Name __________________________________ Date ___________ Period __________

Chapter 18 The Endocrine System

An Introduction to the Endocrine System
 Endocrine system
– Endocrine cells and tissues produce about 30 different hormones (chemical messengers)
– Controls and coordinates body processes
– Endocrine communication
• Endocrine cells release chemicals (hormones) that are transported in bloodstream
• Alters metabolic activities of many organs
18-1 Intercellular Communication
 Target cells
– Have receptors needed to bind and read hormonal messages
 Hormones control several major processes
– reproduction
– Growth and development
– Mobilization of body defenses (against stressors)
– Maintenance of much of homeostasis
• Electrolyte, water, & nutrient balance of blood
– Regulation of metabolism & energy balance
18-2 Hormones
 Both endocrine and nervous systems
– Rely on release of chemicals that bind to specific receptors on target cells
– Share many chemical messengers (e.g., norepinephrine and epinephrine)
– Are regulated mainly by negative feedback
– Function to preserve homeostasis by coordinating and regulating activities
– Endocrine organs are scattered throughout body

 Classes of hormones
– Amino acids- simplest group
 – peptide hormones –includes protein hormones
– lipid derivatives-Steroid hormones
18-2 Hormones –HONOR’S
 Amino acid derivatives (biogenic amines)
– Small molecules structurally related to amino acids
– Derivatives of tyrosine
• Thyroid hormones
• Catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, and dopamine)
– Derivatives of tryptophan
• Serotonin and melatonin
 Peptide hormones -chains of amino acids
– Short-chain polypeptides
• ADH and OXT are each 9 amino acids long
– Glycoproteins
• Proteins more than 200 amino acids long that have carbohydrate side chains (e.g.,
TSH, LH, FSH)
– Short polypeptides/small proteins
• insulin (51 amino acids)
• growth hormone (191 amino acids)
• Prolactin (198 amino acids)
• Includes all hormones secreted by hypothalamus, heart, thymus, digestive tract,
pancreas, posterior lobe of the pituitary gland, etc.
 Lipid derivatives
– Eicosanoids—derived from arachidonic acid, a 20-carbon fatty acid
• Ex. Blood clotting
• Prostaglandins coordinate local cellular activities
 Lipid derivatives-
– Steroid hormones—derived from cholestrol
• Include
 Androgens from testes in males
 Estrogens and progesterone from ovaries in females
  Corticosteroids from adrenal cortex
 Calcitriol from kidneys
• Bound to specific transport proteins in the plasma
 Remain in circulation longer than peptide hormones
The Chemistry of Hormones
 Two mechanisms in which hormones act
– Direct gene activation
– Second-messenger system
Direct Gene Activation (Steroid Hormone Action)
 1) Diffuse through the plasma membrane of target cells
 2) Enter the nucleus
 3) Bind to a specific protein within the nucleus
 4) Bind to specific sites on the cell’s DNA
 5) activate genes that result in synthesis of new proteins

Second-Messenger System (Nonsteroid Hormone Action) Protein/Peptides)

 1) Hormone binds to a membrane receptor
 2) Hormone does not enter the cell
 3) Sets off a series of reactions that activates an enzyme
 4) Catalyzes a reaction that produces a second-messenger molecule (cyclic AMP)
 5) cAMP oversees additional intracellular changes to promote a specific response
 Hormone secretion
– Mainly controlled by negative feedback
• Stimulus triggers production of hormone that reduces intensity of the stimulus
– Can be triggered by
• humoral stimuli (change in extracellular fluid),
• hormonal stimuli (arrival or removal of hormone), or
• neural stimuli (neurotransmitters)
 Control of hormone secretion (3 TYPES)
– 1) Humoral stimuli
• Changing blood levels of certain ions stimulate hormone release
• Control hormone secretion by heart, pancreas, parathyroid gland, and digestive tract
– 2) Hormonal stimuli
• May involve one or more intermediary steps
• Two or more hormones involved
 Control of hormone secretion
– 3) Neural stimuli
• Nerve impulses stimulate hormone release
• Most are under the control of the sympathetic nervous system
• Examples include the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine (during periods of
stress) by the adrenal medulla
 • Epinephrine-adrenaline
Major Endocrine Organs
 pituitary gland
 thyroid gland
 Parathyroid glands
 adrenal glands
 pineal gland
 thymus gland
 Pancreas
 gonads (Ovaries and Testes)
 Hypothalamus
18-3 The Pituitary Gland Figure 18–5a The Orientation and Anatomy of the Pituitary Gland.

 Pituitary gland (hypophysis) Third Mammillary

ventricle body

– Hangs inferior to hypothalamus Hypothalamus

• Connected by infundibulum Optic chiasm

Infundibulum
Sellar diaphragm

– Releases nine important peptide hormones Anterior Pituitary Lobe

Pars tuberalis
• Use cAMP as second messenger Pars distalis Posterior
pituitary
Pars intermedia lobe

 Size of a pea Sphenoid

(sella turcica)

a Relationship of the pituitary

 Hangs by a stalk from the hypothalamus in the brain gland to the hypothalamus 26

 Protected by the sphenoid bone

 Has 2 functional lobes
– Anterior pituitary— glandular tissue
– Posterior pituitary— nervous tissue
• Continuous with hypothalamus
 Often called the “master endocrine gland”
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
• 6 anterior pituitary hormones
• Two affect non-endocrine targets
• Growth hormone (GH)
• Prolactin (PRL)
• Four stimulate other endocrine glands (tropic hormones)
• Thyroid- stimulating hormone (thyrotropic hormone) TH
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Two gonadotropic hormones
• follicle stimulating (FSH) & Luteinizing (LH)
• growth hormone
• General metabolic hormone
• Major effects are directed to growth of skeletal muscles and long bones
• Plays a role in determining final body size
• Causes amino acids to be built into proteins
• Causes fats to be broken down for a source of energy
 Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary

Figure 9.4

• Growth hormone (GH) disorders

• Pituitary dwarfism results from hyposecretion of GH during childhood
• Gigantism results from hypersecretion of GH during childhood
• Acromegaly results from hypersecretion of GH during adulthood
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary
• prolactin (PRL)
• Stimulates and maintains milk production following childbirth
• Function in males is unknown
• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Regulates endocrine activity of the adrenal cortex
• Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
• Influences growth and activity of the thyroid gland
• Gonadotropic hormones
• Regulate hormonal activity of the gonads
• Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
• Stimulates follicle development in ovaries
• Stimulates sperm development in testes
• Luteinizing hormone (LH)
• Triggers ovulation of an egg in females
• Stimulates testosterone production in males
Pituitary–Hypothalamus Relationship
• Hormonal release is regulated by releasing and inhibiting hormones produced by the hypothalamus
• Hypothalamus produces two hormones
• These hormones are transported to neurosecretory cells of the posterior pituitary
• Oxytocin
• Antidiuretic hormone
• The posterior pituitary is not strictly an endocrine gland, but does release hormones
• Oxytocin
• Stimulates contractions of the uterus during labor sexual relations, and breastfeeding
• Causes milk ejection in a nursing woman
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Inhibits urine production by promoting water reabsorption by the kidneys
• In large amounts, causes vasoconstriction leading to increased blood pressure
• Also known as vaspressin
 • Drinking alcoholic beverages inhibits ADH secretion and results in output of large amounts
of urine.
• Dry mouth and intense thirst experienced the morning after drinking excess amounts
of alcohol.
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
• Diuretics- drugs that does the opposite of ADH. They cause water to be flushed from the
body.
• These drugs are used to manage edema (water retention in tissues caused by
congestive heart failure) and high blood pressure.
18-4 Thyroid Gland
 Found at the base of the throat
 Consists of two lobes and a connecting isthmus
 Produces two hormones
– Thyroid hormone
 Calcitonin
 Thyroid hormone
– Major metabolic hormone
– Composed of two active iodine-containing hormones
 Thyroxine (T4)—Contains 4 ionine atoms
 Also called or tetraiodothyronine
 Triiodothyronine (T3)—contains 3 iodine atoms
– Affect almost every cell in body
– Enter target cells by transport system
– Bind to receptors
– In children, essential to normal development of skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems
18-4 The Thyroid Gland- Honor’s
 Thyroid hormones activate genes involved in glycolysis and ATP production
– Results in calorigenic effect
• Increased energy consumption and heat generation of cells
• Responsible for strong, immediate, and stort-lived increase in rate of cellular
metabolism
2nd Thyroid Hormone-Everyone!
– calcitonin (CT)
• Helps regulate concentrations of Ca 2+ in body fluids
– Decreases blood calcium levels by causing its deposition on bone
– Antagonistic (works opposite) to parathyroid hormone
– Effects of thyroid hormones
– Elevate oxygen and energy consumption; in children, may cause rise in body temperature
– Increase heart rate and force of contraction
 – Increase sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation
– Maintain normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to oxygen and carbon dioxide
concentrations
– Stimulate red blood cell formation
– Stimulate activity in other endocrine tissues
– Accelerate turnover of minerals in bone
Thyroid Gland-Disorders
– goiters
• Thyroid gland enlarges due to lack of iodine
• salt is iodized to prevent goiters
– Cretinism
• Caused by hyposecretion of thyroxine
• Results in dwarfism during childhood
– Thyroid hormone disorders (continued)
– Myxedema
Goiter Cretinism
• Caused by hypothyroidism in adults
• Results in physical and mental sluggishness
– Graves’ disease
• Caused by hyperthyroidism
• Results in increased metabolism, heat intolerance, rapid heartbeat, weight loss,
exopthalmos (bulging of eyes out of socket), agitated behavior & inability to relax
 Parathyroid glands
– Two pairs
– Embedded in posterior surface of thyroid gland
 Parathyroid hormone (PTH) or parathormone
– Secreted by parathyroid (principal) cells in response to low concentrations of Ca2+ in blood
– Antagonist for calcitonin
– Stimulate osteoclasts to remove calcium from bone
– Stimulate the kidneys and intestine to absorb more calcium
– Raise calcium levels in the blood

Hormonal Regulation of Calcium in Blood

Calcitonin Calcitonin
Thyroid gland stimulates
releases calcium salt
calcitonin
Neg. deposit
in bone
Feedback
Thyroid
gland

Rising Falling
blood blood
Ca2+ Calcium homeostasis of blood Ca2+
levels 9–11 mg/100 ml levels

Thyroid
gland

Parathyroid
glands
Osteoclasts
degrade bone Parathyroid
PTH glands release
matrix and release
Ca2+ into blood parathyroid
hormone (PTH)
Figure 9.10
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal glands
– Lie along superior border of each kidney
– Superficial (outer) adrenal cortex
• Stores lipids, especially cholesterol and fatty acids
• Manufactures steroid hormones (corticosteroids)
– Inner adrenal medulla
• Secretory activities controlled by sympathetic division of ANS
• Produces epinephrine and norepinephrine (catecholamines)
 Adrenal cortex
– Subdivided into 3 zones
• Outer zona glomerulosa
• Middle zona fasciculata
• Inner zona reticularis
 Zona glomerulosa
– Outer region of adrenal cortex
– Produces mineralocorticoids (e.g., aldosterone)
– Aldosterone
• Stimulates conservation of sodiumions and elimination of potassium ions
• Increases sensitivity of salt receptors in taste buds
• Secreted in response to
– Drop in blood Na+, blood volume, or blood pressure
– Rise in blood K+ concentration

 Zona fasciculata
– Produces glucocorticoids
• Example: cortisol, corticosterone, and cortisone
• Secretion is regulated by negative feedback
– Produced in the middle layer of the adrenal cortex
– Promote normal cell metabolism
• Accelerate glucose synthesis and glycogen formation, especially in liver
– Help resist long-term stressors
– Released in response to increased blood levels of ACTH
– Have anti-inflammatory properties
 • Steroid creams cause a reduction in swelling and inflammation due to inhibition of
white blood cells
 Zona reticularis
– Forms narrow band bordering each adrenal medulla
– Produces small quantities of androgens (male sex hormones) under stimulation by ACTH
• Some are converted to estrogens in bloodstream
• Stimulate development of pubic hair in boys and girls before puberty
• In adult women adrenal androgens support muscle mass, blood cell formation, and
the sex drive

Disorders of the Adrenal Glands

• Adrenal cortex disorders
• Addison’s disease
• Results from hyposecretion (___low_____) of all adrenal cortex hormones
• Bronze skin tone, muscles are weak, burnout (from stress), susceptibility to infection
• Hyperaldosteronism (high levels of mineralcorticoids)
• May result from an ACTH- releasing tumor
• Excess water and sodium are retained leading to high blood pressure and edema
• Adrenal cortex disorders
• Cushing’s syndrome (excessive glucocorticords)
• Results from a tumor in the middle cortical area of the adrenal cortex
• “Moon face,” “_buffalo hump” on the upper back, high blood pressure,
hyperglycemia, weakening of bones, depression
• Masculinization
• Results from hypersecretion of sex hormones
• Beard and male distribution of hair growth (in females); Masked in males; or may
have breast enlargement
18-6 Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal medulla (Middle)
– Contains two types of secretory cells
• One produces epinephrine (E)
– 75-80 percent of medullary secretion
• The other produces norepinephrine (NE)
– 20-25 percent of medullary secretion
 Results of activation of adrenal medulla
– In skeletal muscles, E and NE trigger mobilization of glycogen reserves
• And accelerate breakdown of glucose
 These hormones prepare the body to deal with short-term stress (fight or flight”) by
– Increasing heart rate, blood pressure, blood glucose levels; body becomes alert so you can
think more clearly
– Dilating small passageways of lungs
– Body is able to deal with short-term stressors
18-7 Pineal Gland
 Pineal gland
– Lies in posterior portion of roof of third ventricle (of brain)
• Synthesize hormone melatonin
– Functions of melatonin
• Influence circadian rhythms (day and night cycles)
• Inhibit reproductive functions
• Protect against damage by free radicals (antioxidant); protects the CNS neurons

Pineal gland
18-8 Pancreas
– Large gland
– Lies in loop between inferior border of stomach and proximal portion of small intestine
– Contains exocrine and endocrine cells
– Endocrine pancreas
– Consists of cells that form clusters known as pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans)
– alpha (α) cells produce glucagon
– beta (β) cells produce insulin
– When blood glucose level increases (HIGH-hyperglycemia)
– Beta cells secrete insulin (peptide hormone)
– Stimulating transport of glucose into target cells; LOWERS GLUCOSE IN BLOOD
– Target organ-all body cells
– When blood glucose level decreases (LOW-Hypoglycemia)
– Alpha cells secrete glucagon
– Stimulating glycogen breakdown and glucose release by liver; RAISES glucose in
blood
– Target organ is liver
18-8 Pancreas- Honor’s only
 Insulin
– Peptide hormone released by beta cells
– Effects on target cells
• Accelerating glucose uptake
• Accelerating glucose use and enhancing ATP production
• Stimulating glycogen formation
• Stimulating amino acid absorption and protein synthesis
• Stimulating triglyceride formation in adipocytes
 Glucagon
– Released by _____________________________________
– _____________________________________________________
– Effects on target cells
• Stimulating breakdown of __________________________ in
________________________ fibers and _______________________________
• Stimulating breakdown of triglycerides in adipocytes
• Stimulating production and release of glucose in liver cells (_____________________)
 EVERYONE!
 Hyperglycemia
– _______________________________________________ levels in the blood
 Diabetes mellitus
– Characterized by _____________________________ concentrations that overwhelm
reabsorption capabilities of kidneys
– Glucose ________________________________________-
– Polyuria
• Urine volume ___________________________________
 You have to urine a lot!
 ___________________________ diabetes mellitus
– Characterized by _______________________________ insulin production by pancreatic beta
cells
– Patients require ___________________________________ or continuous infusion of insulin
– Approximately 5 percent of cases
– Usually develops in __________________________ and _____________________________
 ___________________ diabetes mellitus
– _________________________________________
– Usually, normal amounts of insulin are produced, at least initially
• Tissues ____________________________________________ (insulin resistance)
– Associated with ___________________________
• Weight loss can be __________________________________________________
 Complications of untreated or poorly managed diabetes mellitus include
– Kidney degeneration
– Retinal damage (diabetic retinopathy)
• _________________________________________
– Early _________________________________ (3–5 times more likely)
– Peripheral nerve problems (diabetic neuropathies)
– Peripheral tissue damage due to reduced blood flow
• _____________________________________________________________
Thymus Gland
 Located posterior to the ______________________________
 Largest in infants and children
 Produces __________________________ (hormone)
– Matures some types of ___________________________________________ (T cells)
– Important in developing the _________________________________
– Produces thymosin (blend of several hormones)
• Promotes ____________________________________________________________
 Testes
– Interstitial endocrine cells produce androgens
• _________________________________________ is an important androgen
– Nurse cells (Sertoli cells)
• Support differentiation and _____________________________________________
 Ovaries
– Produce __________________________________________
• Principal estrogen is estradiol
– After ovulation, follicle cells
• Release estrogens and -________________________________
– Stimulate the development of_______________________________ female characteristics
• Hair in pubic and axillary regions, _______________________________________
– _______________________ female reproductive organs
 With progesterone, estrogens also
– ______________________________________________________________
– Regulate _________________________________________
 The Endocrine System-Hormone Interactions

Use the lecture on the GC to answer the following questions.

1. What hormones are important to body growth?

2. What is the importance of Growth Hormone in children?

3. How can the absence of thyroid hormone during fetal development be detrimental to babies?

4. What is the General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?

5. What are the 3 phases of the GAS and what happens during each phase?

6. As we age our hormones change. How can these changes affect us? List 3