24:00 and reactive power shows the voltage fluctuations at node #E f under PQ con-
control is implemented using the excess inverter capacity. trol and prediction control with 241 EVs plugged in for
As can be seen in the same figure, the charging reduction in charging. Prediction control consists of the application of
the period from 23:00 to 24:00 is compensated by charging
for 15 min starting at 5:00.
(2) Limitations of PQ control (time bias). Figure 15
shows the voltage at #E f with 241 EVs connected for
charging. According to this diagram, voltage violations oc-
cur in the period from 23:00 to 24:00, but at other times
there is some margin before a voltage violation can occur.
Prediction control is a method of improving control effec-
tiveness by averaging the voltages at such times. The effect
of prediction control is explained in Section 4.3.
(3) Limitations of PQ control (location bias). Table 3
gives the conditions of PQ control at each node at 23:00
with 241 EVs plugged in for charging. In this table the Fig. 16. Voltage at #E f with 241 EVs. [Color figure can
lines correspond to primary nodes, the columns correspond be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
to secondary nodes, “normal” means the normal charging wileyonlinelibrary.com.]

16
 Fig. 17. Magnitudes of P and Q at #E f with 241 EVs.
[Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
Fig. 18. Voltage at #E f with 393 EVs. [Color figure can
be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
PQ control in cases when voltage violations are expected
to remain even after implementation of PQ control (as indi-
cated by “PQ control” in the diagram) by adjusting the PQ
command value in advance so that no violations occur. As
shown by “prediction control” in Fig. 16, voltage violations
appearing between 23:00 and 24:00 under PQ control alone
can be avoided by the application of prediction control.
A diagram of the magnitude of PQ control at the
time of control adjustment is shown in Fig. 17. Analysis
of voltage violations taking place between 23:00 and 24:00
during the implementation of PQ control shows that during
prediction control the charging power is reduced more than
under PQ control and the reactive power output is increased
17
Fig. 19. Magnitudes of P and Q at #E f with 393 EVs.
[Color figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is
available at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
by the same amount. In addition, charging is concentrated
in the period from 6:00 to 7:00, when no charging takes
place under PQ control. Thus, the voltage is averaged over
the entire charging period and voltage violations during the
period from 23:00 to 24:00 are avoided.
(2) Limitations of prediction control. When the
number of EVs connected for charging is increased to
392, no violations of the minimum voltage level occur, but
when 393 vehicles are introduced, as shown in Fig. 18,
the voltage drops below the minimum voltage level even
when prediction control is implemented. According to the
same diagram, voltage violations appearing between 23:00
and 24:00 under PQ control can be prevented by predic-
tion control. However, although no voltage violations were
observed under PQ control between 5:00 and 5:15, under
prediction control the voltage dropped below the minimum
voltage level.
The magnitudes of P and Q control in the process
of voltage adjustment are shown in Fig. 19. The plot of
active power under prediction control shown in Fig. 19(b)
indicates that the PQ reference values can be chosen so that
charging is reduced in the period between 23:00 and 24:00,
where voltage violations exist under PQ control, and more
power is allocated for charging in the period between 5:00
and 5:15, where excess power capacity occurs. However,
Table 1 indicates that when 361 or more EVs are plugged
in, the EVs are plugged in not only as the first load but
 Table 4. Status of PQ control at #E at 23:00 with 241
EVs

#a #b #c #d #e #f
(a) Only PQ control
#D – Normal – Normal Normal Normal
#E - Normal Normal PQ PQ PQ
(b) With SF control
#D – Normal – Normal Normal Normal
#E – SF SF PQ PQ PQ
Fig. 20. Voltage at #E with 241 EVs. [Color figure can
be viewed in the online issue, which is available at
wileyonlinelibrary.com.]

also as the second load at #E f, as shown in Fig. 9(c). Since

the system impedance from the distribution substation side
is the same for these two loads and their load curves are
the same as the curves without EVs shown in Fig. 10,
the voltages at these points are also the same. Therefore,
prediction control is applied to both the first and the second
EVs at node #E f. Since the two loads have common power Fig. 21. Voltage at #D and #E with 361 EVs. [Color
supply paths from the distribution substation other than the figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available
service lines, voltage control at one load strongly affects the at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
voltage at the other load. Nevertheless, since no information
about the application of prediction control to any EV is
communicated to other EVs, the magnitude of PQ control Table 5. Status of PQ control at #E at 23:00 with 361
for a specific EV is determined on the basis only of informa- EVs
tion about this specific EV, as shown in Fig. 19. As a result,
from the viewpoint of the entire system, the consumption of (a) Only SF control
active power during the period from 5:00 to 5:15 becomes #a #b #c #d #e #f
too high, causing violations of the low voltage limit. Due
#D Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal Normal
to the autonomous and decentralized nature of prediction
#E SF SF PQ PQ PQ PQ
control, it is impossible to determine the reference value
for PQ control based only on information about a specific (b) With PF control
#a #b #c #d #e #f
node. A shortcoming of prediction control is its inability
#D PF PF PF PF PF PF
to coordinate charging at a specific node with charging at
#E SF SF PQ PQ PQ PQ
other nodes, and therefore it is not an optimal charging
pattern for the entire system.

Figure 21 shows the voltages at the nodes of the sec-

4.4 Effectiveness of communication control
Figure 20 shows the voltage at secondary nodes con-
nected to #E with 241 EVs under PQ control and SF con-
trol. Violation of the minimum voltage level at #E f when
only PQ control is implemented can be avoided by using
SF control. Table 4 shows the status of the EVs at each
secondary node, indicating normal charging (“normal”),
charging under PQ control (“PQ”), and charging under SF
control (“SF”). Since PQ control was applied to the EVs at
nodes #E b and #E c which, as noted above, did not have
voltage violations, violation of the minimum voltage level
at #E f could be avoided.
ondary feeders when 361 EVs are connected for charging.
When only SF control is used, voltage violations occur at
node #E f, but under PF control no voltage violations occur.
Table 5 presents data on the control status at that time. In
the table, “PF” denotes PF control. When PQ control was
applied to all EVs connected to #D, which was not operated
under SF control, as noted above, voltage violations at #E f
were avoided due to the implementation of PF control.
The voltage behavior at different nodes with an in-
crease in the number of EVs connected for charging (up
to the maximum of 720 vehicles) is shown in Fig. 22. In
this case too, the voltage does not drop below the minimum
level. The status of control of EVs is shown in Table 6.

18

Fig. 22. Voltage at #D and #E with 720 EVs. [Color
figure can be viewed in the online issue, which is available
at wileyonlinelibrary.com.]
Table 6. Status of PQ control at #E at 23:00 with 720
EVs
#a #b #c #d #e #f
#D PF PF PF PF PF PQ
#E SF SF PQ PQ PQ PQ
5. Conclusions
We have proposed three methods of compensating
the voltage drop caused by charging of EVs by using the
active and reactive power control of vehicles being charged
and have confirmed effectiveness of the proposed methods.
First, we confirmed that by using PQ control it is possible
to adjust the charging schedule and inject reactive power
in an autonomous and decentralized manner. However, in
some respects, because of time and location bias, PQ con-
trol is not effective. Consequently, we have proposed pre-
diction control, which eliminates the time bias, and have
demonstrated its effectiveness. However, because of the au-
tonomous and decentralized nature of the system, the effec-
tiveness of this algorithm declines when the number of EVs
to be charged is increased. Therefore, we examined the use
of communication control, using a coordinated algorithm
based on autonomous and decentralized PQ control, which
makes it possible to eliminate the location bias by sharing
voltage violation information only when necessary. As a
result, we were able to verify that voltage violations were
eliminated even with the maximum number of EVs plugged
in for charging. Since communication control requires a
developed communications infrastructure, it is desirable to
evaluate its cost-effectiveness, but if such a communica-
tions infrastructure has already been created for different
purposes, control can be successfully implemented by shar-
ing information about voltage violations or drops in voltage
below the minimum voltage level.
This study was limited to examination of drops in
voltage caused by simultaneous charging of EVs during the
19
night hours, and it was demonstrated that compensation by
using the excessive capacity of EV inverters can increase
the voltage and improve power quality in several millisec-
onds. In the future we plan to investigate algorithms of EV
use from this standpoint.
Acknowledgment
This paper was recommended by the chairman of the
2011 Joint Committee on Power Technologies and Power
Systems Technologies.
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AUTHORS (from left to right)

Yuki Mitsukuri (student member) completed the M.S. program in system information science at the Graduate School of
Information Science and Technology of Hokkaido University in 2003. In the same year, he joined Tokyo Electric Power Co.,
Ltd. In 2010 he entered the doctoral program in system information science at the Graduate School of Information Science and
Technology of Hokkaido University. In 2012, he retired from Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd. His research work is focused on
power distribution issues.

Ryoichi Hara (member) completed the doctoral program in system information technology at the Graduate School of
Engineering of Hokkaido University in 2003. In the same year, he joined the faculty of the Graduate School of Engineering of
Yokohama National University as a research associate in electrical and electronics engineering and mathematical information
science. In 2006, he became an associate professor in the Department of System Information Science of the Graduate School
of Information Science and Technology, Hokkaido University. He received D.Eng. degree. He is involved in research mainly
on the design, operation, and control of power systems. Member of IEEE and IEIEJ.

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 AUTHORS (continued) (from left to right)

Hiroyuki Kita (member) completed the M.E. program in electrical engineering at the Graduate School of Information
Science and Technology of Hokkaido University in 1988. In 1989, he became a research associate in electrical engineering at
the Graduate School of Engineering of the same university. In 1995, he was appointed an associate professor of system and
information science at the Graduate School of Information Science and Technology of the same university, and he became a
professor in 2005. He is involved in research principally on the design, operation, and control of power systems. Member of
IEEE, ORSJ, IEIEJ, and the Illuminating Engineering Institute of Japan.

Eiji Kamiya (member) received his M.E. degree in integrated design engineering from the Graduate School of Science
and Technology of Keio University in 2006. In the same year, he joined Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd. He is now affiliated
with the Distribution Technology Group at the Power Distribution Headquarters. His research work is focused mainly on power
distribution issues.

Shoji Taki (member) received his M.E. degree in electrical and electronic engineering from the Graduate School of
Engineering of Chiba University in 1997. In the same year, he joined Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd. He is now affiliated
with the Distribution Technology Group at the Power Distribution Headquarters. His research work is focused mainly on power
distribution issues. Member of IEIEJ.

Naoya Hiraiwa (member) received a bachelor’s degree in electrical and computer engineering from Nagoya Institute of
Technology in 1994. In the same year, he joined Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd. He is now the manager of the power distribution
group of the Tochigi facility. He is involved in research on new electrical materials and the operation of distribution systems.

Eiji Kogure (member) received a bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering from Saitama University in 1987. In the same
year, he joined Tokyo Electric Power Co., Ltd. He is now manager of the Distribution Technology Group at the Technology
Development Research Center. His research work is focused mainly on the development of power distribution equipment and
systems. Member of IEIEJ.

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