Research Methods Glossary

Aim: A precise statement of why a study is taking place.

Case Study: Refers to an in-depth and holistic investigation of the behaviour of either an individual or group. The
study is naturalistic and the researcher does not manipulate any variables.  Case studies use triangulation - that is,
more than one research method - in order to get a holistic picture of the individual or group. 

Correlation: The degree of relatedness between two sets of scores. Correlations look for a statistical relationship
between two variables.  The simplest forms of correlation are that one variable increases, the other variable
increases (a positive correlation) or when one variable increases, the other variable decreases (negative correlation).
Correlations may also be curvilinear in nature.

Controls: The steps taken to limit factors that could distort the collection of valid and reliable data.

Data Objective: Data that is based on numbers/facts and not influenced by bias/opinions

Deception: When the experimenter either hides information from a participant or tells them something that is not
true in order to test a hypothesis.

Demand Characteristics: A research effect where participants form impressions of the research purpose and
unconsciously alter their behaviour accordingly.

Design - Matched Pairs:  Where participants are grouped through the coupling of participants from similar attributes
such as age, height, interests etc. One participant would perform in one condition and their matched pair in the
other.

Design - Independent Measures: A type of design that involves two or more separate groups, each containing
different individuals, where each participant only takes part in each condition once.

Design - Repeated Measures: Experimental design in which each individual participates in all conditions of the
experiment.

Double-blind procedure:  A procedure whereby neither the researcher nor the participants is aware of which
condition of the IV the participant is performing under.

Ethical Considerations: The rules and moral principles that govern the conduct of researchers in investigations.

Experiment: A study done under strictly controlled conditions.  At least one independent variable is manipulated (or
changed) by the researcher and its effect on a dependent variable is measured while attempting to keep extraneous
variables controlled. This is the only method that can establish a cause-and-effect relationship between the IV and
the DV. 

Experimental Method: A research method using random assignment of participants and the manipulation of
variables to determine cause and effect.

Experiment – Laboratory: Conducted in a laboratory or a rigorously controlled environment, whereby

the independent variable is manipulated, whilst all other extraneous variables are strictly controlled allowing the
establishment of causality.

Experiment – Field: An experiment in a natural setting, where the independent variable is manipulated rather than
the comparatively artificial setting of the laboratory. Consequently, extraneous variables are difficult to control.

Experiment - Natural/Quasi: An experimental design whereby the experimenter does not directly influence
participant allocation to different conditions, but instead utilises existing groupings

Hawthorne Effect: The tendency of participants to change their behaviour by the mere fact that they know are being
observed.

Hypothesis: Suggested explanation for a phenomenon or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible correlation

between multiple phenomena. It is written in a precise testable manner.
Hypothesis - Directional (one-tailed): This predicts the direction of the results e.g. 'participants will be significantly
more able to detect whether an unseen person is staring at them'.

Hypothesis - Non-Directional (two-tailed): This predicts there will be a difference, but doesn't predict the direction
of the results e.g. 'there will be a significant difference between the number of times participants can and cannot
detect an unseen person staring at them'

Investigator bias: The effects researcher’s expectations can have on participants, causing them to behave in non-
genuine ways.

Mode:  This is the most common or 'popular' number in a set of scores.

Median: Central score in a list of rank-ordered scores.

Mean:  This is where all scores are added up and divided by the total number of scores. It's the mid point of the
combined values.

Measures of Central Tendency:  "Descriptive statistics that give information about ‘typical’ scores for a set of data."

Measures of Dispersion: "Descriptive statistics that give information about the ‘spread’ of scores within a set of
data."

Observations:   Used to describe a situation where an observer records behaviour demonstrated by a participant.

Observations – Naturalistic: A study whereby the observer does not manipulate any variables within a natural
setting where behaviour takes place, by merely observing and recording.

Observations – Controlled: Is a type of observational study where the conditions are contrived by the researcher.

Observation – Participant: Is where a researcher sets up and takes part in the observational study.

Observer Bias:  An investigator effect whereby a researcher's cognitive bias unconsciously influences participant's
behaviour.

Operationalization: The process of defining variables into measureable factors.

Placebo effect: The placebo effect is the beneficial physical or psychological change in a person resulting from
conscious or non-conscious “beliefs” unaided by any medically active pill or procedure

Pilot Studies:     Small scale practice investigations.

Probability: The likelihood of observed differences being determined by chance factors.

Quantitative Methods: Methods which will acquire numbered data (statistics, numbers, etc.).

Randomized controlled trials: "The comparison of groups who have been randomly allocated to programme or non-
programme conditions.”

Reliability: The extent to which an experiment produces consistent results, both within the research setting (internal
reliability) and over time (external reliability).

Reliability – Internal: Refers to the extent to which a measure is consistent within itself (ie all items measuring the
same thing) or within the research setting.

Reliability – External: Over time

Replication: "Repetition of research to confirm results.”

Sampling: Selecting from a population to participate in a study so that the researcher can make generalisations
about the whole of the original population.

Sampling Random:  A technique for obtaining participants, whereby every member of the population has an equal
chance of being selected.
Sampling – Stratified:  Involves classifying the population into categories and then choosing a sample which consists
of participants from each category in the same proportions as they are in the population.

Sampling - Opportunity/Convenience: Consists of taking the sample from people who are available at the time the
study is carried out and fit the criteria you are looking for. 

Sampling - Self-selecting: Consists of participants becoming part of a study because they volunteer when asked or in
response to an advert.

Screw-you Effect: Where a participant does the experiment incorrectly as they already know the aim for the
experiment, it is done purposely to corrupt the experiment.

Single-blind procedure: A procedure whereby the participants are not aware of the research aims or which condition
of the IV they are performing under.

Significance levels: "Statistical criteria that determine if observed differences are beyond the boundaries of chance.”

Standardized Procedure:  A set of research steps that are all the same for all participants.

Statistical Tests: Mathematical means of analysing data.

Validity: The extent to which results accurately measure what they claim to measure, due to the manipulation of the
IV (known as internal validity) and the ability of the findings to be generalized beyond the research setting (known as
external validity).

Validity – Internal: The controlling of ALL variables, except the one being manipulated by the experimenter. In terms
of an experiment it refers to whether the independent variable really has had an effect on the dependent variable or
whether the dependent variable was caused by some other confounding variable.

Validity – External: Refers to whether the findings of a study really can be generalised beyond the present study or
research setting.

Validity – Face: Is a simple form of validity in which researchers determine if the test seems to measure what is
intended to measure.

Variable: Any factor which has the potential to influence another factor in a research study.

Variable – Independent: The variable manipulated by the experimenter and applied to the participant in order to
determine its effects on the subject's reaction.

Variables – Extraneous:  Are variables other than the IV that influence the relationship between the variables that
an experimenter is examining.

Variable – Confounding: Uncontrolled variables other than the IV that effect the DV and thus 'confuse' the results.

Variable – Dependent: The behaviour that is measured and is expected to change with manipulation of the
independent variable. It is the factor that one seeks to predict.

 Validity – Ecological: Is the degree to which the behaviours observed and recorded in a study to reflect the
behaviours that actually occur in natural settings.