QUALITATIVE RESEARCH - format

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Title Page – including the preliminary title of the study, the student’s name, and the institution

2. Literature review – brief overview explaining the background and importance of the study. sufficient review of
the relevant research to demonstrate an understanding of the subject and major components

3. Statement of Problem – specifically what the researcher wants to know

4. Purpose of the Study – explanation of the problem and what the researcher hopes to achieve by conducting
the study

5. Who did the study, where and when

6. Description of relevant cultural and contextual information

II. METHODS

1. Definition of Terms – clarification of any terminology in the study that may not be commonly known; provides a
similar interpretation for all readers of the study

2. Research Design – describes the methods that will be used to collect data or organize creative products.

a. Description of the design b. Criteria for judging credibility and trustworthiness of results

3. Sampling methods– describe the aspects of the cases on which data collection and analysis will focus
Indicate how access to the study population will be achieved

4. Variables – describe aspects of the cases on which data collection and analysis will focus

5. Methods of Data Collection – explain how each variable will be measured

6. Data Analysis methods – describe the use of interpretational, structural, or reflective methods

7. Timeline – provide a timeline listing the order for all the major steps of the study and indicate the approximate
amount of time needed for each step

III RESULTS

Presentation, interpretation, relate to relevant conceptual framework, discuss methodological difficulties affecting
your results

IV CONCLUSION

Key findings, logical next step, implication of findings

1. has the research question/problem been solved?

2. to what extent have the objectives been achieved?
3. what has been learned from the results?
4. how can this knowledge be used?
5. what are the shortcomings of the research or methodology used?

V RECOMMENDATIONS

VI ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

VII REFERENCES
What is qualitative data?

• Data that are not easily reduced to numbers

• Data that are related to concepts, opinions, values and behaviours of people in social context

• Transcripts of individual interviews and focus groups, field notes from observation of certain activities, copies of
documents, audio/video recordings...

Types of Qualitative Data

Structured text, (writings, stories, survey comments,news articles, books etc)

Unstructured text (transcription, interviews, focusgroups, conversation)

Audio recordings, musicVideo recordings (graphics, art, pictures, visuals)

Qualitative data collection methods

1. Observation - The researcher gets close enough to study subjects to observe (with/without participation)
usually to understand whether people do what they say they do, and to access tacit knowledge of subjects
2. Interview - This involves asking questions, listening to and recording answers from an individual or group
on a structured, semi-structured or unstructured format in an in-depth manner (guided by a set of
questions) and interactive
3. Group Discussion - session with a group small enough for everyone to have chance to talk and large
enough to provide diversity of opinions
4. Questionare
5. Other methods - Rapid assessment procedure (RAP), Free listing, Pile sort, ranking, life history
(biography)

Data analysis method

1. Deductive approach – Using your research questions to group the data and then look for similarities and
differences – Used when time and resources are limited – Used when qualitative research is a smaller
component of a larger quantitative study

2. Inductive approach – Used when qualitative research is a major design of the inquiry – Using emergent
framework to group the data and then look for relationships

Tools for helping the Analytical Process

1. Summaries: Should contain the key points that emerge from undertaking the specific activity
2. Self Memos: Allow you to make a record of the ideas which occur to you about any aspect of your research,
as you think of them

Types of qualitative analysis

• Content analysis

Content analysis is the procedure for the categorization of verbal or behavioural data for the purpose of
classification, summarization and tabulation
The content can be analyzed on two levels –
Descriptive: What is the data? –
Interpretative: what was meant by the data?

• Narrative analysis

Narratives are transcribed experiences

 Every interview/observation has narrative aspect-the researcher has to sort-out and reflect up on them,
enhance them, and present them in a revised shape to the reader
The core activity in narrative analysis is to reformulate stories presented by people in different contexts
and based on their different experiences

• Discourse analysis

A method of analyzing a naturally occurring talk (spoken interaction) and all types of written texts
Focus on ordinary people method of producing and making sense of everyday social life: How language is
used in everyday situations? – Sometimes people express themselves in a simple and straightforward way –
Sometimes people express themselves vaguely and indirectly – Analyst must refer to the context when
interpreting the message as the same phenomenon can be described in a number of different ways depending
on context

• Framework analysis
• Familiarization: Transcribing & reading the data
• Identifying a thematic framework: Initial coding framework which is developed both from a priori issues and
from emergent issues
• Coding: Using numerical or textual codes to identify specific piece of data which correspond to different
themes
• Charting: Charts created using headings from thematic framework (can be thematic or by case)
• Mapping and interpretation: Searching for patterns, associations, concepts and explanations in the data

• Grounded theory

• Analytic induction – Starts with an examination of a single case from a ‘pre-defined’ population in order to
formulate a general statement about a population, a concept or a hypothesis – Then the analyst examines
another case to see whether it fits the statement – If it does, a further case is selected – If it doesn’t fit there are
two options
• Either the statement is changed to fit both cases or the definition of the population is changed in such a way
that the case is no longer a member of the newly defined population – Then another case is selected and the
process continues – In such a way one should be able to arrive at a statement that fits all cases of a population-
as-defined – This method is only for limited set of analytic problems: those that can be solved with some
general overall statement

Strategies for analyzing observations

• Chronology: describe what was observed chronologically overtime, to tell the story from the beginning to the
end
• Key events: describing critical incidents or major events, not necessarily in order of occurrence but in order of
importance
• Various settings: describe various places, sites, settings, or locations in which events/behaviours of interest
happen
• People: describing individuals or groups involved in the events
• Process: describing important processes (e.g. Control, recruitment, decision-making, socialization,
communication)
• Issues: Illuminating key issues – how did participants change

What is Qualitative Research?

    Qualitative research is aimed at gaining a deep understanding of a specific organization or event, rather a than
surface description of a large sample of a population. It aims to provide an explicit rendering of the structure,
order, and broad patterns found among a group of participants. It is also called ethnomethodology or field
research. It generates data about human groups in social settings.
To qualify as research:
1) serves a formulated research purpose;
2) relates to existing literature or theories;
3) is systematically planned
4) is recorded systematically
5) is refined into general propositions or hypotheses
6) is subject to checks and controls on validity and reliability

The theories introduced in unit one that take on a qualitative approach to research include:

1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnomethodology
3. Grounded Theory
4. Symbolic Interactionists
5. Interpretivists
6. Critical Social Science
7. Feminists

Qualitative research methods:

1. are concerned with opinions, feelings and experiences

2. describes social phenomena as they occur naturally - no attempt is made to manipulate the situation - just
understand and describe
3. understanding is sought by taking a holistic perspective / approach, rather than looking at a set of
variables
4. qualitative research data is used to help us to develop concepts and theories that help us to understand
the social world - which is an inductive approach to the development of theory, rather than a deductive
approach that quantitative research takes - ie. Testing theories that have already been proposed.
5. Qualitative data is collected through direct encounters i.e. through interview or observation and is rather
time consuming

Qualitative research is concerned with '...developing explanations of social phenomena...'

1. The world in which we live

2. Why things are the way they are
3. Concerned with social aspects of our world
4. Seeks to answer questions about
1. Why people behave the way they do
2. How opinions and attitudes are formed
3. How people are affected by the events that go on around them
4. How and why cultures have developed in the way they have
5. The differences between social groups
5. Qualitative questions:

1. How
2. Why
3. What
Stages

1. Selection of a site and definition of problems, concepts, and indicators.

    The researcher tentatively identifies the problem or phenomenon of interest, and tries to discern what will yield
the greatest understanding of that problem or phenomenon. The researcher then identifies preliminary concepts
and what data will be gathered as indicators of those concepts.

2. The researcher chooses a strategy to move into the research setting.

    The researcher has to get past the "gatekeepers." This may involve an overt or a covert role for the researcher.
Issues may include how to record observations (written notes, tape recordings, video tape, two-way mirrors, or
trained observers) as well as ethical issues (privacy, anonymity, confidentiality, etc.).

    Strategies include: adopting a passive role at first, learning the ropes; don't seek data aggressively until later;
be a researcher, not a therapist; answer questions but don't be an expert on anything; be frank and truthful; don't
be forced into a particular role; and don't become closely identified with any one person or subgroup until you are
sure it will not cost you information in the long run; be non-partisan.

3. Selecting people and events to observe.

    The researcher may identify primary sources of information, known as "key informants." These people may be
relied upon in the beginning to help the researcher get acculturated to the situation. The statements of key
informants can be taken as evidence, even if their statements are somewhat self-serving. The researcher must
also be aware of possible differences between the validity and intention of volunteered statements versus
statements that are made in response to the researcher's questions.

4. Develop relationships with the participants.

   Researchers must have the trust and confidence of the informants. Researchers must speak their "language"
and have the ability to understand their "world." Researchers must also be conscious of interpersonal and
psychological dynamics. Behavior may be different between the researcher and one informant alone, compared
to the researcher and the informant within the informant's group. The researcher can note the differences, rather
than accept one and reject the other. The researcher must determine whether certain things are not being said
because of his or her role as "researcher" or whether they can use their position as "neutral outsider" to gain more
information.

5. Analyzing observations.

    The researcher can check whether none, all, or some proportion of behaviors or events occur under distinct
circumstances. The researcher can generate a preliminary model to explain the data collected. Explanations
place particular social facts in reference to their environment. Further observations are then collected which can
strengthen or weaken the researcher's preliminary model.

6. Final analysis and interpretation.

    Models are checked against the evidence (field notes). Advanced concepts and evidence for their support
and/or refutation are checked. The major problem is how to present the data in a brief but meaningful form.  
 Problems with qualitative studies include:
-more time consuming 
-masses of data to transcribe 
-more difficult to code data 
-not applicable to widely dispersed social settings 
-generally only a case study with limited applicability to other situations 
-usually gives only nominal level data, difficult to quantify 
-difficult to control for researcher bias